Zemstvo

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Zemstvo having a dinner by Grigoriy Myasoyedov. 1872.

A zemstvo (Russian: земство, IPA: [ˈzʲɛmstvə], pl. земства, zemstva)[a] was an institution of local government set up during the great emancipation reform of 1861 carried out in Imperial Russia by Emperor Alexander II of Russia. Nikolay Milyutin elaborated the idea of the zemstva, and the first zemstvo laws went into effect in 1864. After the October Revolution the zemstvo system was shut down by the Bolsheviks and replaced with a multilevel system of workers' and peasants' councils ("soviets").

Structure[edit]

The system of elected bodies of local self-government in the Russian Empire was represented at the lowest level by the mir and the volost and was continued, so far as the 34 Guberniyas (governorates) of old Russia were concerned, in the elective district and provincial assemblies (zemstvo). The goal of the zemstvo reform was the creation of local organs of self-government on an elected basis, possessing sufficient authority and independence to resolve local economic problems.[1] Assemblies could appoint deputies to carry out orders and objectives in response to issues the Zempstvo considered. [2]

Alexander II instituted these bodies, one for each district and another for each province or government, in 1864. The law creating the Zemstvo outlined 14 objectives for each Zemstvo to accomplish. [3]

  1. Self management of Zemstvo property and revenue
  2. Self maintenance of Zenstvo property
  3. Public food security
  4. Management of philanthropy, public welfare, and church building maintenance
  5. Mutual property insurance
  6. Oversee development of trade and industry
  7. Economic participation of public education, public health, and prison systems
  8. Cooperation on the prevision of bovine disease and crop plagues
  9. Fulfillment of civil, military, and postal demands
  10. Distribution of state tax funds assigned to the Zemstvo
  11. Setting, collecting, and allocating local taxes
  12. Notify the public of local welfare opportunities and civil rights
  13. Hold elections
  14. Special charters

They consisted of a representative council (zemskoye sobranye) and of an executive board (zemskaya uprava) nominated by the former. The board consisted of five classes of members:

  • large landed proprietors (nobles owning 590 acres (2.4 km2) and over), who sat in person
  • delegates of the small landowners, including the clergy in their capacity of landed proprietors
  • delegates of the wealthier townsmen
  • delegates of the less wealthy urban classes
  • delegates of the peasants, elected by the volosts[b]

The nobles received more weight in voting for a zemstvo even though nobles were a tiny minority of the population.[4] The 1890 reforms expanded the nobility's representation in the zemstvos from 55% in 1886 to 72% by 1903.[5]

Persons under 25 years of age, under criminal investigation, convicted criminals, and foreigners were not permitted to be in the Zemstvos.[6]

Prior to each election, lists of eligible voters for a given Zemstvo were published for public comment. Voters could be stricken by the Zemstvo or added to the roster based on public comment. Voters had to be present to vote in person on candidates who were self nominated. The electoral bodies were not allowed to give instructions for how candidates should perform once elected. The governor could object to the proceedings and suspend electoral decisions. Election reform in 1890 resulted in separate electoral bodies for the noble and ignoble voters. At this time, the clergy, jews, and non-landowning peasants were deprived of the right to vote in Zemstvo elections. Part of the motivation for the election reform was a decline in land ownership of the nobles which resulted in too few nobles to fill the deputy and assembly roles. These election reforms decreased the size of assemblies and number of deputies 20-30%.

Zemstvo assemblies met at least once a year for not more than twenty days. Extraordinary meetings of a zemstvo required permission from the Minister of the Interior and could only consider the specific issues on which the Minister permitted them. Provincial meetings were opened and closed by the local governor while the district meetings were opened and closed by the Marshal of the Nobility. These zemstvo typcially created a small number of delegations for handling decisions the assembly came to. One such typical delegation was an executive board which worked year around. It was not uncommon for one individual to serve as the Marshal of the Nobility and chairman of the executive for a number of years.[7]

Enactments from the zemstvos generally needed approval from the governor or Minister of the Interior. These approvals could be withheld on the grounds that an enactment was either illegal or against state interests. In the case that enactments were not approved, governors were expected to notify the assembly and deliberate on adjustments to the enactment that would allow it to pass. If compromise could not be found, the Senate would hear the case. The governor was expected to act as a plaintiff and prove that the zemstvo's enactment was unjust. The governor could also revoke their approval and begin this process after a enactment had taken effect. [8][9]

History[edit]

Zemstvos were created as part of the larger Great Reforms. In 1864, the first law on Zemstvos was enacted by the Emperor which outlined the powers of the Zemstvo. These powers were administrative and focused on local issues which were mostly not addressed by existing institutions.[10] In 1865 zemstvos were opened in nineteen provinces, and between 1866 and 1876 another sixteen were established.[1] Twelve provinces had no zemstvos, the three Baltic provinces and the nine western governments annexed from Poland by Catherine II.[11] Created in 1875 after much consultation with Cossack officials, the Zemstvos of the Don Host Oblast collapsed and were abolished after six years of operation.[1]

Zemstvos were originally restricted from making binding rules on every citizen within their jurisdiction. In 1873, Zemstvos were permitted to make binding regulation on every citizen strictly for the purpose of preventing fires. These powers were expanded in 1879 to allow regulation to prevent the spread of epidemics and zoological diseases. [12]

From 1864 to 1889, Zemstvos elected the justice of the peace. [13]

From 1866 to 1905 zemstvo officials were largely prevented from contracting each other on the ground that these were local organizations. Occasional exemptions were made for fire reinsurance contracts or large agricultural machinery sales. [14]

As time went on additional gubernatorial oversight was placed on zemstvos. In 1867, the zemstvos were prevented from publishing minutes or debates unless given specific permission by the governor. In 1879, the governors were given the power to dismiss any zemstvo employee at their discretion. The largest single change in the zemstvos powers came from Alexander III (law of 25 June [O.S. 12 June] 1890). [15] In addition to election reform, governors gained increased powers of discipline over the members.[citation needed] The 1890 law instituted the Bureau of Zemstvo Affairs as additional oversight of the Zemstvo. Bureau officials were appointed by the emperor and from local governments officials such as Marshall of the Nobility, district prosecutor, and district courts. Procedures were still led by the governor. The bureau overturned 116 zemstvo enactments during the 1891 to 1892 year with 51 of these enactments from the Vladimir Provincial Assembly alone.[9][16] This reform also gave Zemstvos the power to issue binding regulation on the conduct of all citizens outside of townships in a wide variety of issues. Zemstvo officials could enforce these regulation by bringing violators before criminal courts. Prior to 1890, zemstvo sessions were often cut short due to assemblies not meeting the quorum. This was in part because officials were not allowed to receive a salary or other compensation for their position. [17]

Despite all these restrictions, during the 50 years of the zemstvos, they succeeded in solving many problems of general education, public medical service, construction and maintenance of roads and sponsoring local economic development. The Zemstva hired professional experts from the Intelligentsia in aid of their activity, who came to be known as the 'third element'.[4][18]

Zemstvo expenditure grew from 89.1 million rubles in 1900 to 290.5 million rubles in 1913. Of the latter sum, 90.1 million rubles were spent on education, 71.4 million on medical assistance, 22.2 million on improvements in agriculture, and 8 million on veterinary measures. The chief sources of zemstvo revenue were rates on lands, forests, country dwellings, factories, mines and other real-estate.[19]

The participants of Russian Revolution of 1905 largely overlapped with Zemstvo participants.[20]

The rules governing elections to the zemstvos were taken as a model for the electoral law of 1906 and are sufficiently indicated by the account of this given below. The zemstvos were originally given large powers in relation to the incidence of taxation and such questions as education, medical relief, public welfare, food supply, and road maintenance in their localities, but radicals, such as the Socialist Revolutionary Party and the nihilists, met them with hostility, believing that the reforms were too minor. Still, in his 1901 article "What is to be done", Lenin advocated a short-term alliance with the Zemstvos again Tsarist oppression.

In 1906, each zemstvo was able to elect one deputy to represent them in the State Council.[21]

Philately uses the term zemstvo stamp to refer to local-issue Russian postage stamps from this period[citation needed].

The All-Russian Zemstvo Union was set up in August 1914 to provide a common voice for all the Zemstvos. It was a liberal organisation which after 1915 operated in conjunction with the Union of Cities.[22]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^ The word derives from земля (zemlyá), lit. 'land, country, state'.
  2. ^ By the law of 12 (25) June 1890 the peasant members of the zemstvos were to be nominated by the governor of the government or province from a list elected by the volosts.

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b c Volvenko, Aleksei (2007). "The Zemstvo Reform, the Cossacks, and Administrative Policy on the Don, 1864–1882". In Burbank, Jane; Von Hagen, Mark; Remnev, A.V. (eds.). Russian Empire: Space, People, Power, 1700-1930. Indiana University Press. p. 348. ISBN 9780253219114.
  2. ^ Vucinich (1982, p. 44)
  3. ^ Vucinich (1982, p. 45)
  4. ^ a b Ascher, Abraham (2014). The Russian Revolution: A Beginner's Guide. Oneworld Publications. p. 3.
  5. ^ Vucinich (1982, p. 54)
  6. ^ Vucinich (1982, p. 38)
  7. ^ Vucinich (1982, p. 40-56)
  8. ^ Vucinich (1982, p. 57-58)
  9. ^ a b Kulikov, Vladimir V. (3 July 2014). "Local Self-Government and Administrative Oversight: The Historical Experience of the Zemstvo". Russian Studies in History. 53 (3): 56–69. doi:10.1080/10611983.2014.1020228.
  10. ^ Vucinich (1982, p. 35)
  11. ^ Vucinich (1982, p. 34)
  12. ^ Vucinich (1982, p. 47)
  13. ^ Vucinich (1982, p. 48)
  14. ^ Vucinich (1982, p. 48)
  15. ^ Vucinich (1982, p. 58)
  16. ^ Vucinich (1982, p. 58)
  17. ^ Vucinich (1982, p. 47-50)
  18. ^ Vucinich (1982, p. 53)
  19. ^ RUSSIA, U.S.S.R. A Complete Handbook. 1933. Edited by P. Malevsky-Malevich. p. 500.
  20. ^ Vucinich (1982, p. 440)
  21. ^ Vucinich (1982, p. 48)
  22. ^ "Unions of zemstvos and cities". Encyclopedia of Ukraine. Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies. Retrieved 8 February 2016.
  • Vucinich, Wayne; Emmons, Terence (1982). The Zemstvo in Russia: an experiment in local self-government. Cambridge ; New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521234166.

Further reading[edit]

  • Darrow, David W. "The Politics of Numbers: Zemstvo Land Assessment and the Conceptualization of Russia's Rural Economy." The Russian Review 59.1 (2000): 52-75.
  • Emmons, Terence, and Wayne S. Vucinich, eds. The Zemstvo in Russia: An Experiment in Local Self-Government (Cambridge University Press, 1982) essays by scholars.
  • Fallows, Thomas S. "The Russian Fronde and the Zemstvo Movement: Economic Agitation and Gentry Politics in the Mid-1890s." The Russian Review 44.2 (1985): 119-138. online
  • Porter, Thomas, and William Gleason. "The 'Zemstvo' and Public Initiative in Late Imperial Russia." Russian History 21.4 (1994): 419-437. online
  • Porter, Thomas Earl. The Zemstvo and the emergence of civil society in late imperial Russia 1864-1917 (Edwin Mellen Press, 1991).
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