War of the Jülich Succession

War of the Jülich Succession
Part of European wars of religion and the Eighty Years' War
The Siege of Aachen by the Spanish Army of Flanders under Ambrogio Spinola in 1614. Oil on canvas. Attributed to Peter Snayers.
Date 10 June 1609 – 24 October 1610 May 1614 – 13 October 1614 Location United Duchies of Jülich-Cleves-Berg Result Treaty of Xanten
Belligerents
1609–1610: Holy Roman Empire Principality of Strasbourg Prince-Bishopric of Liège Catholic League	1609–1610: Margraviate of Brandenburg Palatinate-Neuburg United Provinces Kingdom of France Protestant Union
1614: Spanish Empire Palatinate-Neuburg	1614: Margraviate of Brandenburg Free Imperial City of Aachen United Provinces
Commanders and leaders
1609–1610: Archduke Leopold V 1614: Ambrogio Spinola Wolfgang Wilhelm, Count Palatine of Neuburg	1609–1610: Wolfgang Wilhelm von Pfalz-Neuburg Joachim Ernst, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach Claude de La Châtre, Baron de la Maisonfort Maurice of Nassau Otto von Solms–Braunfels 1614: George William, Elector of Brandenburg Maurice of Nassau

The War of the Jülich Succession was a war of succession in the United Duchies of Jülich-Cleves-Berg. It lasted between 10 June 1609 and 24 October 1610, resumed in May 1614 and finally ended on 13 October 1614. The first round of the conflict pitted Catholic Archduke Leopold V against the combined forces of the Protestant Johann Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg and Wolfgang Wilhelm, Count Palatine of Neuburg, ending in the former's military defeat. The representatives of Brandenburg and Neuburg later entered into a direct conflict after their religious conversion to Calvinism and Catholicism respectively. The conflict was further complicated by the involvement of Spain and the Netherlands making it part of the Eighty Years' War, as well as the European wars of religion. It was finally settled by the Treaty of Xanten, whose provisions favoured Spain.

Background

John William, Duke of Jülich-Cleves-Berg, portrayed in 1605, was already marked by his serious mental illness.

By the early 17th century, the rapid spread of the Lutheran and Calvinist doctrines after the Protestant Reformation was met by a period of Roman Catholic resurgence, known as the Counter-Reformation. Such interdenominational conflicts such as the Cologne War and the Strasbourg Bishops' War prompted creation of the Catholic League and the Protestant Union, with the intention of safeguarding the interests of the Holy Roman Empire's Catholic and Protestant nobility, respectively. The aforementioned alliances entered their first conflict in 1609, when a succession crisis in the United Duchies of Jülich-Cleves-Berg sparked the War of the Jülich Succession. The territories in question covered an area of 14,000 km² and had both geopolitical importance from their proximity to the Spanish Road and a booming economy, which was fueled by refugees fleeing the lands that were being ravaged by the Eighty Years' War. The immediate cause of war was the death of John William, Duke of Jülich-Cleves-Berg on 25 March 1609, who was affected by serious mental illness, and left no heirs to succeed him.

Part of the succession dispute came from laws that had been established by William the Rich, Duke of Julich-Cleves-Berg. William had established two major laws, the Privilegium Unionis and Priviligium Successionis, the privileges of Union and Succession respectively. The Privilegium Unionis had declared that the Duchies of Julich, Cleves, and Berg, which had recently been united in 1521, would continue to be inherited as one, rather than be divided. The Priviligium Successionis declared that in the case of the extinction of the male line (which is what happened when John William died), the duchies would pass to a female line. However, the nature of this female succession was not clear, in that it was not obvious whether or not the duchies should pass through the eldest female, the eldest living female, or the eldest male descendent of a female.

Emperor Rudolf II had claims to the duchies stemming from intermarriage. However, he was unable to declare his intentions openly without compromising his perceived neutrality. A total of six other claimants appeared, with rulers of the Margraviate of Brandenburg and Duchy of Palatinate-Neuburg having the only credible claims through their relationship to John William's sisters. However, the nature of the claims were different. Johann Sigismund of Brandenburg claimed the duchies through his wife, a granddaughter of William the Rich, and the most senior female descendent of William the Rich. However, Wolfgang Wilhelm, Count Palatine of Neuburg, held a claim through his mother, a direct daughter of William, hence he was the most senior male descendent.

Family tree of the dukes of Julich-Cleves-Berg. The main claimants are highlighted in red.

The most direct challenge to the claims of the Hohenzollern (Brandenburg) and Wittelsbach (Neuburg) claims was the Electorate of Saxony. The Saxons had gained the rights to inherit Julich and Berg in the late 1400s via imperial privilege. In addition to this, the Saxons also had engaged in royal marriage with Julich-Cleves-Berg on occasion. However, the Saxon claims were not necessarily as strong as the claims of Brandenburg and Neuburg, as the aforementioned Privilegium Unionis and Priviligium Successionis seemingly contradicted them. Nonetheless, Saxony was one of the most powerful states in the Empire and held the favor of the Emperor.

Road to War

Neuburg was a relatively young state, established during the War of the Landshut Succession, and it was also not very wealthy. In its short existence, the state had benefited greatly from Imperial privileges. By the 17th century, the Duchy had managed to recover from economic hardships, but it was still small and weak, surrounded by stronger powers like Bavaria and the Rhenish Palatinate. Thus, acquiring the Julich succession was a major goal of Neuburg. Not only would it provide more land for Neuburg, but the territories in question were rich and could help the economy of Neuburg as well. As Neuburg had relied on the Emperor in the past, despite their Lutheran religious status, Wolfgang Wilhelm had personally travelled to Prague to gain Imperial support. Neuburg also attempted to contact France and England. However, all of this failed.

The Calvinist Electorate of Brandenburg was also interested in the Julich territories, but unlike Neuburg would not be able to count on Imperial support. Brandenburg had challenged the Emperor recently during the Strasbourg affair, so tensions between the two parties were still high. Brandenburg's acquisition of Prussia, outside of the authority of the Emperor, meant that Brandenburg was willing to contest the Julich succession even without Imperial support. Brandenburg quickly sought allies, particularly amongst major protestant powers both foreign and in the Empire. Though they had failed to acquire support from Denmark-Norway, negotiations with the Dutch Republic had been successful. Emboldened by these alliances, Brandenburg was unwilling to accept a compromise deal from Neuburg, instead claiming the entirety of the duchies for themselves.

Despite the matter being a contest for a relatively small amount of land, the succession quickly grew to be an international issue. The Dutch Republic, fiercely anti-Habsburg, did not a pro-Habsburg figure to inherit the duchies. Hence, the Dutch had been eager to form an alliance with the likeminded Electorate of Brandenburg, who was also anti-Habsburg. France also had interests in the region. Henry IV of France, like the Dutch, was opposed to a pro-Habsburg ruler in the Julich-Cleves-Berg. Despite being a Catholic, Henry IV wanted to ensure that a protestant would inherit the duchies, but he didn't necessarily care who. As such, he contacted Landgrave Maurice of Hesse-Kassel, explaining that a united protestant cause was required to keep the Habsburgs away. A large number of Protestant princes would also support this sentiment. Frederick IV, Elector Palatine and head of the Protestant Union, wished for a peaceful settlement. Johann of Nassau-Siegen shared the same sentiment and told Maurice as such. Henry IV of France also tried to garner support from other Protestant princes, namely Wurttemberg.

Maurice agreed, but despite his efforts, it was impossible to have Brandenburg and Neuburg agree on a settlement, as both parties believed their claim was best. When the ailing John William finally died, both Neuburg and Brandenburg rushed to claim the duchies. However, the privy council that had governed Julich-Cleves-Berg through John William's madness refused to accept either of them, and continued to rule on their own by establishing a regency council, which included the late duke's wife, Antonia of Lorraine and an imperial commissioner sent by Emperor Rudolf II. On 24 May, Rudolf II, who had the authority to dictate a final settlement, announced that the Aulic Council was to provide a definite verdict within four weeks.

Joachim Ernst, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach, and a member of House Hohenzollern. He would be a leading figure in Brandenburg's attempts to acquire the duchies of Julich-Cleves-Berg, and served as Johann Sigismund's representative in the duchies.

Brandenburg and Neuburg, who viewed the regency as a direct attempt at undermining their claims, finally agreed to a provisional settlement, with mediation from Maurice of Hesse-Kassel. When Joachim Ernst, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach and representative of Johann Sigismund passed by Kassel on his way to Julich, Maurice convinced him to negotiate with the Neuburg party. On 10 June 1609, they signed the Treaty of Dortmund (1609) and rejected all other claimants, establishing a provisional government together with the local estates. Wolfgang Wilhelm and Joachim Ernst entered the duchy in defiance to the acting regency and the Emperor, along with their troops. Though initially hesitant and urged by Imperial agents to wait for a decision from Emperor Rudolf, by 22 July, most of the estates had sworn fealty to their new rulers. This move was very controversial amongst neighboring powers. Archduke Albert VII, Governor of the Spanish Netherlands, did not view the Treaty of Dortmund with favor, as he was a supporter of the Emperor. King Henry of France on the other hand was very pleased with the settlement, as the protestants had joined forces to prevent a pro-Habsburg seizure of the duchies, just like he had hoped.

Emperor Rudolf hurriedly intervened while the Protestant claimants of Neuburg and Brandenburg (aka as possessionary princes) had still not fully secured the duchies. He demanded the annulment of the Dortmund agreement and sent another Imperial Commissioner, Archduke Leopold V to take charge. Johann von Rauschenberg, the administrator of the city of Julich, had not yet sworn fealty to Neuburg or Brandenburg, and held the fortress city in the name of the Emperor. On 23 July, the city was then transferred to Archduke Leopold. The Habsburg’s seemingly militant intervention was not appreciated by France, the Dutch Republic, or the Protestant claimants, and war was inevitable.

Archduke Leopold V of Further Austria, Bishop of Passau and Strasbourg

First Phase (1609-1610)

French Intervention

Two days after Archduke Leopold seized Julich, a French diplomat told the Archduke that "my King will also become involved." Word reached Paris on 29 July, and Henry IV called his chief advisors (Villeroy, Sully, Sillery, and Jeannin) for advise on what to do. Though Henry had already promised to support the Protestant cause, not all of Henry's advisors were for the war. Villeroy and Sillery both distrusted the German princes and advised Henry to wait until the Protestants formally asked for aid. Villeroy believed that "all that [Henry IV] can gain from this [war] is the glory of having protected a just cause; counterbalanced with that are the perils, expenses and fatigues of a long war. After a long peace... this glory would be dearly bought."

King Henry IV of France was a leading supporter of the Protestant Princes in the first phase of the Julich War

It was Sully that was the most supportive of war. He believed that not helping the Protestants would harm France's international reputation, and that letting the Habsburgs dominate in Julich would worsen the Dutch Republic's position (a major French ally at this time). As Minister of Finance, Sully had improved the French economy, so France seemed ready for war. By the evening of 29 July, the King had made up his mind: he would fight on the side of the Protestant princes, but he wanted to know exactly what the Protestant plan was before he would specify the details of his aid. This was a successful compromise between the ideas of Sully and the ideas of Villeroy and Sillery. In the meantime, Henry called for the raising of levies in northeastern France and worked to move French regiments in the Netherlands to the borders Julich.

Though it was clear that Henry's motivations included containing the Habsburgs, Henry also explained that he was preserving his honor, and that it would be dishonorable to not support the princes who he had pledged support for before. In the 17th century, prestige and reputation were both very important. Henry had faced criticism, particularly from the Papacy. Since Henry was Catholic, it was alarming that he was aiding Protestant princes. Henry's response was that he was simply supporting his allies and keeping the peace, and warned the Papacy to stay out of the succession crisis.

Internal Division in the Protestant Camp

Despite France's desire to help the Protestants, neither the Neuburg nor Brandenburg cooperated to the extent that Henry wanted. It seemed that the Protestant princes had put more effort into contacting the Dutch Republic over France. Henry was not happy when he received news of this in mid-August, and his enthusiasm towards protecting the Protestant princes dwindled to the point where he threatened to withdraw all promised aid. As a result of this divisiveness between France and the Protestants, Sir George Carew, an English statesman, believed that France was bluffing and not really going to send aid. Many German Protestants were pessimistic of the affair. Wurttemberg diplomat Benjamin von Buwinckhausen, through his correspondence with Villeroy, conveyed his thoughts that even though the Protestant Union would likely unite against the Habsburgs, it would not be enough and that they needed France's help. He was also concerned about Neuburg's loyalty to the Protestant cause (as it still tried to maintain relations with the Emperor).

When Jacques Bongars (who had up to this point been one of Henry IV's most important ambassadors to the Imperial princes) visited Brandenburg, he was met with coldness from the court, which was hesitant of French aid. Brandenburg's councilors believed that France would want something in return.

There were valid reasons for the Protestant princes to distrust France. Feelings between Henry IV and the German Protestants had been sour ever since the French king converted to Catholicism in 1593. In addition to this, the French also owed the Germans money which had not been paid back. There were also rumors that the Henry IV wanted the Imperial throne. Johann Frederick, Duke of Wurttemberg, had previously cautioned the Protestant Union about the risks of allying with outside powers. Johann Frederick supported his claim by stating that:

• Henry IV had recently converted to Catholicism
• Previous alliances between France and German Princes had generally ended in France's favor
• Henry was growing old and it was possible that he was seeking future allies to secure his son's (the future Louis XIII) succession. An alliance with France could potentially bring the Protestant Union into a French Civil War
• France would break the balance of power within the Protestant Union and would carry to much weight in the Union's decision making

Wolfgang Wilhelm, Count Palatine of Neuburg

Wolfgang Wilhelm and Ernst also failed to cooperate, even after the signing of the Dortmund Treaty. One issue was that the two had vastly different perspectives on the succession, and they were still technically rivals for the duchies. Both Wolfgang Wilhelm and Ernst had tried to rule the duchies in their own way, according to envoys from Wurttemberg and Baden. With Leopold's occupation of Julich, the differences between the Brandenburg and Neuburg parties became even more evident. Ernst's initial perspective was to militarily confront Archduke. Wolfgang Wilhelm on the other hand was scared of offending the Emperor, so he wished for a more peaceful resolution. Wolfgang Wilhelm was also concerned with Brandenburg's growing power. Phillip Ludwig, Wolfgang Wilhelm's father, wanted Wolfgang to negotiate with the emperor, as Phillip Ludwig wanted to retain his pro-Habsburg policies.

Also threatening to the unity of the Protestant princes was the Saxon claim. The Saxon claim to Julich threatened the long-standing alliance between Hesse, Brandenburg, and Saxony, and also threatened to tear the Protestant alliance apart. Landgrave Maurice of Hesse-Kassel tried to look for compromises with the Saxon claim, but Saxony refused to do anything without Imperial consent.

Mobilization of the Protestant Union

Elector Palatine Frederick IV, Johann Frederick of Wurttemberg, and George Frederick of Baden met at a hunting excursion in Friedrichsbuhel, and proceeded to discuss the Julich crisis. They agreed to provide funds to the Protestant claimants, and fully support the possessionary princes. There were several reasons for doing so. First, the duchies of Julich-Cleves-Berg lay along the Rhine, and allowing it to fall to the Spanish or some other Habsburg sympathizer could be politically and economically crippling for the Protestant princes. In addition, there was the need to maintain the reputation of the Protestant Union. If the Union did not help fellow Protestants, its prestige could be permanently marred.

In September, the possessionary princes petitioned the Protestant Union for aid, and on October 17, they sent a letter to Elector Frederick IV, leader of the Protestant Union. The Protestant claimants requested money, soldiers, arms, and munitions from the Union. The Protestant Union also had to decide on a commander to lead the Protestant army. Both Ernst and Wolfgang Wilhelm would not accept each others command, a neutral figure had to be chosen. Two candidates when Johann of Nassau-Siegen and Christian of Anhalt. It was eventually decided that Christian of Anhalt would lead the Protestant cause. He arrived in the duchies on November 20, and began inspecting the Protestant Armies. Using the levies that the possessionary princes had raised, Christian began to form a blockade on Julich, and captured several neighboring towns. By the end of November, most of the Protestant Union had agreed to provide aid to the possessionary princes, and during a wedding in Stuttgart, most of the princes present declared their support for the possessionary princes, the name of the Protestant Union. Now, the efforts of the Protestant princes was securing the aid of foreign powers.

France, England, and the Netherlands

Because France had been so verbal about supporting the Protestants before, there was plenty of diplomatic activity in France during the fall of 1609, and the winter of 1609. Discouraged by the indecisiveness among the possessionary princes, Henry IV lost his enthusiasm for supporting the Protestant cause. In September, a Dutch ambassador said that Henry was considering withdrawing his soldiers from the border, and in October, Villeroy stated that he had no idea what Henry meant to do. In addition, the Protestant princes had only asked France for money, which seemed like a rebuff of the troops that Henry had mobilized for their cause.

Henry did receive envoys from both the Catholic and Protestant sides. Phillip of Solms led the Protestant delegation, and Johann George of Hohenzollern led the Catholic delegation. It had appeared at times that Henry actually listened to Hohenzollern, likely due to his annoyance with the Protestant princes. However, by the end of October, Henry still supported the Protestant cause, and declared his support for the Brandenburg and Neuburg claims if they would come up with decisive action. However, he still did not outline the details of his support, still waiting for the Protestants to provide a solid plan.

The Dutch Republic on the other hand was still neutral, despite the war seemingly of major interest to the Dutch since Julich-Cleves-Berg was very close to the Dutch Republic. The States-General had agreed to a twelve year truce with Spain. After 40 years of constant war, the Dutch needed a break, and thus, there was little interest from the Dutch side in joining the Julich affair. In 1605, the Dutch had actually signed a treaty with Brandenburg., promising to send military aid in respect to the Julich succession, but Brandenburg had not honored all the terms in the agreement, the Dutch did not send any military aid when Johann William died in March 1609. In general, the States-General preferred a peaceful resolution.

Nonetheless, Henry wanted Dutch support in the war, and asked both the Dutch and the English to provide aid. Hence, the Dutch were in a difficult situation. They did not want to support the Protestants and ruin their truce with Spain, but they also didn't want to abandon France, who had been a staunch ally in the 80 Years War thus far. Though hesitant, eventually the Dutch agreed to join Henry in the case of war.

King James I of England was much more willing to provide aid. At first, James did not seem very interested in the affair, and all the English court knew of the crisis was reports from French and Spanish diplomats. This would chance as the year of 1609 progressed. By August, James had offered to help mediate the succession, and he was pleased that the princes had settled the succession peacefully thus far. However, like with Henry, England did not offer precise military nor economic support until the Protestant princes came up with a course of action.

The entry of Christian of Anhalt changed things. Like Henry, Christian was anti-Habsburg, and he arrived in Paris on December 17. He directly told French king his plans, detailing the size Protestant army, which numbered 8000 infantry and 2000 horse (half of this number were from Wolfgang's and Ernst's levies, whereas the other half came from the Protestant Union). In 3 days, Henry responded, generously offering the same amount of soldiers as the Protestants had raised. Henry also agreed to send an ambassador to the next meeting of the Protestant Union at Schwäbisch Hall, scheduled for January 10. On January 25, Christian left Paris, pleased with the outcome of the negotiations.

Conflict of 1610

In January 1610, Henry IV of France signed a draft military pact with the Protestant Union and dispatched 22,000 men under Marshal de La Chatre to north–eastern France. Soon, but Julich found itself besieged by an army three times his size, as fighting spread to Aachen and Düren. The struggle between the Catholic and Protestant princes brought fears of a larger religious war. The Protestant Union mobilized 5,000 men, and Leopold recruited 1,000 cavalry and 3,000 infantry in the Prince-Bishopric of Strasbourg. His Habsburg relatives and the rest of the Catholic League refused to support Leopold openly and gathered troops only for their own protection. On 13 March 1610, Protestant Count Otto von Solms–Braunfels invaded Strasbourg with 2,000 troops. The Catholics simply retreated into walled towns such as Saverne and waited until the ill–disciplined invaders ran out of money and retreated. A meeting was set in Prague on 1 May 1610 to broker a settlement. Rudolf's initial decision to enfeoff the entire duchy to Christian II, Elector of Saxony, was rejected by a number of moderate princes, which led to the postponement of negotiations until August.

A second Protestant invasion, this time consisting of 9,800 troops and artillery, succeeded in seizing Dachstein, Mutzig and Molsheim, but it too was brought to halt after the local population had refused to supply it food. In the meantime, Leopold had fled Jülich and left 1,500 troops inside. Their fate was sealed as the Kingdom of France and the Dutch Republic finally intervened in support of the Protestants and aimed to antagonize Spain by putting further pressure on the Spanish Road. The Dutch intercepted a relief party heading from the Prince-Bishopric of Liège and bolstered the besiegers into a combined total of 25,200 troops. On 1 September, the garrison surrendered in return for free passage into Upper Alsace. On 24 October, the Protestant Union and the Catholic League agreed to withdraw their forces and to disband them until the end of the year. The war severely depleted the coffers of all the involved parties, leading to increased taxes, which in turn triggered the Rappenkrieg. Wolfgang Wilhelm and Joachim Ernst, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach (relative of Johann Sigismund) took over the duchy by military might without having been able to secure official recognition.

In 1611, Protestantism spread to the villages of Stolberg and Weiden, in the vicinity of Aachen. In response, the city council of Aachen imposed a fine on those inhabitants who attended Protestant services. Five citizens were detained for ignoring the town's decree and were banished as they refused to pay the fine. That caused a riot against the council on 5 July. The Catholic councilors were expelled, and many Catholic buildings were sacked. The rebels assaulted the church and the College of the Jesuits, smashed the altars and images and held a mock mass by being dressed in confiscated priestly garments. A new Protestant council was established and appealed for support to the Possessors. In 1612, Rudolf ordered the Possessors to reinstate Catholicism in the city of Aachen under the menace of a ban. The city's Protestants, however, ignored the command and seriously wounded an Imperial commissary sent to implement the Emperor's edict.

Second Phase (1614)

Upon Rudolf's death, Emperor Matthias confirmed Saxony's rights to the fief, which rekindled the dispute. Furthermore, the conversions of Ernst and Wolfgang Wilhelm to Calvinism and Catholicism respectively completely restructured their past alliances. Brandenburg and Neuburg officials ceased communicating with each other by early 1614. In May 1614, 300 Dutch troops ejected the Neuburg garrison from Jülich, in an attempt by the Dutch statesman Johan van Oldenbarnevelt to prevent a Brandenburg plot against the former. Wolfgang Wilhelm interpreted it as a declaration of war, raised 900 troops and took Düsseldorf. The new Brandenburg possessor, George William, was indeed plotting a coup, but his financial dependence on the Dutch prevented him from fulfilling his plans. Another misunderstanding took place when Spain and Albert VII, Archduke of Austria, interpreted the Dutch military buildup as a violation of the Twelve Years' Truce and mobilised 13,300 infantry and 1,300 cavalry under Spanish General Ambrogio Spinola.

On 20 February 1614, Emperor Matthias ordered the restoration of the Catholic rule in Aachen. Fearing an attack, the city council requested the aid of the Elector of Brandenburg, who sent several hundred soldiers under General Georg von Pulitz to reinforce the local militia. On 24 August, Spinola besieged Aachen under the premise of imposing a two-year-old imperial edict issued by Rudolf. After several days of negotiations, the garrison was allowed to leave, together with Protestant clerics and noncitizens. The old city council was reinstated, and the participants of the 1611 riots were punished. From Aachen, Spinola pressed on towards Düren, Neuss, Wesel and Mülheim, which he captured with Wolfgang Wilhelm's help. The Dutch occupied the Duchy of Mark and the rest of Cleves and also reinforced Jülich.

Aftermath

On 13 October 1614, Spinola and Maurice of Nassau initiated peace negotiations under French and English mediation. The conflict ended with the signing of the Treaty of Xanten on 12 November. The territories of Jülich-Berg and Ravenstein went to Wolfgang Wilhelm of Neuburg, and Cleves-Mark and Ravensberg went to George William. Spain gained a total of 62 towns including three crossings of the Rhine (Wesel, Orsoy and Rheinberg), which significantly enhanced its position in North–western Europe. The Dutch retained their garrisons at Jülich and Pfaffenmütze but were now outflanked or even isolated, which put them in an unfavorable position when the Twelve Years' Truce expired in April 1621.

See also

• War of the Mantuan Succession
• Siege of Jülich (1621–22)

References

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