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Eristalis

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Eristalis
Common drone fly (Eristalis tenax) on the flowers of a common lantana (Lantana camara)
A map showing the global distribution of Eristalis species, where darker red hexagons mean there's a higher abundance of observations
Global distribution of Eristalis species observations produced from GBIF observations
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Family: Syrphidae
Subfamily: Eristalinae
Tribe: Eristalini
Subtribe: Eristalina
Genus: Eristalis
Latreille, 1804
Type species
Musca tenax
Subgenera
  • Eoseristalis Kanervo, 1938
  • Eristalis Latreille, 1804
Synonyms[1]
  • Elophilus Meigen, 1803,
  • Eristaloides Rondani, 1845
  • Eristalomya Rondani, 1857
  • Eristalomyia Verrall, 1882
  • Helophilus Leach, 1817
  • Tubifera Meigen, 1800
European drone fly (Eristalis arbustorum) on a leaf
Black-shouldered drone fly (Eristalis dimidiata) female

Eristalis is a large genus of hoverflies, family Syrphidae, in the order Diptera. Several species are known as drone flies (or droneflies) because they bear a resemblance to honeybee drones.

Drone flies and their relatives are fairly common generalist pollinators,[2] the larvae of which are aquatic, and breathe through a long, snorkel-like appendage, hence the common name rat-tailed maggots.[1][3]

Eristalis is a large genus of around 99 species,[4] and is subdivided into several subgenera and species groups (Eristalomyia, Eristalis, Eoseristalis etc.).

Scientific name and grammatical gender

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The scientific name was proposed by Pierre André Latreille in 1804. He placed seven species in his new genus, but listed the names as combinations with Syrphus, so it remained unclear what gender he attributed to the name (the gender of the name Syrphus is masculine). In the two centuries following its publication, Eristalis was sometimes considered to be of feminine gender, sometimes to be of masculine gender. George Henry Verrall (1901)[5] assigned its gender as masculine, a choice followed in British literature, and also in Dutch, Polish, Czech, Spanish and Portuguese literature. In several other European languages and in North America, the tradition was to consider it as a feminine word. In 1993 the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature placed the name on the Official List, and gave its gender as masculine, without justification for that choice.[6] In 2004, Peter Chandler, Andrew Wakeham-Dawson and Angus McCullough submitted an application to confirm the gender of Eristalis as feminine.[7] They referred to ICZN Art. 30.1.1, which states that a name in Latin form takes the gender given for that word in standard Latin dictionaries.[8] In Composition of Scientific Words by R.W. Brown (1954), "eristalis" is listed as a feminine word that refers to an unknown precious stone. The request of Chandler et al. was granted less than two years after submission.[9] As of 2006, Eristalis is officially a word of feminine gender.

Identification

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For terms see Morphology of Diptera.

As a true fly, the species of the genus Eristalis have a single pair of wings and a pair of halteres. As a member of the family Syrphidae, Eristalis have a spurious vein in the wing. Defined by Latreille in 1804, Eristlis was restricted by Meigen in 1882 to those species with a sinuate vein R4+5 and petiolate cell r1.[10]

Since the origin of the genus Eristalis, many genera have been added that refine the description of Latreille such as Eristalinus, Meromarcrus, Palpada, Helopilus etc. The subtribe Eristalina has been established to contain these genera. Now it is generally accepted as those which have vein R2+3 sinuate, cell r1 usually petiolate and metafemur with basolateral setose patch. With the addition of the following criteria: anepimeron with triangular portion bare, katepimeron pilose, meron bare posteroventrally, without pile anterior or ventral to metathoracic spiracle, eye pilose.[citation needed]

Larvae

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The larvae of Eristalini are aquatic and of the long-tailed type. Those of Eristalis are very commonly found breeding in putrid or stagnant water or in moist excrement, and are called “rat-tailed maggots” or “mousies”.[11]

Larva of an Eristalis species, showing the 'rat tail'.

The "tail" is actually an extendable breathing tube often used to extend above the waterline. This tube allows the larvae to live in oxygen-depleted water such as sewage and stagnant pools where most other larvae cannot exist. Rat tailed larvae also exploit wet mud, manure and moist rotting vegetation. Many species of Eristalis remain unknown.[12] Working in areas where larvae are likely to be found (e.g. manure pits, sewage seepage and stagnant pools) is difficult and rearing the larvae to adults is even more so. Basic information on many species of Eristalis remain to be discovered.[citation needed]

Pollination

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Adults of Eristalis species such as the common drone fly (E. tenax) and the orange-legged drone fly (E. flavipes) are pollen and nectar feeders with hairy bodies capable of picking up and transferring pollen, and may act as keystone pollinators in some systems.[13] Pollinating Eristalis species are often generalists, and are known to act as pollinators for common crops such as Brassica rapa, common onion (Allium cepa), sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum), kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa), and apples (Malus domestica).[14][15][16] Eristalis are tetrachromats, with strong colour differentiation and preferences towards yellow flower colours, compared to trichromatic bees which often prefer blue hues.[17][18] On islands where bees are absent, their colour preferences may induce selection for higher proportions of yellow in flowers, and they can be seen as frequent and effective pollinators for plants like moon tree foil (Medicago citrina).[18][19] The mobility of hoverflies may aid in long-distance pollen transfer, facilitating gene flow between unconnected plant populations.[20]

Some species, particularly E. tenax, have been suggested as candidates for a managed pollination alternative to European honey bees (Apis mellifera) due to their similar pollination efficacies, abundance, wide distribution, flight range, behavioural plasticity, and high reproductive success.[16][21] Multiple generations may be reared per year, and Eristalis are readily reared in laboratory conditions.[22] However, there are challenges concerning commercial mass rearing, retaining numbers, and impacts on non-target species.[21] Due to their ability to fly long distances, dispersal of captive-reared populations may pose a risk to nearby farm equipment and machinery.[21] Eristalis may also act as mechanical vectors for parasites affecting bees, such as Crithidia bombi.[23]

Interactions with humans

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The larvae of Eristalis species may be considered pests where they affect livestock, contaminating feed and affecting electrical supplies due their mass congregations seeking dry sites for pupation.[24] Some species of Eristalis have been known as a rare cause of myiasis, with larvae capable of surviving gastric fluids upon ingestion. Symptoms of myiasis from Eristalis species include diffuse abdominal pain and diarrhoea.[24] Treatment may include anthelmintics such as ivermectin.[25][26]

Species

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References

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  1. ^ a b Stubbs, Alan E.; Falk, Steven J (1983). British Hoverflies: An Illustrated Identification Guide (2nd ed.). London: British Entomological and Natural History Society. pp. 253, xvpp. ISBN 1-899935-03-7.
  2. ^ Van Der Kooi, C. J.; Pen, I.; Staal, M.; Stavenga, D. G.; Elzenga, J. T. M. (2015). "Competition for pollinators and intra-communal spectral dissimilarity of flowers". Plant Biology. 18 (1): 56–62. doi:10.1111/plb.12328. PMID 25754608.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i Thompson, F. Christian (1997). "Revision of the Eristalis flower flies (Diptera: Syrphidae) of the Americas south of the United States" (PDF). Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington. 99. Washington D.C.: Entomological Society of Washington: 209–237. ISSN 0013-8797. Retrieved 2009-06-19.
  4. ^ Thompson, F. Christian (2003). "Austalis, a new genus of flower flies (Diptera: Syrphidae) with revisionary notes on related genera" (pdf Adobe/Acobat). Zootaxa. 246. New Zealand: Magnolia Press: 1–19. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.246.1.1. ISSN 1175-5334. Retrieved 2011-01-28.
  5. ^ Verrall, G.H. (1901). A list of British Diptera: 22; and, according to Chandler et al., Case 3259 (see there) also in British Flies vol. 8
  6. ^ ICZN (1993). Opinion 1747. Eristalis Latreille, 1804, Helophilus Fabricius, 1805, Xylota Meigen, 1822 and Eumerus Meigen, 1822 (Insecta; Diptera): conserved. The Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature 50(3): 256–258
  7. ^ Chandler, P.J., Wakeham-Dawson, A. & McCullough, A. (2004). Case 3259. Eristalis Latreille, 1804 (Insecta: Diptera): proposed confirmation that the gender is feminine; Musca nemorum Linnaeus, 1758, M. arbustorum Linnaeus, 1758 and M. horticola De Geer, 1776 (currently Eristalis nemorum, E. arbustorum and E. horticola): proposed conservation of usage of the specific names by designation of neotypes. The bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature 61(4): 241–244
  8. ^ International Code of Zoological Nomenclature Art. 30.1.1
  9. ^ ICZN (2006). Opinion 2153 (Case 3259). Eristalis Latreille, 1804 (Insecta: Diptera): confirmation that the gender is feminine; Musca nemorum Linnaeus, 1758, M. arbustorum Linnaeus, 1758 and M. horticola De Geer, 1776 (currently Eristalis nemorum, E. arbustorum and E. horticola): usage of the specific names conserved by designation of neotypes. The Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature 63(2): 146–147
  10. ^ Thompson, F. Christian (1997). "Revision Of The Eristalis Flower Flies (Diptera: Syrphidae) Of The Americas South Of The United States". Entomological Society of Washington. 99.
  11. ^ Wirth, W.W. (1965). Family Syrphidae. In A Catalog of the Diptera of America north of Mexico. Washington, D.C., U.S.A.: United States Department of Agriculture. pp. 557–625.
  12. ^ Rotheray, G.E. (1993). "Colour Guide to Hoverfly Larvae (Diptera, Syrphidae) in Britain and Europe" (PDF). Diperists Digest. Special Edition.
  13. ^ Wojcik, Vicki. "Drone Flies". Archived from the original on October 15, 2024. Retrieved October 15, 2024.
  14. ^ Jarlan, Arnaud; De Oliveira, Domingos; Gingras, Jean (1997-12-01). "Pollination by Eristalis tenax (Diptera: Syrphidae) and Seed Set of Greenhouse Sweet Pepper". Journal of Economic Entomology. 90 (6): 1646–1649. doi:10.1093/jee/90.6.1646. ISSN 1938-291X. S2CID 87343003.
  15. ^ Kamdem, Michel Mathurin; Otomo, Patricks Voua (June 2023). "Developmental performance of Eristalis tenax larvae (Diptera: Syrphidae): Influence of growth media and yeast addition during captive rearing". Journal of Experimental Zoology Part A: Ecological and Integrative Physiology. 339 (5): 503–513. Bibcode:2023JEZA..339..503K. doi:10.1002/jez.2696. ISSN 2471-5638.
  16. ^ a b Upchurch, Annick; Spurr, Cameron J.; Quarrell, Stephen R.; Rowbottom, Raylea M.; Allen, Geoff R. (August 2023). "Toward optimising reproductive output of Eristalis tenax (Diptera: Syrphidae) for commercial mass rearing systems". Austral Entomology. 62 (3): 360–371. doi:10.1111/aen.12660. ISSN 2052-174X.
  17. ^ Ishii, Hiroshi S; Kubota, Masahiro X; Tsujimoto, Shohei G; Kudo, Gaku (February 2019). "Association between community assemblage of flower colours and pollinator fauna: a comparison between Japanese and New Zealand alpine plant communities". Annals of Botany. 123 (3): 533–541. doi:10.1093/aob/mcy188. ISSN 0305-7364. PMC 6377100. PMID 30380008.
  18. ^ a b Garcia, Jair E.; Hannah, Lea; Shrestha, Mani; Burd, Martin; Dyer, Adrian G. (January 2022). "Fly pollination drives convergence of flower coloration". New Phytologist. 233 (1): 52–61. doi:10.1111/nph.17696. ISSN 0028-646X. PMID 34460949.
  19. ^ Pérez-Bañón, C.; Juan, A.; Petanidou, T.; Marcos-García, Ma A.; Crespo, M. B. (2003-10-01). "The reproductive ecology of Medicago citrina (Font Quer) Greuter (Leguminosae): a bee-pollinated plant in Mediterranean islands where bees are absent". Plant Systematics and Evolution. 241 (1): 29–46. Bibcode:2003PSyEv.241...29P. doi:10.1007/s00606-003-0004-3. ISSN 1615-6110.
  20. ^ Doyle, Toby; Hawkes, Will L. S.; Massy, Richard; Powney, Gary D.; Menz, Myles H. M.; Wotton, Karl R. (2020-05-27). "Pollination by hoverflies in the Anthropocene". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 287 (1927): 20200508. doi:10.1098/rspb.2020.0508. ISSN 0962-8452. PMC 7287354. PMID 32429807.
  21. ^ a b c Howlett, Brad G.; Gee, Megan (2019-07-27). "The potential management of the drone fly (Eristalis tenax) as a crop pollinator in New Zealand". New Zealand Plant Protection. 72: 221–230. doi:10.30843/nzpp.2019.72.304. ISSN 1179-352X.
  22. ^ Nicholas, Sarah; Thyselius, Malin; Holden, Marissa; Nordström, Karin (2018-05-19). "Rearing and Long-Term Maintenance of Eristalis tenax Hoverflies for Research Studies". Journal of Visualized Experiments : JoVE (135): 57711. doi:10.3791/57711. ISSN 1940-087X. PMC 6101274. PMID 29863660.
  23. ^ Davis, Abby E.; Deutsch, Kaitlin R.; Torres, Alondra M.; Mata Loya, Mesly J.; Cody, Lauren V.; Harte, Emma; Sossa, David; Muñiz, Paige A.; Ng, Wee Hao; McArt, Scott H. (2021-08-04). "Eristalis flower flies can be mechanical vectors of the common trypanosome bee parasite, Crithidia bombi". Scientific Reports. 11 (1): 15852. Bibcode:2021NatSR..1115852D. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-95323-w. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 8338921. PMID 34349198.
  24. ^ a b "EENY 445/IN809: Drone Fly, Rat-Tailed Maggot Eristalis tenax (Linnaeus) (Insecta: Diptera: Syrphidae)". Ask IFAS - Powered by EDIS. Archived from the original on 2024-10-15. Retrieved 2024-10-15.
  25. ^ Desoubeaux, Guillaume; Gaillard, Julien; Borée-Moreau, Diane; Bailly, Éric; Andres, Christian R; Chandenier, Jacques (April 2014). "Gastrointestinal symptoms resembling ulcerative proctitis caused by larvae of the drone fly Eristalis tenax". Pathogens and Global Health. 108 (3): 158–163. doi:10.1179/2047773214Y.0000000135. ISSN 2047-7724. PMC 4083178. PMID 24766340.
  26. ^ Tolba, Mona Mohamed (2020). "Eristalis tenax intestinal myiasis: An electron microscope study". Tropical Parasitology. 10 (1): 39–43. doi:10.4103/tp.TP_40_19 (inactive 2024-10-16). ISSN 2229-5070. PMC 7365507. PMID 32775291.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of October 2024 (link)
  27. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Skevington, Jeffrey H.; Locke, Michelle M.; Young, Andrew D.; Moran, Kevin; Crins, William J.; Marshall, Stephen A. (2019). Field Guide to the Flower Flies of Northeastern North America. Princeton. ISBN 9780691189406.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  28. ^ Wakeham-Dawson, A.; Jones, A.G.; Thompson, F.C. (2009). "Falkland Islands Syrphidae (Diptera)". Dipterists Digest. Second series. 16 (1). UK: Dipterists Forum: 65–71. ISSN 0953-7260.
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