Heteronym (linguistics)

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Venn diagram showing the relationships between heteronyms and related linguistic concepts.

A heteronym (also known as a heterophone) is a word that has a different pronunciation and meaning from another word but the same spelling. These are homographs that are not homophones. Thus, lead (the metal) and lead (a leash) are heteronyms, but mean (average) and mean (intend) are not, since they are pronounced the same. Heteronym pronunciation may vary in vowel realisation, in stress pattern, or in other ways.

Description[edit]

A heteronym is a homograph that is not a homophone, a word that has a different pronunciation and meaning from another word with the same spelling. Heteronym pronunciation may vary in vowel realisation, in stress pattern, or in other ways.

"Heterophone" literally just means "different sound", and this term is sometimes applied to words that are just pronounced differently, irrespective of their spelling. Such a definition would include virtually every pair of words in the language, so "heterophone" in this sense is normally restricted to instances where there is some particular reason to highlight the different sound. For example, puns normally involve homophones, but in the case of heterophonic (or imperfect) puns, the two words sound different, and yet similar enough for one to suggest the other (for example, mouth and mouse).

Types[edit]

Most heteronyms are doubles. Triple heteronyms are extremely rare in English; three examples, sin, mobile and does, are listed below.

Proper nouns can sometimes be heteronyms. For example, the final syllable in the US state of Oregon is pronounced /-ən/ (or /-ɪn/), while in the name of the village of Oregon in Wisconsin, the final syllable is pronounced /-ɒn/. Other examples include local pronunciations of Cairo, Georgia; Versailles, Kentucky; and Milan, Tennessee—compared to the more well-known Cairo, Versailles, and Milan—or the difference between the pronunciation of Louisville, Kentucky (/ˈləvəl/) and the town of Louisville, New York (/ˈlɪsvɪl/).

There are also pairs which ignore case and include both initialisms and regular words, e.g., US and us.[citation needed]

Heteronyms also occur in non-alphabetic languages. For example, 20% of the 2400 most common Chinese characters have multiple readings;[1][2] e.g., 行 can represent háng 'profession' or xíng 'OK'. In Arabic, vowels are normally not written, leading to ambiguous written words such as <كتب> /ktb/, which can be read /kataba/ 'he wrote', /kutubun/ 'books', or /kutiba/ 'it was written';[3] it is unclear whether these should be considered heteronyms, since they are unambiguous when fully vocalized.

Examples[edit]

Heteronyms with definitions[edit]

English[edit]

In some of these cases, American and British English pronunciations differ. One systematic case appears in the stress pattern of some deverbal nouns.

For a longer list, see wikt:Category:English heteronyms.

Examples of heteronyms in English
Spelling Pronunciation Part of speech Meaning
abstract /ˈæbstrækt/ adjective existing in thought or as an idea but not having a physical or concrete existence
/æbˈstrækt/ verb consider (something) theoretically or separately from something else
abuse /əˈbjs/ noun improper treatment
/əˈbjz/ verb to use improperly
address AmE and BrE /əˈdrɛs/ verb to direct speech, a letter or a consignment (to)
AmE /ˈædrɛs/ BrE /əˈdrɛs/ noun a descriptor of location
advocate /ˈædvəkt/ verb to argue for someone else
/ˈædvəkɪt/ noun a person who speaks in support of something
affect /əˈfɛkt/ verb to have an effect on
/ˈæfɛkt/ noun mood, emotional state
affiliate /əˈfɪliət/ noun a company, organization etc that is connected with or controlled by a larger one
/əˈfɪlit/ verb if a group or organization affiliates to or with another larger one, it forms a close connection with it
agape /əˈɡp/ adverb open wide
/ˈæɡəp/, /əˈɡɑːp/ noun altruistic, beneficial love
allied /əˈld/ verb join for a common purpose (past tense)
/ˈæld/; /æˈld/ adjective joined for a common purpose, especially by treaty
alternate /ˈɔːltərnət/ or /ɔːlˈtərnət/ adjective alternating, alternative
/ˈɔːltərnt/ verb to take turns
alum /ˈæləm/ noun (or verb) a type of astringent salt (or to chemically impregnate with that salt)
/əˈlʌm/ noun a past attendee or graduate (of either gender) of an educational institution
analyses /əˈnælɪsz/ noun plural of analysis
/ˈænəlzɪz/ verb third person singular present of analyse
appropriate /əˈprpriət/ adjective suitable
/əˈprprit/ verb to set apart for
attribute /ˈætrɪbjt/ noun a characteristic
/əˈtrɪbjt/ verb to associate ownership
articulate /ɑːrˈtɪkjʊlt/ verb to speak clearly
/ɑːrˈtɪkjʊlɪt/ adjective well-spoken
august/August /ɔːˈɡʌst, əˈ-/ adjective awe-inspiring, majestic, noble, venerable
/ˈɔː.ɡəst/ noun the eighth month of the Roman, Julian, and Gregorian calendars
axes /ˈæksz/ noun pl. of axis
/ˈæksɪz/ noun pl. of axe
bases /ˈbsɪz/ noun plural of base
/ˈbsz/ noun plural of basis
bass /ˈbs/ noun low in pitch
/ˈbæs/ noun a fish
blessed /ˈblɛsɪd/ adjective having divine aid
/ˈblɛst/ verb past tense of bless
bow /ˈb/ noun a stringed weapon, or the initiator of sound in some stringed musical instruments.
noun an object that you clip or tie on to your hair to keep it from falling into your face
/ˈb/ verb to bend in respect
noun the front of a boat or ship
buffet /bəˈf/ or /ˈbʊf/ noun sideboard meal
/ˈbʌfɪt/ verb to strike
close /ˈklz/ verb to shut
/ˈkls/ adjective nearby
combine /ˈkɒmbn/ noun A farm machine that harvests and threshes
/kəmˈbn/ verb To bring two or more things together, mix
compact /kəmˈpækt/ verb to compress
/ˈkɒmpækt/ adjective small
complex /ˈkɒmplɛks/ noun A collection of buildings with a common purpose, such as a university or military base
/kəmˈplɛks/, /ˈkɒmplɛks/ adjective Made up of multiple parts
compound /ˈkɒmpnd/ noun A substance having definite proportions of elements
/kəmˈpnd/ verb To make a situation worse
concert /ˈkɒnsərt/ noun We saw the band in concert.
/kənˈsɜːrt/ verb We had to concert all our energy to stay awake.
conduct /ˈkɒndəkt/ noun action
/kənˈdʌkt/ verb to lead
coop /ˈkp/ noun enclosure for chickens
/ˈk.ɒp/ noun abbreviation of cooperative
/kp/ noun a cart with closed sides or ends, also spelled cowp.
confines /ˈkɒnfnz/ noun pl. Work within the confines of the contract.
/kənˈfnz/ verb But the contract confines my creativity!
conflict /ˈkɒnflɪkt/ noun The mother said to her belligerent son, "Violence is no way to resolve conflict!"
/kənˈflɪkt/ verb The two news reports seem to conflict with each other.
console /kənˈsl/ verb provide comfort from grief
/ˈkɒnsl/ noun control unit
content /ˈkɒntɪnt/ noun information
/kənˈtɛnt/ adjective, verb satisfied, satisfy
contract /ˈkɒntrækt/ noun The contract was supposed to expire seven years after it was signed.
/kənˈtrækt/ verb Derek firmly stated that he would rather contract pneumonia and die than stand outside wearing that ridiculous pink and green poncho.
convict /kənˈvɪkt/ verb to find guilty
/ˈkɒnvɪkt/ noun one convicted
crooked /ˈkrʊkt/ verb I crooked my arm to show the sleeve.
/ˈkrʊkɪd/ adjective Unfortunately, that just made the sleeve look crooked.
decrease /dɪˈkrs/ verb To lessen
/ˈdkrs/ noun A diminution
defense /dɪˈfɛns/ noun The attorney gave a strong defense.
/ˈdfɛns/ noun The coach put out his best defense. (dialectal, used in sports contexts)
desert /ˈdɛzərt/ noun an arid region
/dɪˈzɜːrt/ verb to abandon
discard /ˈdɪskɑːrd/ noun Toss it in the discard pile.
/dɪsˈkɑːrd/ verb But I don't want to discard it!
do /ˈd/, /də/ verb What do you think you are doing?
/ˈd/ noun To warm-up, the singer sang the scale from do.
does /ˈdz/ noun pl. of doe
/ˈdʌz/ verb form of do
/ˈdz/ noun one spelling of the plural of do as a noun[citation needed] - e.g. hair does
dogged /ˈdɒɡd/ verb At night proctors patrolled the street and dogged your steps if you tried to go into any haunt where the presence of vice was suspected. (Samuel Butler, The Way of All Flesh)
/ˈdɒɡɪd/ adjective Still, the dogged obstinacy of his race held him to the pace he had set, and would hold him till he dropped in his tracks. (Jack London, The Son of the Wolf)
dove /ˈdʌv/ noun a bird
/ˈdv/ verb Mainly American past tense of dive
ellipses /ɪˈlɪpsɪz/ noun Plural of ellipse
/ɪˈlɪpsz/ noun Plural of ellipsis
entrance /ˈɛntrəns/ noun way in
/ɛnˈtrænsˌɪn-ˈˌ-trɑːns/ verb to delight
excuse /ɪkˈskjs, ɛkˈ-/ noun explanation designed to avoid or alleviate guilt or negative judgment; a plea offered in extenuation of a fault
/ɪkˈskjz, ɛkˈ-/ verb to forgive; to pardon
exploit /ˈɛksplɔɪt/ noun a heroic or extraordinary deed
/ɛksˈplɔɪt/ verb to make use of or take advantage of
house /ˈhs/ noun a residential building
/ˈhz/ verb to place in residence
incense /ˈɪnsɛns/ noun Dad, I bought this incense at the temple.
/ɪnˈsɛns/ verb Big mistake. If you burn it here, you'll incense your mother.
increase /ɪnˈkrs/ verb To get greater
/ˈɪnkrs/ noun An augmentation
intimate /ˈɪntɪmt/ verb to suggest
/ˈɪntɪmət/ adjective very close
invalid /ɪnˈvælɪd/ adjective incorrect
/ˈɪnvəlɪd/ noun a disabled person
laminate /ˈlæmɪnt/ verb to assemble from thin sheets glued together
/ˈlæmɪnət/ noun material formed of thin sheets glued together
lead /ˈld/ verb to guide
/ˈlɛd/ noun a metal
learned /ˈlɜːrnɪd/ adjective having much learning
/ˈlɜːrnd/ verb past tense of learn
lima/Lima /ˈlmə/ noun or attributive A vegetable
proper noun A city in Ohio, United States
/ˈlmə/ proper noun The capital city of Peru
live /ˈlɪv/ verb to be alive
/ˈlv/ adjective having life
merchandise /ˈmɜːrənds/ noun goods available for sale
/ˈmɜːrəndz/ verb to make (something) available for sale
minute /mˈnjt/ adjective small
/ˈmɪnət/ noun unit of time
mobile/Mobile AmE /ˈmbl/, BrE /ˈmbl/ noun The baby sat in awe at the bright colors on the mobile.
AmE /ˈmbəl/, BrE /ˈmbl/ adjective Although most animals are mobile, the sponge is sessile.
/mˈbl/ proper noun A city in Alabama
moped /ˈmpɛd/ noun a small motorcycle
/ˈmpt/ verb past tense of mope
mow /ˈm/ noun a stack of hay, or the part of a barn where hay is stored
/ˈm/ verb To cut something (especially grass or crops) down or knock down
multiply /ˈmʌltɪpl/ verb to increase
/ˈmʌltɪpli/ adverb in multiple ways
number /ˈnʌmbər/ noun a numeral
/ˈnʌmər/ adjective more numb
object /ˈɒbɪkt/ noun a thing
/əbˈɛkt/ verb to protest
overall /vərˈɔːl/ adjective Overall, we didn't do too badly.
/ˈvərɔːl/ noun I need new overalls.
periodic /ˌpɪəriˈɒdɪk/ adjective Temperature shows periodic variation.
/pɜːrˈɒdɪk/ adjective Periodic acid is an oxoacid of iodine.
polish/Polish /ˈpɒlɪʃ/ verb to shine
/ˈplɪʃ/ adjective of, from, or native to Poland
present /prɪˈzɛnt/ verb to reveal
/ˈprɛzənt/ noun a gift; the current moment
adjective existing in the immediate vicinity (e.g. Santa is present.)
primer AmE /ˈprɪmər/, BrE /ˈprmər/ noun book that covers the basic elements of a subject
/ˈprmər/ noun an undercoat of paint
proceeds /ˈprsdz/ noun revenue
/prəˈsdz/ verb Third person singular of the verb "proceed"
produce /prˈdjs/ verb to make
/ˈprdjs/ noun fruit and vegetables
progress /prəˈɡrɛs/ verb I hope things will progress faster.
AmE /ˈprɒɡrɛs/, BrE /ˈprɡrɛs/ noun I haven't made any progress.
project /ˈprɒɪkt/ noun an undertaking
/prˈɛkt/ verb to cast an image
protest /ˈprtɛst/ noun an organized event opposing something
/prˈtɛst/ verb to vociferously object
putting /ˈpʊtɪŋ/ verb pr. part. of to put
/ˈpʌtɪŋ/ verb pr. part. of to putt
ragged /ˈræɡd/ verb She ragged on me about my ragged jeans.
/ˈræɡɪd/ adjective But my ragged jeans are my trademark, I responded.
read /ˈrd/ verb present tense
/ˈrɛd/ verb past tense
rebel /rɪˈbɛl/ verb to resist
/ˈrɛbəl/ noun one who rebels
record AmE /ˈrɛkərd/, BrE /ˈrɛkɔːrd/ noun stored information
/rɪˈkɔːrd/ verb to make a record
recreate /ˈrɛkrit/ verb to relax by leisure activity
/ˌrkriˈt/ verb to give new life or create again (some style guides specify a hyphen for this sense, to increase clarity: re-create)
refund /ˈrfʌnd/ noun an amount of money that is given back to you if you are not satisfied with the goods or services that you have paid for
/rɪˈfʌnd/ verb to give someone their money back
refuse /ˈrɛfjs/ noun garbage
/rɪˈfjz/ verb to decline
reject /ˈrɛkt/ noun a product that has been rejected because there is something wrong with it
/rɪˈɛkt/ verb to refuse to accept, believe in, or agree with something
resign /rɪˈzn/ verb 1. to quit 2. to accept that something undesirable cannot be avoided
/rˈsn/ verb to sign again; re-sign
resume /rɪˈzjm/ verb to start again
/ˈrɛzjʊm/ noun curriculum vitae (sometimes distinguished with acute accents; résumé)
retreat /rɪˈtrt/ verb to fall back from a battle front
/rˈtrt/ verb to treat again (some style guides specify a hyphen for this sense, to increase clarity: re-treat)
root /ˈrt/ or /ˈrʊt/) noun The tree's root was rotted.
/ˈrt/ verb A pig can be trained to root for mushrooms.
row /ˈr/ noun, verb a line; to paddle a boat
/ˈr/ noun an argument
sake /ˈsk/ noun benefit
/ˈsɑːki/ noun rice wine
second /ˈsɛkənd/ adjective, noun, verb ordinal of "two", 1/60 of a minute, to endorse a motion
/səˈkɒnd/ verb to transfer temporarily to an alternative employment
separate /ˈsɛpərət/ adjective This should be divided into packets of ten cartridges each, which should be rolled up in flannel and hermetically sealed in separate tin canisters. (Samuel W. Baker, The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia)
/ˈsɛpərt/ verb To stalk these wary antelopes I was obliged to separate from my party, who continued on their direct route. (Samuel W. Baker, The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia)
sewer /ˈsjər/ noun drainage pipes
/ˈs.ər/ noun one who sews
shower /ˈʃ.ər/ noun precipitation
/ˈʃ.ər/ noun one who shows
sin/Sin /ˈsɪn/ noun a moral error
/ˈsn/ noun abbrev. for sine
/ˈsn/ noun Sumerian god of the moon; Arabic letter
slough /ˈslʌf/ verb to shed
/ˈsl/ noun a small waterway
/ˈsl/ proper noun a town in Berkshire
sow /ˈs/ verb to plant seeds
/ˈs/ noun a mature female in the swine species
subject /ˈsʌbɪkt/ noun a topic
/səbˈɛkt/ verb to cause to undergo
supposed /səˈpz(ɪ)d/ adjective being assumed to be
/səˈpst/ verb obliged to do
/səˈpzd/ verb past sense of suppose
tarry /ˈtæri/ verb to linger
/ˈtɑːri/ adjective similar to tar
tear /ˈtɪər/ noun liquid produced by crying
/ˈtɛər/ verb, noun to separate
tier /ˈtɪər/ noun level or rank
/ˈt.ər/ noun one who ties
transfer /ˈtrænsfər/ noun a movement of something from one place to another
/trænsˈfɜːr/ verb to move something from one place to another (the verb can be accented on either syllable)
use /ˈjs/ noun function, benefit
/ˈjz/ verb employ, utilize
unionized /ˈjniənzd/ adjective formed into a union
/ʌnˈənzd/ adjective not ionized (some style guides specify a hyphen for this sense, to increase clarity: un-ionized)
whoop /ˈhwʊp/ verb Pa says he's gonna whoop you good if you don't learn some manners!
/ˈhwp/ verb When they scored a goal, he began to whoop and holler.
wicked /ˈwɪkɪd/ adjective bad, evil
/ˈwɪkt/ verb past tense of wick (e.g. to wick away some liquid)
wind /ˈwɪnd/ noun air movement
/ˈwnd/ verb to tighten a mechanical spring
wound /ˈwnd/ verb past tense of wind (e.g. tightened a mechanical spring)
/ˈwnd/ noun, verb an injury

French[edit]

In French, most heteronyms result from certain endings being pronounced differently in verbs and nouns. In particular, -ent as a third person plural verb ending is silent while as an adjective ending, it is pronounced IPA: [ɑ̃].

Examples of heteronyms in French
Spelling Pronunciation Part of speech Meaning
affluent [afly] verb they pour in
[aflɥɑ̃] noun a tributary of a river
as [ɑ] verb you have
[ɑs] noun an ace
bout [bu] noun length
[but] noun rope (in nautical usage)
content [kɔ̃t] verb they recount
[kɔ̃tɑ̃] adjective happy
convient [kɔ̃vi] verb they invite
[kɔ̃vjɛ̃] verb it is suitable
couvent [kuv] verb they brood (eggs)
[kuvɑ̃] noun a convent
éditions [editjɔ̃] verb we edited
[edisjɔ̃] noun publications
est [ɛ] verb he/she is
[ɛst] noun the East
excellent [ɛksɛl] verb they excel
[ɛksɛlɑ̃] adjective excellent
expédient [ɛkspedi] verb they send
[ɛkspedjɑ̃] noun an expedient
fier [fje] verb to trust
[fjɛʁ] adjective proud
fils [fis] noun son, sons
[fil] noun wires
négligent [neɡliʒ] verb they neglect
[neɡliʒɑ̃] adjective negligent
objections [ɔbʒektjɔ̃] verb we objected
[ɔbʒeksjɔ̃] noun objections
oignons [waɲɔ̃] verb we anoint
[ɔɲɔ̃] noun onions[a]
parent [paʁ] verb they adorn
[paʁɑ̃] noun parent
plus [plys] adverb more
[ply] adverb no more
portions [pɔʁtjɔ̃] verb we carried
[pɔʁsjɔ̃] noun portions
relations [ʁəlatjɔ̃] verb we recounted
[ʁəlɑsjɔ̃] noun relations
résident [ʁezid] verb they reside
[ʁezidɑ̃] noun resident
violent [vjɔl] verb they violate
[vjɔlɑ̃] adjective violent
vis [vi] verb I live, I saw (present)
[vis] noun screw, screws
  1. ^ The official spelling since 1990 is ognon, but oignon is still more widely-used.[4]

Modern Greek[edit]

Modern Greek spelling is largely unambiguous, but there are a few cases where a word has distinct learned and vernacular meaning and pronunciation, despite having the same root, and where <ia> is pronounced /ja/ vs. /i.a/;[5][6] there are also a few cases where the different readings of <μπ> and <ντ> give different words.[7] Some of these distinctions are being neutralized in modern speech.[8]

Examples of heteronyms in Greek
Spelling Pronunciation Part of speech Meaning
άδεια [ˈaðʝa] adjective empty
[ˈaði.a] noun leave, day off
βεντέτα [venˈdeta] noun vendetta
[veˈdeta] noun star (artist)
βιάζω [ˈvʝazo] verb I hasten
[viˈazo] verb I rape
καμπάνα [kamˈbana] noun bell
[kaˈbana] noun cabana
λόγια [ˈloʝa] noun words
[ˈloʝi.a] adjective learnèd

Italian[edit]

Italian spelling is largely unambiguous, althouɡh there are some exceptions:

  • open and closed ⟨e⟩ and ⟨o⟩ (/ɛ, e/ and /ɔ, o/) are not distinguished;
  • the voiced and unvoiced pronunciations of ⟨s⟩ and ⟨z⟩ (/s, z/ and /ts, dz/) are not distinguished;
  • stress, which is usually but not always on the penult, is not marked except when it is on the final syllable;
  • in some cases, digraphs and trigraphs like ⟨sci⟩ (/ʃ(i)/), ⟨ci⟩ (/tʃ(i)/), ⟨gi⟩ (/dʒ(i)/), ⟨gli⟩ (/ʎ(i)/) are pronounced using the values of their component letters;[dubious ][example needed]
  • ⟨i⟩ and ⟨u⟩ may have a vocalic (/i, u/) or a consonantal (/j, w/) value.[example needed]

When stress is on the final, the vowel is written with an accent: mori 'mulberries' and morì 'he/she died'. Some monosyllabic words are also differentiated with an accent: e /e/ 'and' and è /ɛ/ 'he/she is'. These cases are not heteronyms.

Some common cases:[9]

Vowel quality difference
Spelling Pronunciation Part of speech Meaning
affetto affètto noun affection
affétto verb I slice
arena arèna noun arena
aréna noun sand
botte bòtte noun blows, pounding
bótte noun barrel
collega collèga noun colleague
colléga verb he/she connects
colto còlto ppl. gathered
cólto adjective cultivated
corresse corrèsse verb he/she corrected (correggere)
corrésse verb he/she ran (subj.) (correre)
corso còrso noun a Corsican
córso noun a course
córso ppl. run
credo crèdo noun creed
crédo verb I believe
esca èsca verb he/she exits
ésca noun bait
esse èsse noun the letter S
ésse pron. they (f.)
foro fòro noun forum, court
fóro noun a hole
fosse fòsse noun pits
fósse verb were (imperfect subj.)
indotto indòtto adjective ignorant
indótto ppl. induced
legge lègge verb he/she reads
légge noun law
mento mènto verb I lie
ménto noun chin
meta mèta noun destination, aim, score
méta noun haystack, dung
messe mèsse noun harvest
mésse noun religious mass
pesca pèsca noun peach
pésca noun fishing
pésca verb he/she fishes
peste pèste noun plague
péste adjective crushed (f.pl.)
péste noun footprints
re noun re (music)
noun king
scopo scòpo noun goal
scópo verb I sweep
sorta sòrta noun kind
sórta verb I rose
tema tèma noun theme, subject
téma noun fear
torta tòrta adjective, ppl. twisted (f. sing.)
tórta noun a torte
venti vènti noun winds
vénti noun twenty
volgo vòlgo verb I turn
vólgo noun the people
volto vòlto ppl. turned
vólto noun face
Stress difference
Spelling Pronunciation Part of speech Meaning
ancora àncora noun anchor
ancòra adverb again
ambito àmbito noun ambit, scope
ambìto ppl. longed-for
compito cómpito noun task
compìto ppl. polite, completed
cupido cùpido adjective covetous
cupìdo noun Cupid
nocciolo nòcciolo noun kernel
nocciòlo noun hazelnut tree
principi prìncipi noun princes
princìpi noun principles
retina rètina noun retina
retìna noun small net
seguito sèguito noun sequel
seguìto ppl. followed
Sofia Sòfia noun Sofia (Bulgaria)
Sofìa noun Sofia (name)
subito subìto ppl. undergone
sùbito adverb immediately
Voicing difference
Spelling Pronunciation Part of speech Meaning
razza [ˈrattsa] noun race, breed
[ˈraddza] noun ray, skate (fish)

Dutch[edit]

Dutch has heteronyms which vary in stress position, known as klemtoonhomogramen 'stress homograms', such as appel: [ˈɑpəl] 'apple' vs. [ɑˈpɛl] 'appeal' (formerly written appèl). Other examples include beamen, bedelen, hockeyster, kantelen, misdadiger, overweg, verspringen, verwerpen.

The word plant is generally pronounced [plɑnt], but may be pronounced [plɛnt] in the sense 'he/she plans'.

German[edit]

German has few heteronyms, for example:[10]

  • Some vary in stress position: umfahren 'to knock down' vs. umfahren 'to bypass'; übersetzen 'to translate' vs. 'to traverse'; Spiegelei 'fried egg' vs. 'mirroring'.
  • Some are compounded differently: Staubecken as Stau-becken vs. Staub-Ecken or Wachstube as 'Wach-stube' vs. 'Wachs-tube'; etc.
  • Several are borrowings: modern 'to molder' (derived from Moder) vs. 'modern' (borrowed from French) or Montage 'Mondays' vs. 'mounting, installing, assembling' (the latter borrowed from French).

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^ Swofford, Mark (2010). "Chinese Characters with Multiple Pronunciations". Pinyin.info. Retrieved 4 July 2016.
  2. ^ Wang, Xiao-lei (2015-10-22). Maintaining Three Languages: The Teenage Years. Multilingual Matters. p. 64. ISBN 978-1-78309-448-6.
  3. ^ Grosvald, Michael; Al-Alami, Sarah; Idrissi, Ali (2019). "Word Reading in Arabic: Influences of Diacritics and Ambiguity". Proceedings of the 36th West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics: 176.
  4. ^ "« Oignon » ou « ognon » ? [orthographe] | La langue française ". La langue française. December 21, 2018.
  5. ^ David Holton, Peter Mackridge, Irene Philippaki-Warburton, Vassilios Spyropoulos, Greek: A Comprehensive Grammar of the Modern Language, 2nd edition, 2012, ISBN 1136626387, p. 11
  6. ^ Nick Nicholas, answer to "In modern Greek, are there any two words with different spellings but with exactly the same pronunciation? Also, is there any single spelling which has two different pronunciations?", Quora.com, May 23, 2019
  7. ^ Demetrios E. Lekkas, comment to cited Nick Nicholas Quora answer
  8. ^ Nick Nicholas, "The hiatus of διαζύγιο 'divorce'", Ἡλληνιστεύκοντος: Set Union of Greek and Linguistics (blog), January 5, 2011
  9. ^ John J. Kinder, Vincenzo M. Savini, Using Italian: A Guide to Contemporary Usage, 2004, ISBN 0521485568, pp. 83–87
  10. ^ Tatjana Lackner, "Homographe", Die Schule des Sprechens, January 12, 2018, [1]