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Yellow longnose butterflyfish browsing on coral polyps

A corallivore is an animal that feeds on coral. Corallivores are an important group of reef organism because they can influence coral abundance, distribution, and community structure. Corallivores feed on coral using a variety of unique adaptations and strategies. Known corallivores include certain mollusks, annelids, fish, crustaceans, flatworms and echinoderms. The first recorded evidence of corallivory was presented by Charles Darwin in 1842 during his voyage on HMS Beagle in which he found coral in the stomach of two Scarus parrotfish.

History

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While visiting the Cocos (Keeling) Islands in 1842, Charles Darwin was told by an Englishman living on the islands that there were large shoals of parrotfish that subsisted entirely on coral.[1] Darwin dissected several parrotfish and found pieces of coral and finely ground calcareous material in their stomach.[1][2] This led Darwin to correctly theorize that some species of parrotfish consume coral and contribute sediment to the environment by passing finely ground particles from coral skeletons.[1]

In 1952, the first descriptions of organisms actively consuming coral were written by Jacques Cousteau and published in National Geographic.[2][3] During his trip to the Red Sea aboard RV Calypso, Cousteau swam with a pair of green humphead parrotfish and watched them take regular bites and leaving white scars on the coral around them.[3] Like Darwin, Cousteau also noticed the sediment particles that were produced in the parrotfishs' waste and settled to the seafloor.[3] Cousteau noted the leisurely speed with which the parrotfish consumed the coral and remarked that they appeared "unhurried" and like "sea cows, browsing on stone pastures."[3]

The term "corallivore" comes from the Latin word corallum for coral and -vora for to eat or devour.[4][failed verification]

Types

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Approximately one-third of known corallivores are obligate corallivores, while the remaining three-fourths are facultative corallivores.[5] Obligate corallivory is defined as having a diet which is at least 80% coral.[5] Obligate corallivores are present in all tropical oceans, except the Caribbean.[5] Facultative corallivores are defined as organisms that regularly consume coral without it comprising a large percentage of their diet.[5]

It is thought that some facultative corallivores, such as some damselfish, eat coral to promote algal growth. Many facultative corallivores also graze on algae, which competes with coral for space and resources. By grazing coral, it may provide better conditions for algal growth.[2] Aggressive grazing may keep the algal community in a state of accelerated growth, effectively preventing the transition to a slower growing community.[6]

Feeding strategies

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Trapezia crab on Pocillopora

Organisms display different strategies for consuming coral. The majority of corallivores feed on stony coral, however, a few species feed on soft coral.[5] There are no known obligate soft coral feeder; soft coral is estimated to be a small percentage of the diet of soft coral feeders.[5] The most common genera of coral consumed are Acropora, Pocillopora, Montipora, and Porites.[2][7] Only 18 out of the 111 described coral genera are known to be consumed by corallivores.[2]

Mucus feeders

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Mucus feeders feed exclusively on coral mucus.[2] Coral regularly slough off mucus into the surrounding water, so it is thought that mucus feeding causes no harm to the coral.[5] However, it has been shown to disrupt microbial communities living on the coral.[2] Many mucus feeders have shown a preference towards damaged corals, which typically produce more mucus than undamaged corals.[5]

Browsers

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Browsers eat coral tissue without damaging the coral's calcium carbonate skeleton.[2] The majority of corallivore species are browsers.[5]

Scrapers

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Scrapers consume live coral tissue and small portions of the coral's calcium carbonate skeleton.[2]

Excavators

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Excavators consume live coral tissue and large portions of the coral's calcium carbonate skeleton.[2] Excavators can be further broken down to "spot biters" and "focused biters". Spot biters take bites that are scattered over a colony's surface, while focused biters bite repeatedly in the same area.[2] At one time, focused biting was thought to be a display of territoriality in parrotfish, but was later determined to be for food.[2] Out of all of the kinds of corallivores, excavators are thought to have the biggest impact on coral reef communities due to the large amount of coral and skeleton consumed.[5] Additionally, studies suggest that the damage from excavating takes significantly longer to heal than other types of corallivory.[5]

Bioeroders

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Bioeroders consume dead coral substrate.[2] Bioeroders are thought to help reshape coral reef landscapes by eroding dead corals.[2]

In nature

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Parrotfish eating coral in the Red Sea

Corallivory is relatively rare in nature; less than 3% of known fish species, four families of crustaceans, four families of gastropods, and a few echinoderm genera have been identified as corallivores.[8] Corallivores are present in all tropical reef regions. The region with the highest proportion of corallivorous organisms is the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean.[9]

Fish

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Butterflyfish constitute a large percentage of the known corallivores; of the 128 known corallivorous fish species, 69 are butterflyfish species.[5] Additionally, 50% of butterflyfish species are corallivores, making corallivory their most common feeding method.[5][6] Corallivorous fish come from 11 different families.[5] 39 species are obligate corallivores.[5]

Butterflyfish have a wide range of adaptations that facilitate coral consumption. Some butterflyfish have long mouth that they use like forceps to pluck off individual coral polyps and some use their teeth to scrape off coral tissue.[2] Butterflyfish that consume coral have longer intestines than fish that do not consume coral, suggesting that corallivores need more time to process the complex molecules of the coral.[10]

The golden pufferfish is distributed widely across the tropical oceans, however, is considered a particularly significant corallivore, specifically in the tropical Eastern Pacific.[11] The golden pufferfish uses its beak-like dental plate to feed on the tips of branching corals at an estimated pace of 16 to 20 grams (0.56 to 0.71 oz) of calcium carbonate per 1 square meter (11 sq ft) of live coral per day.[11][5][12] Despite the large amount of coral consumed, studies suggest that the golden pufferfish has little influence on coral abundance in the region.[11][5]

Parrotfish are a family of fish that contain several corallivorous species. Reef-dwelling parrotfish have teeth on their lower and upper jaw that have evolved into an edge for cutting.[13] This cutting edge allows parrotfish to scrape and feed on coral tissue and skeleton.[13] The cutting edge on the teeth of parrotfish resembles a beak, which is the basis for the organism's common name.[13] In addition to the cutting edge adaptation, parrotfish also have well-developed crossed joints that connect the dentary and articular bones of the lower jaw, which presents a mechanical advantage that makes the bite much stronger.[13]

Invertebrates

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There are 48 known corallivorous invertebrate species, 14 of which are obligate corallivores.[2] The facultative corallivore crown-of-thorns star is an important coral browser that feeds by everting its stomach and using its tube feet to spread the stomach over the coral and into the crevices between polyps.[5][14] Occurrences of high crown-of-thorns star population densities has resulted in documented decimation of large coral reef tracts, with reports of 100% coral mortality in localized areas.[2] It is estimated that one crown-of-thorns star may eat up to 6 square meters (65 sq ft) of live coral per year.[2]

Crown-of-thorns star on coral in the Red Sea

The genus Drupella are obligate corallivorous sea snails that specialize on fast growing Acropora and Montipora species.[2] Like crown-of-thorns star, Drupella aggregations have been known to destroy large areas of coral,[5] and have been cited as the cause for instances of significant coral reduction in Toga Bay, Japan, and Ningaloo Reef, Australia.[2]

Scars from parrotfish spot biting

Most corallivores display a preference for one or a few types of coral.[5] However, the obligate corallivore snail, Coralliophila abbreviata, is known to feed on 26 different species of coral and shows no distinct preference for one species.[2] C. abbreviata lacks a radula that would allow it to scrape off coral tissue, so coral is broken down by digestive enzymes.[15]

Not all corallivores are detrimental to coral health. Corals with populations of the mucus feeding Tetralia and Trapezia crabs were shown to have a greater chance of survival during an crown-of-thorns star outbreak.[2] Trapezia crabs are known to symbiotically benefit their host coral by cleaning sediment and debris off their surface.[2]

Some organisms receive more than nutrition. The nudibranch, Phestilla sibogae, has been known to incorporate zooxanthellae, a phytoplankton symbiont, harvested through corallivory into its cerata.[2] After they are incorporated, the zooxanthellae continue to photosynthesize and provide energy for the nudibranch.[2]

Impacts on ecosystem

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Group of Drupella snails feeding on Acropora in Thailand

Corallivory often results in damage to coral or loss of coral biomass, and sometime directly causes coral death.[16] Corals divert energy and resources towards repairing damage, which has shown to suppress additional growth.[2][11][5][6] The ability for a coral to repair itself is partially based on the size of the lesion; since not all damage can be healed, superfluous damage can result in permanent change to the reef.[2] Corals have shown to energetically prioritize repairing damage over reproducing, so corallivory can have a negative effect on coral reproduction.[2][11][5][6] Additionally, studies have shown that grazing by corallivores can be associated with reduced zooxanthellae densities.[5]

Scientists believe that excessive fishing of predators to corallivores, like large piscivorous fish, may result in an increase in corallivore abundance. This increase in corallivory may have a future negative effect on coral health and density.[16]

Corallivory can indirectly cause an increase in growth of competitive organisms, such as algae and sponges.[2] Additionally, some corallivores have been implicated in the spread of coral diseases.[2] Some studies have shown that corallivores can have an influence on the competitive abilities of coral colonies.[5]

Corallivory is not always detrimental to coral reefs. If the species of coral being consumed is spatially dominant, grazing can help control growth and promote greater reef diversity.[5]

Corallivores are often sensitive to declines in coral health and population size, and are negatively affected during periods of high coral loss.[5] In particular, obligate corallivores have been reported to experience high population declines following instances of coral loss.[5] Studies have shown that corallivores suffer during bleaching events, suggesting that bleached coral is not as nutritional as healthy coral.[5] Scientific investigation into the nutritional value of healthy and bleached coral is lacking. However, it has been determined that the disparity in nutritional value is not related to the concentration of zooxanthellae.[5]

Known corallivores

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This list contains the majority of known corallivores, as research is actively ongoing.

Phylum Family Species[5][2] Diet
(Obligate or Facultative)[5][2] 		Preferred Prey[2] Region[5][2] Evidence of Corallivory[5]
Annelida Amphinomidae Hermodice carunculata Facultative Acropora, Millepora, Oculina, Porites Caribbeans, Eastern Atlantic, Mediterranean
Arthropoda Alpheidae Alpheus lottini Facultative Pocillopora Red Sea, Eastern Pacific
Arthropoda Diogenidae Aniculus elegans Facultative Pocillopora Eastern Pacific
Arthropoda Diogenidae Calcinus obscurus Eastern Pacific
Arthropoda Diogenidae Trizopagurus magnificus Facultative Pocillopora Eastern Pacific
Arthropoda Pyrgomatidae Hoekia monticulariae Obligate Indo-Pacific
Arthropoda Tetraliidae Tetralia glaberrima Obligate Acropora, Seriatopora Red Sea, Indo-Pacific
Arthropoda Tetraliidae Tetralia cavimana Obligate Acropora Red Sea, Indo-Pacific
Arthropoda Trapeziidae Trapezia cymodoce Obligate Pocillopora, Stylophora Indo-Pacific, Eastern Pacific
Arthropoda Trapeziidae Trapezia ferruginea Obligate Pocillopora Indo-Pacific, Eastern Pacific
Chordata Balistidae Balistapus undulatus Facultative Pavona, Pocillopora, Porites Red Sea, Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Balistidae Balistoides viridescens Facultative Red Sea, Indo-Pacific Anecdotal
Chordata Balistidae Rhinecanthus aculeatus Facultative Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Balistidae Melichthys niger Facultative Colpolphyllia All tropical oceans Gut contents
Chordata Balistidae Pseudobalistes flavimarginatus Facultative Red Sea, Indo-Pacific Anecdotal
Chordata Balistidae Pseudobalistes naufragium Facultative Eastern Pacific Anecdotal
Chordata Balistidae Sufflamen fraenatum Facultative Pocillopora, Porites, Pavona Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Blennidae Ecsenius bicolor Facultative Indo-Pacific Observation
Chordata Blennidae Exallias brevis Obligate Acropora Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon adiergastos Facultative Western Pacific Anecdotal
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon andamanensis Obligate Eastern Indian Anecdotal
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon argentatus Facultative Western Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon aureofasciatus Obligate Indo-Pacific Observations
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon auriga Facultative Red Sea, Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon auripes Facultative Western Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon austriacus Obligate Red Sea Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon baronessa Obligate Eastern Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon bennetti Obligate Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon blackburnii Facultative Indian Anecdotal
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon capistratus Facultative Caribbean Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon citrinellus Facultative Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon collare Facultative Red Sea, Indian Anecdotal
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon daedalma Facultative Northwestern Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon decussatus Facultative Indian Anecdotal
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon ephippium Facultative Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon falcula Facultative Indian Observations
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon fasciatus Facultative Red Sea Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon flavirostris Facultative Pacific Anecdotal
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon fremblii Facultative Hawaii Anecdotal
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon gardineri Facultative Western Indian Anecdotal
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon guttatissimus Facultative Indian Anecdotal
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon interruptus Facultative Indian Anecdotal
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon kleinii Facultative Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon larvatus Obligate Red Sea Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon leucopleura Facultative Western Indian Anecdotal
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon lineolatus Facultative Indo-Pacific Anecdotal
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon lunula Facultative Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon lunulatus Obligate Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon melannotus Obligate Red Sea, Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon melapterus Obligate Red Sea Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon mertensii Facultative Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon mesoleucos Facultative Red Sea Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon meyeri Obligate Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon multicinctus Obligate Hawaii Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon nigropunctatus Facultative Red Sea Anecdotal
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon nippon Facultative Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon ocellatus Facultative Caribbean Anecdotal
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon ocellicaudus Obligate Western Pacific Anecdotal
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon octofasciatus Obligate Indo-Pacific Anecdotal
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon ornatissimus Obligate Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon oxycephalus Facultative Indo-Pacific Anecdotal
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon paucifasciatus Facultative Red Sea Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon pelewensis Facultative Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon plebeius Obligate Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon punctatofasciatus Obligate Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon quadrimaculatus Facultative Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon rafflesi Facultative Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon rainfordi Obligate Western Pacific Observations
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon reticulatus Obligate Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon semilarvatus Obligate Red Sea Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon speculum Facultative Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon triangulum Obligate Indian Anecdotal
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon tricinctus Facultative Lord Howels Observations
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon trichrous Facultative Society Islands Observations
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon trifascialis Obligate Red Sea, Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon trifasciatus Obligate Indian Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon ulientensis Facultative Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon unimaculatus Obligate Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon vagabundus Facultative Red Sea, Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon xanthocephalus Facultative Indian Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon xanthurus Facultative Pacific Anecdotal
Chordata Chaetodontidae Chaetodon zanzibariensis Obligate Western Indian Observations
Chordata Chaetodontidae Forcipiger flavissimus Facultative Red Sea, Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Heniochus acuminatus Facultative Indo-Pacific Anecdotal
Chordata Chaetodontidae Heniochus chrysostomus Facultative Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Heniochus intermedius Facultative Red Sea Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Heniochus singularius Obligate Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Chaetodontidae Heniochus varius Facultative Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Gobiidae Gobiodon citrinus Obligate Acropora Red Sea, Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Gobiidae Gobiodon okinawae Facultative Western Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Gobiidae Paragobidon echinocephalus Facultative Indo-Pacific Anecdotal
Chordata Labridae Diproctacanthus xanthurus Obligate Western Pacific Observations
Chordata Labridae Labrichthys unilineatus Obligate Acropora, Montipora Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Labridae Labropsis alleni Obligate Western Pacific Observations
Chordata Labridae Labropsis australis Obligate Western Pacific Anecdotal
Chordata Labridae Labropsis manabei Obligate Indo-Pacific Anecdotal
Chordata Labridae Labropsis micronesica Facultative Western Pacific Anecdotal
Chordata Labridae Labropsis polynesica Facultative Eastern Pacific Anecdotal
Chordata Labridae Labropsis xanthonota Obligate Indo-Pacific Anecdotal
Chordata Labridae Larabicus quadrilineatus Obligate Red Sea Observations
Chordata Labridae Choerodon graphicus Facultative Southwestern Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Monacanthidae Aluterus scriptus Facultative All tropical oceans Gut contents
Chordata Monacanthidae Cantherhines dumerilii Obligate Acropora, Pocillopora, Montipora, Leptoria, Porites Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Monacanthidae Cantherhines macrocerus Facultative Caribbeans Gut contents
Chordata Monacanthidae Cantherhines pullus Facultative Caribbeans Gut contents
Chordata Monacanthidae Cantherhines sandwichiensis Facultative Eastern Pacific Anecdotal
Chordata Monacanthidae Oxymonacanthus halli Obligate Red Sea Anecdotal
Chordata Monacanthidae Oxymonacanthus longirostris Obligate Acropora Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Monacanthidae Pervagor spilosoma Facultative Hawaii Gut contents
Chordata Ostraciidae Ostracion cubicus Facultative Red Sea, Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Ostraciidae Lactoria diaphana Facultative Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Pomacanthidae Centropyge multispinus Facultative Indo-Pacific Anecdotal
Chordata Pomacanthidae Pomacanthus arcuatus Facultative Caribbeans Anecdotal
Chordata Pomacentridae Cheiloprion labiatus Obligate Acropora Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Pomacentridae Neoglyphidodon melas Facultative Red Seas, Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Pomacentridae Microspathodon chrysurus Facultative Caribbeans Gut contents
Chordata Pomacentridae Plectroglyphidodon dickii Facultative Acropora, Pocillopora Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Pomacentridae Plectroglyphidodon johnstonianus Obligate Acropora Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Pomacentridae Stegastes acapulcoensis Facultative Eastern Pacific Anecdotal
Chordata Pomacentridae Stegastes leucostictus Facultative Caribbeans Gut contents
Chordata Pomacentridae Stegastes variabilis Facultative Caribbeans Gut contents
Chordata Scaridae Bolbometopon muricatum Facultative Acropora, Pocillopora, Porites, Montipora Red Sea, Indo-Pacific Observations
Chordata Scaridae Cetoscarus bicolor Facultative Porites Indo-Pacific Observations
Chordata Scaridae Chlorurus microrhinos Facultative Indo-Pacific Observations
Chordata Scaridae Chlorurus strongylocephalus Facultative Pavona, Pocillopora, Porites Indian Observations
Chordata Scaridae Sparisoma aurofrenatum Facultative Montastraea, Porites, Madracis Caribbeans Anecdotal
Chordata Scaridae Sparisoma viride Facultative Porites, Montastraea Caribbeans Observations
Chordata Scaridae Scarus coelestinus Facultative Caribbeans Gut contents
Chordata Scaridae Scarus guacamaia Facultative Caribbeans Observations
Chordata Tetraodontidae Arothron hispidus Facultative Pocillopora Red Sea, Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Tetraodontidae Arothron meleagris Obligate Acropora, Pocillopora, Porites, Pavona, Psammocora, Montipora Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Tetraodontidae Arothron nigropunctatus Obligate Acropora, Pavona, Pocillpora, Porites Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Tetraodontidae Arothron reticularis Facultative Indo-Pacific Anecdotal
Chordata Tetraodontidae Arothron stellatus Facultative Red Sea, Indo-Pacific Anecdotal
Chordata Tetraodontidae Canthigaster amboinensis Facultative Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Tetraodontidae Canthigaster margaritata Facultative Red Sea, Indo-Pacific Anecdotal
Chordata Tetraodontidae Canthigaster solandri Facultative Indo-Pacific Gut contents
Chordata Tetraodontidae Canthigaster valentine Facultative Pavona, Pocillopora, Porites Red Sea, Indo-Pacific Observations
Echinodermata Acanthasteridae Acanthaster planci Facultative Acropora, Montipora, Pocillopora Indo-Pacific, Eastern Pacific
Echinodermata Cidaridae Eucidaris thouarsii Facultative Pavona, Pocillopora Eastern Pacific
Echinodermata Diadematidae Astropyga radiata Facultative Eastern Indian
Echinodermata Diadematidae Diadema antillarum Facultative Acropora, Agaricia, Madracis, Montastraea, Porites Caribbeans
Echinodermata Diadematidae Diadema setosum Facultative Eastern Indian
Echinodermata Diadematidae Echinothrix calamaris Facultative Eastern Indian
Echinodermata Echinasteridae Echinaster purpureus Facultative Porites Western Indian
Echinodermata Echinometridae Echinometra mathaei Facultative Indo-Pacific, Caribbeans
Echinodermata Echinometridae Echinometra viridis Facultative Caribbeans
Echinodermata Echinoneidae Echinoneus cyclostomus Facultative Western Indian
Echinodermata Ophidiasteridae Linckia laevigata Facultative Porites Western Indian, Indo-Pacific
Echinodermata Ophidiasteridae Nardoa variolata Facultative Porites Western Indian
Echinodermata Ophidiasteridae Pharia pyramidata Facultative Pocillopora Eastern Pacific
Echinodermata Oreasteridae Culcita novaeguineae Facultative Acropora, Pocillpora Indo-Pacific
Echinodermata Oreasteridae Culcita schmideliana Facultative Acropora, Galaxea, Goniastrea Western Indian
Echinodermata Oreasteridae Nidorellia armata Facultative Pavona Eastern Pacific
Echinodermata Oreasteridae Pentaceraster cumingi Facultative Psammocora Eastern Pacific
Echinodermata Temnopleuridae Microcyphus rousseaui Facultative Western Indian
Echinodermata Stomopneustidae Stomopneustes variolaris Facultative Western Indian
Echinodermata Stomopneustidae Tripneustes gratillia Facultative Western Indian
Mollusca Architectonicidae Psilaxis radiatus Facultative Porites Pacific
Mollusca Epitoniidae Epifungium ulu Fungia Pacific
Mollusca Muricidae Babelomurex hindsi Pocillopora Eastern Pacific
Mollusca Muricidae Coralliophila galea Obligate No preference shown Caribbeans
Mollusca Muricidae Coralliophila violacea Porites Indo-Pacific
Mollusca Muricidae Coralliophila caribaea Acropora, Porites Caribbeans
Mollusca Muricidae Coralliophila monodonta Obligate Montipora, Pocillopora, Porites, Seriatopora, Stylophora Indo-Pacific, Eastern Pacific
Mollusca Muricidae Drupella cornus Obligate Acropora, Montipora, Pocillopora, Porites, Seriatopora, Stylophora Red Sea, Indo-Pacific
Mollusca Muricidae Drupella elata Obligate Acropora, Montipora, Pocillopora, Porites Indo-Pacific
Mollusca Muricidae Drupella fragum Obligate Acropora, Montipora, Pocillopora, Porites, Seriatopora, Stylophora Indo-Pacific
Mollusca Muricidae Drupella rugosa Obligate Acropora, Montipora, Pocillopora, Porites, Seriatopora, Stylophora Indo-Pacific
Mollusca Muricidae Morula spinosa
Mollusca Muricidae Muricopsis zeteki Pocillopora Eastern Pacific
Mollusca Ovulidae Jenneria pustulata Obligate Pocillopora, Porites, Siderastrea Eastern Pacific
Mollusca Ovulidae Pedicularia decussata Solenastrea Caribbeans
Mollusca Trinchesiidae Phestilla sibogae Obligate Porites Pacific
Mollusca Trinchesiidae Phestilla melanobrachia Obligate Turbinaria Indo-Pacific
Mollusca Trinchesiidae Phestilla minor Obligate Porites Indo-Pacific

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b c Darwin, Charles (1889). The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs. D. Appleton.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah Rotjan, Randi; Lewis, Sara (2008). "Impacts of coral predators on tropical reefs" (PDF). Mar Ecol Prog Ser. 367: 73–91. Bibcode:2008MEPS..367...73R. doi:10.3354/meps07531.
  3. ^ a b c d Cousteau, Jacques-Yves; Ertaud, Jacques (1952). "Fishmen Explore a New World Undersea". National Geographic. CII:4.
  4. ^ "Merriam-Webster Dictionary". Retrieved 29 December 2017.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag Cole, Andrew; Pratchett, Morgan; Jones, Geoffrey (2008). "Diversity and functional importance of coral-feeding fishes on tropical coral reefs". Fish and Fisheries. 9 (3): 286–307. Bibcode:2008AqFF....9..286C. doi:10.1111/j.1467-2979.2008.00290.x.
  6. ^ a b c d Cole, A.J.; Lawton, R.J.; Pratchett, M.S.; Wilson, S.K. (2011). "Chronic coral consumption by butterflyfishes". Coral Reefs. 30 (1): 85–93. Bibcode:2011CorRe..30...85C. doi:10.1007/s00338-010-0674-6. S2CID 25058710.
  7. ^ Glynn, Peter W. (1986). "Feeding biology of a Hawaiian sea star corallivore, Culcita novaeguineae Muller & Troschel". J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 96 (75–96): 75–96. doi:10.1016/0022-0981(86)90014-6.
  8. ^ Claremont, M.; Reid, D.G.; Williams, S.T. (2011). "Evolution of corallivory in the gastropod genus Drupella". Coral Reefs. 30 (4): 977–990. Bibcode:2011CorRe..30..977C. doi:10.1007/s00338-011-0788-5. S2CID 44236600.
  9. ^ Enochs, Ian C.; Glynn, Peter W. (2016). "Corallivory in the Eastern Pacific". Coral Reefs of the Eastern Tropical Pacific. Coral Reefs of the World. Vol. 8. pp. 315–337. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-7499-4_10. ISBN 978-94-017-7498-7.
  10. ^ Berumen, M. L.; Pratchett, M. S.; Goodman, B. A. (2011). "Relative gut lengths of coral reef butterflyfishes (Pisces: Chaetodontidae)" (PDF). Coral Reefs. 30 (4): 1005–1010. Bibcode:2011CorRe..30.1005B. doi:10.1007/s00338-011-0791-x. hdl:1912/4940. ISSN 0722-4028. S2CID 43289299.
  11. ^ a b c d e Palacios, M.M.; Muñoz, C.G.; Zapata, F.A. (2013). "Fish corallivory on a pocilloporid reef and experimental responses to predation". Coral Reefs. 33 (3): 625–636. doi:10.1007/s00338-014-1173-y. S2CID 253816584.
  12. ^ Shao, K.; Liu, M.; Jing, L.; Hardy, G.; Leis, J.L.; Matsuura, K. (2014). "Arothron meleagris". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2014: e.T193662A2255983. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2014-3.RLTS.T193662A2255983.en. Retrieved 13 November 2021.
  13. ^ a b c d Biology of Parrotfishes. Hoey, Andrew S.,, Bonaldo, Roberta M. (First ed.). Boca Raton, FL. ISBN 9781315118079. OCLC 1027748886.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  14. ^ BARNES, D. J.; BRAUER, R. W.; JORDAN, M. R. (1970). "Field and Laboratory Observations of the Crown-of-Thorns Starfish, Acanthaster planci: Locomotory Response of Acanthaster planci to Various Species of Coral". Nature. 228 (5269): 342–344. Bibcode:1970Natur.228..342B. doi:10.1038/228342a0. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 4394407. S2CID 218742.
  15. ^ Brawley, Susan H.; Adey, Walter H. (1982). "Coralliophila abbreviata: a significant corallivore". Bulletin of Marine Science. 32 (2): 595–599.
  16. ^ a b Lenihan, Hunter S.; Holbrook, Sally J.; Schmitt, Russell J.; Brooks, Andrew J. (2011). "Influence of corallivory, competition, and habitat structure on coral community shifts". Ecology. 92 (10): 1959–1971. Bibcode:2011Ecol...92.1959L. doi:10.1890/11-0108.1. PMID 22073787.
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