Democratic Republic of Afghanistan

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For the earlier Afghani Republic, see Republic of Afghanistan (1973–1978).
جمهوری افغانستان
Democratic Republic of Afghanistan
←
1978 - 1992 →
Flag Coat of arms
Flag Coat of arms
Location of Afghanistan
Capital Kabul
Language(s) Pashto
Religion State atheism
Government Socialist Republic,
Single-party communist state
Historical era Cold War
 - Established 1978
 - Disestablished 1992
Currency Afghani

The Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (Persian: جمهوری افغانستان) before the national reconciliation talks in 1987 the official name of the country was the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan. The republic was a self-declared socialist state (but often referred to in the West as a "communist state") established by the Afghan communist party, People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) by then leader Nur Muhammad Taraki in 1978 in the Saur Revolution. From the start the republic ran into conflict with the local mujahideens which started what is known as the Afghan civil war. In 1979 the Soviet Union entered the country to help the communist government, they left however in 1989 after staying in the country for nine years.[1]

After the Soviet withdrawal, Afghanistan continued to deal with attacks from the Mujahideen. They received funding and arms from the Soviet Union until 1991 when the Soviet Union collapsed. For several years, the government army had actually increased their effectiveness past levels ever achieved during the Soviet military presence, but the government was dealt a major blow when Abdul Rashid Dostum, a leading general, switched allegiances to the Mujahideen in 1992, and together they captured the city of Kabul. Much of the republic and the PDPA's work in Afghanistan from 1978-1992 has been forgotten over the years by the international community and the Afghan people, due to Mujahideen and Taliban forces who destroyed much of the infrastructure established during the fourteen years of communist rule. Under the DRA, the Afghan economy, health care system, educational system and law enforcement system, among other elements, entered a peak.[2]

Contents

[edit] History

Main article: History of Afghanistan (1978-1992)

[edit] The Saur Revolution

Main articles: People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan and Saur Revolution
One day after Saur revolution in the capital city Kabul
History of Afghanistan
Emblem of Afghanistan
This article is part of a series
Timeline
Pre-Islamic Period
Islamic Conquest
Hotaki dynasty
Durrani dynasty
British and Russian influence
Independence and civil war
Reigns of Nadir Shah and Zahir Shah
Republic of Afghanistan
Communist rule
Afghanistan since 1992
Afghan Civil War
1979–1989
1989–1992
1992–1996
1996–2001
2001–present
Afghanistan Portal
 v • d • e 

The emperor of Afghanistan, Shah Mohammed Zahir Shah, was overthrown in 1973 by his cousin Mohammed Daoud Khan who established the Daoud Republic of Afghanistan. The Daoud Republic only lasted for 4 years because of shaking government control in the country. Khan was able to take a military coup thanks to the underground party communist party People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA). After the coup Khan felt he didn't need the party to consolidate power any longer and ordered a crack down on the party. Because of this the PDPA seized power in a military coup in 1978 which is best known as the Saur Revolution and established the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (1978-87).[3]

[edit] Reforms and oppression

After seizing the control of the country the beginning of new reforms started, such as abolishing the state religion, declaring a secular state and granting women the same rights as men. This met with much criticism from the Afghan population, and led to rebellion by religious fanatics in the country. This would eventually lead to the Afghan civil war and the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan.[4]

Once in power, the party implemented a socialist political agenda. The government promoted state atheism.[5] Men were obliged to cut of their beards, women were not allowed to wear the burqa any longer, and most of the mosques were placed off limits at the start of the regime. The mosques reopend in the 80s, because the party and the government tried to win more supporters. The government carried out a new land reform, poor farmers' debts countrywide and abolishing usury - intended to help the poor farmers from their debt peonage.[6]

The new communist government of Afghanistan moved to prohibit traditional practices which were deemed feudal by the Government. They banned bride price and forced marriage among others and the minimum age for marriage was raised. The government stressed to marketing education in the country. Education was stressed for both men and women and the government set up programmes to increase literacy in the country.[7]

These new reforms were not well-received by the majority of the Afghan population (particularly in rural areas). As many saw it was un-Islamic and was seen as a forced approach to western culture in Afghan society. The same problem had happened earlier in Afghan history had happened earlier in 19 and 20-century. Because of this much resentment with the government's new "western like" approach of things. This started a long widespread repression in the country and provoked the tribal and religious leaders.[7] The urban population in Afghanistan supported the modernization of the community and country but was against the Soviet occupation of the country.[8]

The Soviet Union was at the start reluctant to invade or give send troops to Afghanistan. The Soviet government at the start of the revolution didn't know enough about the situation in Afghanistan, so their analysis of the situation was done through the Marxist-Leninist doctrine. At the start the Soviet government never gave much attention to the traditional tribal issues in Afghanistan. Because they felt that the tribes would easily fall for the new communist ideas in the country. Soviet party ideologues Mikhail Suslov and Boris Ponomarev called Afghanistan a "second Mongolia." This led to various attempts to impose new social and economic reforms on Afghan society. This would eventually lead to forced land reforms in Afghanistan.[9]

The Soviet Union didn't know much about Islams influential role of in Afghanistan, because there were very few experts on Islam or any other religion for that matter in the Soviet Union and their academic institutions. Because of this the leadership of the Soviet government was poorly informed about the strength of Islam in the Afghan population. When the Soviet armed forces invaded Afghanistan in 1979 the political and military leaders were surprised to find out that they were seen as "Afghanis foreign invaders" and "infidels" by the majority of the Afghan population. Later reports from the Soviet officials there showed growing awareness of the religious factor in the country.[9]

[edit] Soviet war in Afghanistan

Main article: Soviet war in Afghanistan
A Soviet Spetsnaz (special operations) group prepares for a mission in Afghanistan, 1988.

The Soviet Union decided to intervene militarily in Afghanistan in order to preserve the communist regime there. Based on information from the KGB, Soviet leaders felt that president Hafizullah Amin destabilized the situation in Afghanistan after the coup against former President Nur Muhammad Taraki, the KGB station in Kabul warned that his leadership would lead to "harsh repressions, and as a result, the activation and consolidation of the opposition."[10]

US-map of the Soviet invasion.

The Soviet Union established a special commission on Afghanistan, of KGB chairman Yuri Andropov, Ponomaryev from the Central Committee and Dimitry Ustinov, the Minister of Defense. In late April 1978, they reported that Amin was purging his opponents, including Soviet loyalists; Amin's loyalty to Moscow was in question; and that he was seeking diplomatic links with Pakistan and possibly the commmunist state People's Republic of China. Specific concern were Amin's secret meetings with the US chargé d'affaires J. Bruce Amstutz, which, while never amounting to any agreement between Amin and the United States, sowed suspicion in the Kremlin.[11]

Information obtained by the KGB from its agents in Kabul provided the last arguments to eliminate Amin; supposedly, two of Amin's guards killed the former president Taraki with a pillow, and Amin was suspected to be a CIA agent. The latter, however, is still disputed: Amin repeatedly demonstrated official friendliness to the Soviet Union. Soviet General Vasily Zaplatin, a political advisor at that time, claimed that four of President Taraki's ministers were responsible for the destabilization. However, Zaplatin failed to emphasize this enough.[12]

By the mid-1980s, the Afghan resistance movement, assisted by the United States, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom, PRC and others, contributed to Moscow's high military costs and strained international relations. The US viewed the conflict in Afghanistan as an integral Cold War struggle, and the CIA provided assistance to anti-Soviet forces through the Pakistani intelligence services, in a program called Operation Cyclone.[13][14] By the mid 1980s the Sovet army had abandoned 12 out of 30 provinces in Afghanistan because of the heavy fighting in those areas.[15]

[edit] Soviet withdrawal

Main article: Soviet troop withdrawal from Afghanistan

The Soviet government realized early on that a military solution to the conflict could not work. Because of this they had discussions about troop withdrawal and the search for a political peaceful solution as early as 1980. But they never took any serious steps in that direction until 1988. Early Soviet military reports confirms the difficulties the Soviet army had while fighting on the mountainous terrain, for which the Soviet Army had no training whatsoever. Parallels between the Vietnam War were frequently referred to by Soviet army officers.[9]

Soviet soldier in Afghanistan, 1988

Before the Soviets withdrew, they signed the Geneva Accords which was a formal agreement between the Soviet Union and its allies and Afghanistan and their allies. The agreement was signed on 14 April, 1988 between Pakistan and Afghanistan with the United States and the Soviet Union serving as guarantors.[16]

Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan

The accords consisted of several instruments: a bilateral agreement between the Republic of Afghanistan and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan on the principles of mutual relations, in particular on non-interference and non-intervention; a declaration on international guarantees, signed by the Soviet Union and the United States; a bilateral agreement between Afghanistan and Pakistan on the voluntary return of Afghan refugees; and an agreement on the interrelationships for the settlement of the situation relating to Afghanistan, signed by Afghanistan and Pakistan and witnessed by the Soviet Union and the United States. They also came to agreement about the Soviet Unions withdrawal, it started on 15 May, 1988 and ended on 15 February, 1989, officially ending the Soviet war in Afghanistan.[16]

The whole time during the Soviet withdrawal over the border troop convoys were coming under attack by Afghan fighters. In all 523 Soviet soldiers were killed during the withdrawal. The total withdrawal of all Soviet troops from Afghanistan was completed in February, 1989.[17] The last Soviet soldier to leave was Lieutenant General Boris Gromov leader of the Soviet military operations in Afghanistan at the time of the Soviet invasion.[18]

[edit] Civil war and collapse— 1989—1992

Main articles: Civil war in Afghanistan (1989-1992) and Sieges of Kabul

Western and Soviet politicans and diplomats speculated that the communist government would collapse the same year as the Soviet withdrawal took place. They expected the Mujadeens would attempt a quick victory, starting in the vulnerable eastern city of Jalalabad, to break the government and its supporters morale. Following the speculated win of the Mujadeens in Jalalabad they would start a slow and painful siege to the capital city Kabul.[19]

Many western and Soviet officials disagreed with these speculations. They believed that the government forces led by Mohammad Najibullah would last much longer due to the arsenals of Soviet-supplied equipment. They also speculated the armies fear for the rebels reprisals if they lose the war. The communist government continued to be supplied by the Soviet government until its fall in 1991.[19]

After the Soviet withdrawal, the Republic continued to deal with attacks from the Mujahideen.[20] For several years the government army had actually increased their effectiveness past levels ever achieved during the Soviet military presence. But the government was dealt a major blow when Abdul Rashid Dostum, a leading general, switched allegiances to the Mujahideen in 1992 and together they captured the city of Kabul.[3][21] In 1996 Najibullah was beaten and eventually killed by Taliban forces,[22] Najibullah tried to escape with help from the government forces. But couldn't because of distrust within the government.[23]

[edit] Pakistan and US involvement in the civil war

Main articles: Badaber Uprising and Operation Cyclone

The Badaber Uprising was an armed uprising by the Soviet and Afgham military force captives at Badaber, Pakistan which startet April 26 and ended the 27, 1985, against much larger military units led by the Pakistan's regular army accompanied by Afghan mujahideen. The attempt of the captives to liberate themselves failed. As a result of the two-day assault of the fortress -jail Badaber by the guards with accompanying artillery shelling, all the captives were killed.[24]

Award presentation ceremony of the 9th Company men.

During the Soviet war in Afghanistan, the Special Service Group (SSG) deployed there, disguised as Afghans and provided support to the Mujahideen fighting the Soviets. Author Aukai Collins, in the book 'My Jihad,' gave the Pakistani infiltrators the title 'Black Storks.'[25]. They appear to have engaged the Soviet Airborne Forces in major battles such as the January 1988 Battle for Hill 3234 in which the Russians lost six men. Another battle sometimes reported as having been fought between the Pakistanis and Soviet troops, in Kunar Province in March 1986, appears to have actually been fought between the GRU Spetsnaz's 15th Spetsnaz Brigade, and the Asama Bin Zaid regiment of Afghan mujahideen under Commander Assadullah, belonging to Abdul Rasul Sayyaf's faction.[24]

The United States saw the situation as a prime opportunity to weaken the Soviet Union, and the move essentially signaled the end of the détente era initiated by former Secretary of State Henry Kissinger. Funding for the anti-communist Mujahideen forces began prior to the Soviet invasion, under the Carter administration, with the intention of provoking Soviet intervention (according to Zbigniew Brzezinski) and was significantly boosted under the Reagan administration, which was committed to actively rolling back Soviet influence in the Third World.[26] Funding to arm the Afghan resistance began with $20–30 million per year in 1980 and rose to $630 million per year in 1987.[27]

[edit] Economy

Main article: Economy of Afghanistan

The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and the ensuing civil war destroyed much of the country's limited infrastructure and disrupted normal patterns of economic activity, and eventually Afghanistan went from a traditional economy to a centrally planned economy up until 2001 when it was replaced by a free market economy. Gross domestic product has fallen substantially since the 1980s due to disruption of trade and transport as well as loss of labor and capital. Continuing internal strife severely hampered domestic efforts to rebuild the nation or provide ways for the international community to help.[28]

The Gross National Product (GNP) according to the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan was Afghan Afghani (AFN) 154.3 billion in 1981 which was a drop, since in 1978 the GPD was AFN 159.7 billion. ANF fell from AFN 7,370 in 1978 to AFN 6,852 in 1982, based on estimated population of 15 million in GNP per capita.[29]

The most dominant economic activity in the republic was Agriculture. It provided more than 63% of the total domestic product (GPD) in 1981.Over 50% of the labor force in Afghanistan worked with agriculture. Their biggest agriculture exports were wheat, corn, rice, fruits, nuts, and vegetables. The Afghan industry contributed to 21% of the total GDP in 1982 and employed more then 10% of the labor force in the country. As in alle communist countries, the industry was government-owned. The main export was natural gas, textiles, and food processing.[29]

In total their export was about USD 707.7 million in 1982, dobbeling the 1978 figure. Their biggest exports were as following: natural gas, dried fruits, carpets and rugs, and karakul sheep skins. The countries import was about USD 695 million in 1982, 50% higher than it was in 1978. The biggest import were as following: machinery, manufactured goods, and refined petroleum products. There were also imported much food, both commercial and aidfinanced.[29]

During the Soviet occupation, the Soviets helped the Afghan government to extract resources such as natural gas, coal, iron ore, copper and gemstones. Natural gas fields were scattered all around the country and still is today. Most of the resources were shipped up to the Soviet Union as debts they owed them. The gass pipeline went through the Amu Daraya into the Soviet Union. After the Soviet troop withdrawal in 1989 most extractions from Afghanistan plunged in a historic low since the Soviet occupation because of the Afghan civil war. By the mid-1990s there was little mineral or oil and gas extraction in the country.[30] In the late 1980s the Soviet Union started big economic projects in Northern Afghanistan so stabilise the economy of the country. Many western politicians saw it as a move to give the Soviet Union an economic power over Afghanistan. The Soviet plan was to connect the Afghan power grids and pipelines to the Soviet Union. The Soviet government also had a plan to build a long railroad through Afghanistan which would end in the port city of Karachi, which had been a long ambitish idea held by the Soviets. Thousands of Afghans studied in the Soviet Union so they could once return and build up the country. They were also seen as the future heirs of communist Afghanistan.[31]

[edit] Politics

[edit] Government

Main article: Government of Afghanistan
Karmal, the third leader of the republic and first leader of the Parcham

After the April coup in 1978, the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) rose to power. There were two divided factions in this party. Khalq ruled the party and the country from 1978-79. The first leader was Nur Mohammad Taraki, who was later killed by second and last leader of the Khalq faction, Hafizullah Amin. The other faction, Parcham ruled the country from 1979 til its collapse in 1992. The most important part of the political body of the PDPA was the Politburo, the secretariat and the central committee, in the government it was the Council of Ministers, the Presidium and at last the Revolutionary Council.[32]

The Government and political structure of Afghanistan had been copied from the Soviet model. As with all communist states, the communist party had supreme power in the government. The party members got all the government positions in the country. When the Parcham took governmental power in Afghanistan, the governmental structure was not altered. The biggest change was that the Khalqies was forced of from their governmental positions and replaced by Parchams.[32]

When the Soviet Union occupied Afghanistan in 1979 they killed Khaq leader Amin and replaced hin with Babrak Karmal the same year. Karmal's government was more or less a puppet government for the Soviet Union. The Soviets took total control over governmental politics after the invasion until their withdrawal in 1989.[32]

[edit] Law enforcement

Main article: Law enforcement in Afghanistan

Law enforcement in Afghanistan varied from area to area during the communist regime. During the Afghan civil war from 1978-1992 Afghan government officials tried to dem down the controlled territories of the resistance. With ministers such as Sultan Ali Keshtmand saying:[32]

“ "Conditions in Afghanistan are gradually returning back to normal. At present our government is in control practically of the whole country, and every rumour to the contrary is a lie." ”

Minister of Defense Abdul Qadir Dagarwal later said: "the whole territory is under DRA-control." Government propaganda continued, while resistance and western media soon found out that the situation was different. The resistance controlled about 60-75% of the countries 271 districts. Later a Polish journalist said less than quarter of Afghanistan is under government control, 10% was under the resistance and another 65% of the country was "No man's land" where the government our resistance excersised little to no power.[32]

While there have different estimate of how much the resistance controlled of the Afghan land area, the most agreed one is that they controlled 80-90% of the country. By night the Soviet-Afghan armed forces stayed in their cities or military bases and did little to nothing about the resistance controlled areas by night. According to the United States Government 75% of Afghanistan was under resistance control and two-thirds of the Afghan population was under their control. In only 15 districts did the government control more then 50% of the land area and the resistance had 100% control over 94 districts.[32]

The governments strongest held provinces were the Kabul province, Badakhshan province, Takhar province and Nimruz province were the government controlled 85-100% of the land area. Soviet-Afghan controlled areas were strong were the Soviets had massive military garrisons. Kabul with Jalalabad was seen as the safest cities for foreign diplomats, all cities in Afghanistan har curfews, at night the secret police, Khadamat-e Etela'at-e Dawlati (KHAD) in (English: State Information Agency swarmed the streets to secure the city along with the Soviet-Afghan armed forces.[32]

The paramilitary forces in Afghanistan was estimated to be around 50,000 thousand. The paramilitary force included tribal milita, regular police, the secret police force KHAD and the civil defense, Defense of the Revolution which was mostly youth manned. Of over 2,500 thousand regular police in Afghanistan before the war, 617 was left in 1982 and only 312 were fit for combat. The total Mujahideen resistance lose ranged from 50-1000 thousand and the lose of Afghan civilians was estimated to be around 100-200,000 thousand from 1980-83 alone.[32]

[edit] Administrative divisions

Main article: Administrative divisions of Afghanistan

[edit] Foreign relations and military

Main articles: Foreign relations of Afghanistan, Military of the Republic of Afghanistan, and Soviet armed forces
One day after the Saur Revolution in Kabul.

The Democratic Republic of Afghanistans foreign affairs had most of its history close ties with the Soviet Union. In total the country was recognised by 8 countries worldwide.[33] The Soviet Union gave the country aid and billions of USD to keep the country going from 1979-1991 when the Soviet Union collapsed. The republic had tense relations with Pakistan, Iran, People's Republic of China, and the Arab World. On the other hand it had generally friendly relations with India. The United Nations annual resolution was pull-out of the Soviet armed forces in the country. The mujahideen resistance leaders receive weapons and funds from Pakistan, United States and United Kingdom among others.[29] While the west didn't have much contact with the republic, they often had small diplomatic missions in Afghanistan during the Soviet occupation.[34]

Afghan army roundel from 1983 to 1994.

The armed forces total strength in 1985 according to the Afghan government was around 47,000, but its believed to be lower. In 1981 the total strength of the army was around 85,000 thousand troops according to The New York Times.[35] The army had around 35-40,000 soldiers, who was mostly conscripts, the air force had around 7,000 soldiers and if put together all military personnel in 1984, the total strength of the Afghan military was around 87,000 thousand in 1984.[32] Desertion from the army was common and in 1992 after the fall of the Afghan government the army disindigrated. The Afghan army got most of its equipment from the Soviet Union. According to Soviet soldiers during the Afghan occupation the Afghan soldiers lacked training and agreed with western media of the lack of discipline in the Afghan military.[36] The Afghan army cassulties was as high as 50-60,000 and another 50,000 deserted the armed force. The Afghan armies defection rate was about 10,000 per year, the average deserters left the Afghan army after the first five months.[32] Total of Soviet forces active in Afghanistan was estimated from 105,000 to 115,000. This included the 60,000 combat troops, 30,000 to 40,000 support troops, 10,000 paratroopers and 5,000 air assault troops.[29] Soviet army operations were set in Kabul, the Soviet Union controlled all the operations to the Afghan army.[32]

[edit] Demographics

[edit] Religion

Main article: Religion in Afghanistan
The Afghan flag between 1980-87

One of the few things the different Afghan tribes have in common is Islam, while each tribe have a different interpretation to it. There are no other religion that can match Islam in the country, since there are only some scattered minorities in the country. With most of them living in Kabul and other major cities. Most of the minorities came to the country as traders. There were virtually no Jews in Afghanistan by 1985.[37] In modern day Afghanistan (2009) the only jew living in the country is Zablon Simintov.[38][39][40]

In the Afghan civil war between 1978-1992 most of the resistance recrutted more soldiers on the basis of their Muslim identity. The name Mujahdeen if translated to English is "those waging jihad." Seen by the western world Jihad means holy war. All Muslims are obligated to joining Jihad when it happens.[37]

[edit] Ethnic groups

Main article: Ethnic groups in Afghanistan

The biggest group in Afghanistan between 1978-1992 was the Pushtuns. The Pushtun tribe in Ghilzai, the second biggest Pushtun tribe in Afghanistan. They dominated the party politics of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) since 1978 to its collapse in 1992. The Pushtun would later dominate party politics to the successor state of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, Islamic State of Afghanistan which collapsed in 1996.[41] The second largest ethnic group in the country is the Tajiks. Afghan Tajik during most of their history lived in the Pansjer Valley north of the city of Kabul and in the northeastern provinces of Parwan, Takhar, Badakhshan, Baghlan and Samangan. Tajiks can also be found in their own state of Tajikistan.[42]

Other ethnic groups in Afghanistan are the Hazaran, Uzbeks, Turkmens, Arabs, Kirghizs, Wakhis, Farsiwan, Nuristanis, Baluchs, Brahuis, Qizilbash and the Jats.[43]

[edit] Refugees

Main article: Afghan refugees

As the Afghan and the Soviet occupation forces became more aggressive, refugees from other parts of the country flocked to the capitol, Kabul and other mayor provincial cities. While no authentic census was taken, an estimate in the late 1980s, estimated the Kabul population to be around 2 million. 3-4 million Afghans were under government authority. After the Soviet withdrawal in 1989 the PDPA claimed a membership estimated around 5-10 thousands members. After the Soviet withdrawal the membership had risen to around 160,000 and in the parties sister organization, the National Fatherland Front (NFF) it included an estimated membership rate over one million, when NFF was disestablished in 1987 the NFF disappeared without much inpact. While its unclear how many of these members were active in the government and party politics. The party lured more and more members thanks to food and fuel supplies which had protected prices.[44]

The refugee problem in the republic started in April, 1978. The first refugees were running from the government, but this would drastically change in the following years. The refugee numbers hit a peak in 1981 with over 4 thousand Afghans crossing the border to Pakistan daily. In 1989 the number of Afghan refugees in Pakistan was 3.2 million and in Iran 2.2 million. The Afghan population was and still is the biggest ethnic group of refugees in the world.[45]

[edit] References

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