List of kings of Axum
(Redirected from List of Kings of Axum)
The kings of Axum ruled an important trading state in the area which is now Eritrea and northern Ethiopia, from 400 BC to 960 AD.[1]
Sources[edit]
Various regnal lists of Axumite monarchs have survived to the present day via manuscripts or oral tradition. However, the lists often contradict each other and many lists contain incomplete or scattered information.[2][3] The lists were likely compiled over a long period at several different monasteries.[4] Some historians cover consider these lists to be untrustworthy.[5] There are a number of legendary figures at the beginning of some lists whose historicity is difficult to confirm or trace. Axumite kings may have used multiple names similar to the later Emperors of the Ethiopian Empire (1270–1974), resulting in different names for the same ruler on different lists.
Aksumite coins have proven useful for constructing a chronology of Axumite kings.[6] Around 98 percent of the city of Axum has not yet been excavated. [7] At least 18 kings have been identified with coinage covering the period from the late third century to the early seventh century.[8]
List[edit]
The following table contains names from both traditional regnal lists and names that are archeologically verified. German August Dillmann grouped the regnal lists into three types and the order of names will be based on his lists.[9] The spelling of certian names are taken from lists recorded by E. A. Wallis Budge.[10] The overall order of monarchs is partially based on the 1922 regnal list of Ethiopia, which is the only official Ethiopian regnal list that attempted to combine names from different lists into a longer chronological order.
Monarchs who are attested via archaeology and/or external written sources outside the traditional regnal lists.
| Portrait | Name [11][10] |
Dates | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Legendary period – Monarchs who reigned before Menelik I | ||||
|
Arwe "the serpent" | 18th century BC (traditional) |
Mythical serpent who reigned for 400 years.[12] Also known as Wainaba.[13] | |
| Angabo | 14th century BC (traditional) |
Killed the evil serpent king Arwe. Ruled for 200 years.[12] | ||
| [Za] Gedur (I) | 12th century BC (traditional) |
Ruled for 100 years.[12] Also known as Zagdur.[14] | ||
| Sebado | 11th century BC (traditional) |
Ruled for 50 years.[12] | ||
| Kawnasya | 10th century BC (traditional) |
Ruled for 1 year.[12] | ||
|
[Za] Makeda | 10th century BC (traditional) |
Daughter of Kawnasya. Ruled for 50 years.[12] In Ethiopian tradition, she is identified with the Biblical Queen of Sheba. Also known as Azeb.[15] | |
| Monarchs who reigned before the Nativity | ||||
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|
Ibn al-Hakim (Menelik I) | 10th century BC (traditional) |
Son of Makeda and Solomon in Ethiopian tradition. No. 1 on Dillmann's lists A and B.[12] Reigned for 24, 25 or 29 years.[16][12][14] | |
| [Za] Handadyu (I) | No. 2 on Dillmann's list A.[12] Reigned for 1 or 8 years.[12][16] | |||
| Tomai | No. 2 on Dillmann's list B.[12] Reigned for 15 years.[17] Son of Menelik I.[18] Sometimes known as Abd-Rakid.[17] | |||
| [Za] Aweda | No. 3 on Dillmann's list A.[12] Reigned for 11 years.[12] Also known as Aweda-Amat.[12] | |||
| [Za] Gedur (II) | No. 3 on Dillmann's list B.[12] | |||
| Aksumay | No. 4 on Dillmann's list B.[12] | |||
| [Za] Awseyo | No. 4 on Dillmann's list A and no. 5 on Dillmann's list B.[12] Reigned for 3 years.[12] | |||
| [Za] Sawe / Tahawasya | No. 5 on Dillmann's list A and no. 6 on list B.[12] Reigned for 31 or 34 years.[12][15] | |||
| Abralyus | No. 7 on Dillmann's list B.[12] | |||
| Warada Dahay | No. 8 on Dillmann's list B.[12] | |||
| Handadyu (II) | No. 9 on Dillmann's list B.[12] | |||
| Warada Nagash | No. 10 on Dillmann's list B.[12] | |||
| Awseya | No. 11 on Dillmann's list B.[12] | |||
| [Za] Gasyo | No. 6 on Dillmann's list A.[12] Reigned for half a day.[12] | |||
| [Za] Mawat | No. 7 on Dillmann's list A.[12] Reigned for either 8 years and 1 month,[15] 8 years and 4 months, [12] or 20 years and 1 month.[19] Confusion of reign length may have resulted from similarity between the Ge'ez numbers for 8 (፰) and 20 (፳) and the numbers for 1 (፩) and 4 (፬). | |||
| Elalyon | No. 12 on Dillmann's list B.[12] | |||
| Toma Seyon | No. 13 on Dillmann's list B.[12] | |||
| [Za] Bahas / Basyo | No. 8 on Dillmann's list A and no. 14 on list B.[20] Reigned for 9 years.[21] Possibly the same king as Gasyo in list A.[12] | |||
| Awtet (I) | No. 15 on Dillmann's list B.[12] | |||
| Zaware Nebrat | No. 16 on Dillmann's list B.[21] | |||
| Safay | No. 17 on Dillmann's list B.[21] | |||
| Ramhay | c. 330s–320s BC (traditional) |
No. 18 on Dillmann's list B.[21] According to an unpublished manuscript from Aksum, this king was a contemporary of Alexander the Great and asked for Greek technicians and engineers to build palaces, monuments and stelae, one of which was destroyed centuries later by Gudit.[22] | ||
| Hande | No. 19 on Dillmann's list B.[21] | |||
| [Za] Kawida | No. 9 on Dillmann's list A.[21] Reigned for 2 years.[21] | |||
| [Za] Kanaz | No. 10 on Dillmann's list A.[21] Reigned for 10 years.[21] | |||
| [Za] Hadena | No. 11 on Dillmann's list A.[21] Reigned for 9 years.[21] A female monarch according to the 1922 regnal list. | |||
| [Za] Wazeha | No. 12 on Dillmann's list A.[21] Reigned for 1 year.[21] | |||
| [Za] Hadir | No. 13 on Dillmann's list A.[21] Reigned for 2 years.[21] | |||
| [Za] Kalas | No. 14 on Dillmann's list A.[21] Reigned for 6 or 7 years.[21] Confusion may have arisen from the similarity of the Ge'ez numbers for 6 (፮) and 7 (፯). | |||
| [Za] Satyo | No. 15 on Dillmann's list A.[21] Reigned for 16 or 17 years.[21] | |||
| [Za] Filya / Safelya | No. 16 on Dillmann's list A and no. 20 on list B.[21] Reigned for 26 or 27 years.[21] | |||
| [Za] Aglebu / Aglebul | No. 17 on Dillmann's list A and no. 21 on list B.[21] Reigned for 3 years.[21] | |||
| [Za] Awsena | No. 18 on Dillmann's list A.[21] Reigned for 1 year.[21] A female monarch according to the 1922 regnal list. | |||
| Bawawel | No. 22 on Dillmann's list B.[21] | |||
| [Za] Birwas / Bawaris | No. 19 on Dillmann's list A and no. 23 on list B.[21] Reigned for 29 years.[21] | |||
| [Za] Mahasi | No. 20 on Dillmann's list A and no. 24 on list B.[21] Reigned for 1 year.[21] | |||
| Nalke | No. 25 on Dillmann's list B.[21] | |||
| [Za Besi] Bazen | 8 BC–8 or 9 AD (E.C.) (traditional) |
No. 21 on Dillmann's list A and no. 26 on list B.[21] Reigned for 16 or 17 years.[21] Axumite regnal lists consistently date this king's reign to 8 years before the birth of Jesus. A tomb has been identified in local tradition as belong to Bazen.[23] | ||
| Monarchs who reigned after the Nativity | ||||
| [Za] Sartu | No. 1 on Dillmann's list A.[24] Reigned for 26 or 27 years.[24] | |||
| Senfa Asgad | No. 1 on Dillmann's list C.[25] | |||
| Senfa Arad | No. 1 on Dillmann's list B.[26] | |||
| [Za] L'as | No. 2 on Dillmann's list A.[24] Reigned for 10 years.[24] | |||
| Bahr Asagad | No. 2 on both Dillmann's list B and list C.[27] | |||
| [Za] Masenh | No. 3 on Dillmann's list A.[24] Reigned for 7 years.[24] | |||
| Germa Sor | No. 3 on Dillmann's list B.[26] | |||
| [Za] Setwa | No. 4 on Dillmann's list A.[24] Reigned for 9 years.[24] | |||
| Germa Asfare | No. 4 on Dillmann's list B and no. 3 on list C.[27] | |||
| [Za] Adgala | No. 5 on Dillmann's list A.[24] Reigned for 10 years and 6 or 7 months.[24] | |||
| [Za] Agba | No. 6 on Dillmann's list A.[24] Reigned for 6 months.[24] | |||
| Serada | No. 4 on Dillmann's list C.[25] | |||
| [Za] Malis or Malik | No. 7 on Dillmann's list A.[28] Reigned for 4, 6 or 7 years.[29][28] | |||
| Kulu Seyon | No. 5 on Dillmann's list C.[25] | |||
| [Za] Hakli | No. 8 on Dillmann's list A.[28] Reigned for 13 years.[28] | |||
| Zoskales | 1st century | The earliest known Axumite king from outside the traditional regnal list. Recorded in Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.[30] Could be the king Za Hakli[31][32] or a local ruler in Adulis.[33] The identification with Hakli has been disputed by some historians because the earliest of the regnal lists post date the Periplus by well over a thousand years[34] | ||
| Sarguai | No. 4 on Dillmann's list B and no. 6 on list C.[27] | |||
| [Za] Demahe | No. 9 on Dillmann's list A.[28] Reigned for 10 years.[28] | |||
| Zaray | No. 5 on Dillmann's list B and no. 7 on list C.[27] | |||
| [Za] Awtet (II) | No. 10 on Dillmann's list A.[28] Reigned for 2 years.[28] | |||
| Bagamai | No. 8 on Dillmann's list C.[25] | |||
| [Za] El–Aweda | No. 11 on Dillmann's list A.[28] Reigned for 30 years.[28] | |||
| Djan Asagad | No. 9 on Dillmann's list C.[25] | |||
| Saba Asgad | No. 6 on Dillmann's list B.[26] | |||
| Zegen and Rema (Joint rule) |
No. 12 on Dillmann's list A.[28] Reigned for 4 or 8 years.[28] | |||
| Seyon Hegez | No. 10 on Dillmann's list C.[25] | |||
| Seyon Geza | No. 7 on Dillmann's list B.[26] | |||
| Moal Genha | No. 11 on Dillmann's list C.[25] | |||
| [Za] Gafale | No. 13 on Dillmann's list A.[28] Reigned for 1 year.[28] | |||
| [Za] Besi Sark | No. 14 on Dillmann's list A.[28] Reigned for 4 years.[28] | |||
| Agdur | No. 8 on Dillmann's list B and no. 13 on list C.[27] | |||
| [Za] Ela–Asguagua | No. 15 on Dillmann's list A.[28] Reigned for 76 or 77 years.[28] | |||
| GDRT (vocalized by historians as "Gadarat") |
Early 3rd century | Inscriptions of GDR are the oldest surviving royal inscriptions in the Ge'ez alphabet. Inscriptions mention his son BYGT (vocalized as "Beygat" or "Beyga"). Possibly the king who wrote the Monumentum Adulitanum.[35] His name could have inspired the names Gedur and Zagdur that appear on traditional lists. | ||
| [Za] Ela–Herka | No. 16 on Dillmann's list A.[28] Reigned for 21 years.[28] | |||
| [Za] Besi Saweza | No. 17 on Dillmann's list A.[28] Reigned for 1 year.[28] | |||
| [Za] Wakana | No. 18 on Dillmann's list A.[28] Reigned for 1 or 2 days.[28] A female monarch according to the 1922 regnal list. | |||
| [Za] Hadus | No. 19 on Dillmann's list A.[28] Reigned for 4 months.[28] | |||
| [Za] Ela–Sagal | No. 20 on Dillmann's list A.[28] Reigned for 2 or 3 years.[28] | |||
| [Za] Ela–Asfeha | No. 21 on Dillmann's list A.[28] Reigned for 14 years.[28] | |||
| ʽDBH (vocalized by historians as "`Azaba" or "`Adhebah") |
First half of the 3rd century | Known through South Arabian inscriptions. Inscriptions mention his son GRMT (vocalized as "Girma"). | ||
| [Za] Ela–Segab | No. 22 on Dillmann's list A.[28] Reigned for 23 years.[28] | |||
| [Za] Ela–Samara | No. 23 on Dillmann's list A.[28] Reigned for 3 years.[28] | |||
| Sembrouthes | c. 250[36] | Known from a single inscription in Ancient Greek that was found at Dekemhare, which is dated to his 24th regnal year. First known ruler of Ethiopia to use the title "King of Kings".[37] May have erected the Monumentum Adulitanum.[38] May be the same king as Ela–Samara, but regnal lists only record 3 years of rule for him.[39] | ||
| DTWNS (vocalized by historians as "Datawnas") |
Second half of the 3rd century | Mentioned with his son ZQRNS (vocalized as "Zaqarnas") in an inscription from al-Mis'al in Yemen.[40] | ||
| [Za] Ela–Aiba | No. 24 on Dillmann's list A.[28] Reigned for 16 or 17 years.[28] | |||
| [Za] Ela–Eskendi | No. 25 on Dillmann's list A.[28] Reigned for 37 years.[28] | |||
| [Za] Ela–Saham | No. 26 on Dillmann's list A.[28] Reigned for 9 years.[28] | |||
| [Za] Ela–San | No. 27 on Dillmann's list A.[28] Reigned for 13 years.[28] | |||
| [Za] Ela–Ayga | No. 28 on Dillmann's list A.[28] Reigned for 18 years.[28] | |||
|
Endubis | c. 295–310[8] | The oldest known Axumite coins date to this king's reign.[41] | |
|
Aphilas | c. 310–early 320s[8] | Only known from coins minted during his reign. | |
|
Ousanas [Za] Ela–Ameda (I) Saifa Ared |
early 320s–mid 340s[8] | Stuart Munro-Hay believed it is "very likely" that Ousanas is the king to whom Aedesius and Frumentius were brought. This king is known as Ella Amida in Ethiopian tradition.[42] No. 29 on Dillmann's list A.[28] Reigned for 30 years and 8 months according to traditional lists.[28] Known as Tazer in some sources and lists.[43] Saifa Ared is the throne name of Tazer,[29] and this name is no. 9 on Dillmann's list B and no. 12 on list C.[27] Tazer/Seifa Ared is the father of Abreha and Atsbeha in Ethiopian tradition.[44] | |
|
Wazeba | late 330s[8] | Only known from coins minted during his reign, which were the first to be engraved in Ge'ez.[45] Possibly a usurper during the reign of Ousanas.[46] | |
| [Za] Ela–Ahyawa Sofya (Regent) |
c. early 320s | According to an unpublished history of kings from Axum, this ruler was the wife of Ella Amida (Ousanas) and reigned for three years during the minority of her sons Abreha and Atsbeha.[47] The Gedle Abreha and Asbeha from the Church of Abreha wa-Atsbeha names her Sofya, and states she was the wife of king Tazer (Ousanas) and mother of Abreha and Atsbeha.[43] No. 30 on Dillmann's list A.[28] Reigned for 3 years.[28] Known as Egwala Anbasa in some sources.[48] | ||
| Christian Monarchs | ||||
| [Za] Ela–Abreha and Atsbeha (Joint rule) |
Early 4th century | In Ethiopian tradition, these brothers were the first to convert to Christianity.[26] Likely based on Ezana and Saizana.[49] No. 31 on Dillmann's list A, no. 10 on list B and no. 14 on list C.[50] Reigned for 27 years and 6 months.[28] | ||
Zenith of the Kingdom of Axum[edit]
| Dates of Tenure | Name | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| mid 340s–380[8] | Ezana | his mother Sofya of Axum was regent during his minority |
| fl. late 4th century[8] | Ouazebas | |
| first third of 5th century[8] | Eon/Noe | possibly the "Huina" from the Book of the Himyarites |
| c. 430[8] | MHDYS (vocalized as "Mehadeyis") |
|
| middle third of 5th century[8] | Ebana | |
| later 5th century[8] | Nezool | also called "Nezana" |
| early 6th century[8] | Ousas, also spelled "Ousana(s)" |
possibly Tazena, father of Kaleb |
| 510s–late 530s[8] | Kaleb | tradition names his son Gebre Meskel |
| c. early to mid 6th century | Gebre Meskel | |
| late 530s–550s[8] | Alla Amidas | |
| c. 550[51] 570s[8] |
Israel | tradition also records an Israel, son of Kaleb |
| early 6th century[8] | Wazena | |
| 550s and 560s[8] | W`ZB vocalized as "Wa`zeb" |
possibly "Ella Gabaz", son of Kaleb |
| c. 577 | Saifu | |
| c. 580[51] [8] | Gersem | |
| c. 590[51] c. 620[8] |
Hataz/Hethasas | identified with "Iathlia" |
| 590s–after 600[8] c. 600[51] |
Ioel | |
| c. 614 | Najashi | possibly identical with Sahama |
| died c. 630 | Sahama | tradition also records an Ella Tsaham (Illa Ṣaḥām) |
Later kings[edit]
| Name[52] | Notes | Dates (E. A. Wallis Budge)[52] |
Dates (Tafari Makannon/Charles Fernand Rey)[53] (Gregorian Dates)[nb 1] |
Dates (John Stewart)[55] |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Kwastantinos | or Constantine[52] | All kings ruled between 600–900 | c. 544 – 572 | 564–578 |
| Wasan Sagad | Bazagar?[52] | c. 572 – 587 | 578–591 | |
| Fere Shanay | or Fere Shernay[52] | c. 587 – 610 | 591–601 | |
| 'Adre'az | or 'Adre'azar[52] | c. 610 – 630 | 601–623 | |
| 'Akla Wedem | or Eklewudem[52][55] | c. 630 – 638 | 623–633 | |
| Germa Safar | c. 638 – 653 | 633–648 | ||
| Zergaz | or Gergaz[52] | c. 653 – 663 | 648–656 | |
| Degna Mikael | or Dengna Mika'el[52] | c. 663 – 689 | 656–677 | |
| Bahr Ikela | c. 689 – 708 | 677–696 | ||
| Gum | or Hezba Seyon[55] | c. 708 – 732 | 696–720 | |
| 'Asgwomgum | c. 732 – 737 | 720–725 | ||
| Letem | c. 737 – 753 | 725–741 | ||
| Talatem | c. 753 – 774 | 741–762 | ||
| 'Oda Gosh | or 'Oda Sasa[52]/ Adegos[55] | c. 774 – 787 | 762–775 | |
| 'Ayzur | who reigned half a day and was strangled to death[52] | c. 787 | 775 | |
| Dedem | or Dedem Almaz[55] | c. 787 – 782 | 775–780 | |
| Wededem | c. 782 – 802 | 780–790 | ||
| Wedem 'Asfare | or Demawedem;[55] reigned 150 years according to some traditions.[52] | c. 802 – 832 | 790–820 | |
| 'Armah | or Rema Armah[55] | c. 832 – 837 | 820–825 | |
| Degna Djan | or Ged'a Djan[52] | c. 837 – 856 | 825–845 | |
| Ged'a Djan | Not listed as a separate king by Budge | c. 856 – 857 | 845–846 | |
| Gudit (Queen) | Not included on Budge's list | c. 857 – 897 | 846–885 | |
| 'Anbasa Wedem | son of Degna Djan | All kings reigned from 600–900 | c. 897 – 917 | 885–905 |
| Dil Na'od | son of Degna Djan | c. 917 – 960 | 905 – c. 950 |
See also[edit]
Notes[edit]
- ^ The dates included on Tafari Makannon's king list follow the Ethiopian calendar. According to Charles Fernand Rey, the Gregorian date equivalent would be 7 or 8 years ahead.[54]
References[edit]
- ^ Munro-Ray 1991, p. 67.
- ^ Budge 1928a, pp. xi, 204.
- ^ Kropp 2006, pp. 304–305.
- ^ Kropp 2006, p. 312.
- ^ Budge 1928a, p. xi.
- ^ Hahn, Wolfgang, "Coinage" in Uhlig, Siegbert, ed., Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2003), pp. 767–768.
- ^ Prendergast, Kate (2005). "Axum: The Ancient Civilization of Ethiopia". Islam Online. Archived from the original on October 17, 2006.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Hahn & West 2016, p. 17.
- ^ Dillmann 1853.
- ^ a b Budge 1928a, pp. 193, 205–210.
- ^ Dillmann 1853, pp. 341–350.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag Dillmann 1853, p. 341.
- ^ "Wainaba, the Serpent Ruler". Oxford Reference. Retrieved 16 June 2024.
- ^ a b Salt 1814, p. 460.
- ^ a b c Páez 2008, p. 106.
- ^ a b Budge 1928a, p. 206.
- ^ a b Budge 1928a, p. 207.
- ^ Budge 1928a, p. 229.
- ^ Budge 1928, p. 206.
- ^ Dillmann 1853, pp. 341–342.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag Dillmann 1853, p. 342.
- ^ Selasse 1972b, p. 116.
- ^ "King Bazen's Tomb". Lonely Planet.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Dillmann 1853, p. 343.
- ^ a b c d e f g Dillmann 1853, p. 346.
- ^ a b c d e Dillmann 1853, p. 345.
- ^ a b c d e f Dillmann 1853, pp. 345–346.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw Dillmann 1853, p. 344.
- ^ a b Budge 1928a, p. 209.
- ^ Hatke, George (2013-01-07). Aksum and Nubia: Warfare, Commerce, and Political Fictions in Ancient Northeast Africa. NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-6066-6.
- ^ Salt 1814, p. 463.
- ^ Selassie 1972a, p. 72.
- ^ Henze 2000, p. 18.
- ^ Hatke, George (2013-01-07). Aksum and Nubia: Warfare, Commerce, and Political Fictions in Ancient Northeast Africa. NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-6066-6.
- ^ Bowersock, G. W. (2013-07-25). The Throne of Adulis: Red Sea Wars on the Eve of Islam. OUP USA. ISBN 978-0-19-973932-5.
- ^ Munro-Hay, Stuart (1978). The Chronology of Aksum: A Reappraisal of the History and Development of the Aksumite State from Numismatic and Archeological Evidence. University of London. p. 73.
- ^ Munro-Hay, Stuart (1978). The Chronology of Aksum: A Reappraisal of the History and Development of the Aksumite State from Numismatic and Archeological Evidence. University of London. p. 185.
- ^ Bowersock, G. W. (2013-04-01). The Throne of Adulis: Red Sea Wars on the Eve of Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 57. ISBN 978-0-19-933367-7.
- ^ Munro-Hay, Stuart (1978). The Chronology of Aksum: A Reappraisal of the History and Development of the Aksumite State from Numismatic and Archeological Evidence. University of London. p. 185.
- ^ Munro-Ray 1991, p. 74.
- ^ Hahn & West 2016, p. 10.
- ^ Munro-Ray 1991, p. 77.
- ^ a b Selassie 1972a, pp. 92–93.
- ^ Matthews, Derek; Mordini, Antonio (1959). "The Monastery of Debra Damo, Ethiopia" (PDF). Archaeologia. 97: 29 – via Cambridge Core.
- ^ Munro-Ray 1991, p. 189.
- ^ Hahn & West 2016, p. 11.
- ^ Selassie 1972a, p. 93.
- ^ Budge 1928a, pp. 209–210.
- ^ Prouty, Chris (1981). Historical dictionary of Ethiopia. Metuchen, N.J. : Scarecrow Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-8108-1448-6.
- ^ Dillmann 1853, pp. 344–346.
- ^ a b c d Lusini, Gianfrancesco (2005). "Philology and the Reconstruction of the Ethiopian Past". In Herausgegeben von Walter Raunig; Steffen Wenig (eds.). Afrikas Horn: Akten der Ersten Internationalen Littmann-Konferenz. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 97.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Budge, E. A. Wallis (1928). A History of Ethiopia: Nubia and Abyssinia (Volume 1). London: Methuen & Co. pp. 269–270.
- ^ C. F. Rey, In the Country of the Blue Nile (1927), Camelot Press, London, pg. 270-271
- ^ C. F. Rey, In the Country of the Blue Nile (1927), Camelot Press, London, pg. 263
- ^ a b c d e f g Stewart, John (2005). African States and Rulers. London: McFarland. p. 23. ISBN 0-7864-2562-8.
Bibliography[edit]
- Budge, E. A. (1928a). A History of Ethiopia: Nubia and Abyssinia (Volume I). London: Methuen & Co.
- Dillmann, August (1853). "Zur Geschichte des abyssinischen Reichs". Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft (in German). 7: 338–364.
- Hahn, Wolfgang; West, Vincent (2016). Sylloge of Aksumite Coins in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Oxford: Ashmolean. ISBN 9781910807101.
- Henze, Paul B. (2000). Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia. London: Hurst & Company. ISBN 1-85065-522-7.
- Kropp, Manfred (2006). "Ein später Schüler des Julius Africanus zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts in Äthiopien". In Wallraf, Martin (ed.). Julius Africanus und die christliche Weltchronistik (in German). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-019105-9.
- Munro-Hay, Stuart (1991). Aksum: An African Civilization of Late Antiquity. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
- Páez, Pedro (2008). Isabel Boavida; Hervé Pennec; Manuel João Ramos (eds.). História da Etiópia (in Portuguese). Assirio & Alvim.
- Salt, Henry (1814). A Voyage to Abyssinia. London: W. Bulmer and Co.
- Selassie, Sergew Hable (1972a). Ancient and Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270. Addis Ababa.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Selassie, Sergew Hable (1972b). "The Problem of Gudit". Journal of Ethiopian Studies. 10 (1): 113–124. ISSN 0304-2243. JSTOR 41965849.
- Truhart, Peter (1984). Regents of Nations (Part 1). Munich: K. G. Saur. ISBN 3-598-10492-8.