Draft:Disaster resilience and proactive behaviour in Japan

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Japan has a long history of facing natural disasters, including earthquakes, tsunamis, typhoons, and volcanic eruptions. Japan is the most affected country by natural disasters. It is located in the ring of fire, which makes it vulnerable to all types of disasters, mainly earthquakes, tsunamis, floods, mudslides, and volcanic eruptions. Japan experiences about 1500 earthquakes yearly, and its coastline is vulnerable to tsunamis. Daily minor tremors occur in Japan. Its history was marked by significant events such as the Great Kanto Earthquake of 1923, the Kobe Earthquake of 1995, and the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in 2011 (magnitude 9.1), leading to a tsunami and the Fukushima nuclear disaster..[1] Throughout history, these disasters affected Japan's economy, development, and the social life of its citizens. These disasters will continue increasing due to climate change.[2] These incidents have shaped Japan's disaster preparedness approach and influenced societal attitudes towards proactive behavior.

Stakeholders[edit]

Central government[edit]

Foundational policies and legal frameworks governing disaster management form the prominent roles of the central government. It includes engagement with meteorological institutes as crucial sources of disaster-related information and collaboration with relevant administrative bodies such as the ministries overseeing interior affairs and education. Additionally, involvement with research institutes, academia, and specialized technical government agencies, particularly those focused on land conservation, is crucial within this comprehensive strategy, highlighting a decentralized and top-down perspective.[3]

States and prefecture[edit]

Responsibilities at the state and prefecture levels involve tasks such as river improvement, construction of drainage systems, adherence to architectural standards like earthquake-resistant buildings, and providing training for rescue squads and medical personnel.[3]

Municipalities[edit]

Municipalities play a vital role in disaster management by conducting risk assessments, implementing earthquake-resistant measures for buildings, delivering disaster management education, organizing evacuation drills, and regulating land use.[3]

Community[edit]

At the community level, active participation includes creating and publishing hazard maps, developing disaster risk reduction plans, and enhancing overall capacity.[3]

Associations "jyumin-kai" & "chonai-kai"[edit]

Organizations like "jyumin-kai" (resident associations) and "chonai-kai" (neighborhood associations) are present in many Japanese communities. These organizations participate in community-enhancing activities, including festival management, cleanup, and community safety. Along with being in charge of information exchange and disaster relief efforts, they also contribute to developing stronger community bonds. Furthermore, neighborhood halls and community centers are familiar in many communities. These facilities allow the citizens to engage in activities and learning opportunities. In times of major disaster, they serve as shelters and evacuation centers, reuniting the citizens and reinforcing community ties.[4]

Private sector[edit]

There are various private sector stakeholders in Japan's pursuit of disaster resilience. Construction and infrastructure firms contribute to resilient urban development using architects and engineers alongside real estate developers focusing on constructing earthquake-resistant buildings, and manufacturing industries produce materials for disaster-resilient construction. Technology and IT companies provide innovative early warning systems and data analysis solutions. Insurance companies play a vital role in risk management, offering financial protection against disasters. Transportation and logistics companies ensure the efficient movement of goods during emergencies, while energy providers guarantee a stable power supply. Communication and telecommunication firms play a crucial role in maintaining communication networks, and retail and supply chain management companies contribute to the availability of essential goods.[5] Financial institutions and research and development organizations enrich Japan's disaster resilience landscape by providing financial support and innovative solutions.[6] The collaboration of these private sector entities forms a robust foundation for Japan's comprehensive disaster management strategy.

Environmental implications[edit]

The negative effects of disasters[edit]

Post-disaster waste management[edit]

In the aftermath of severe disasters, the impact on infrastructure often results in a substantial volume of waste, presenting a significant challenge for post-disaster waste management. While materials like wood planks can be recycled, others pose unique challenges. For instance, the Fukushima Daiichi power plant disaster, where the extensive displacement of debris led to logistical challenges and humanitarian concerns. The presence of radioactive waste added a layer of complexity for the Japanese government, requiring innovative solutions for safe disposal.[7] Effectively managing post-disaster waste becomes a critical aspect of recovery, necessitating coordinated efforts, advanced technologies, and sustainable practices to address such unprecedented challenges with environmental, social, and health implications.

Anthropocentrism[edit]

Anthropocentrism claims that only humans have moral status or are more morally significant than other living things.[8]

Anthropocentric attitudes, where humans dominate nature, are seen as causing environmental problems.[9] Throwing radioactive waste in the ocean is an example of anthropocentrism. Radioactive waste is dangerous for the marine ecosystem and can accumulate in food chains, contaminating maritime species; it is bioaccumulation.[10]

The effects of bioaccumulation include damage to species' health and development, thus contaminating sea species. Not only does it affect the marine ecosystem but also humans, having adverse effects on sustainable development.[11]

For these reasons, China has banned seafood imported from Japan.[12]

Environmental impacts and risks[edit]

Soil and groundwater conditions face substantial impacts when seawater infiltrates far inland, affecting land salinity and agricultural productivity. Shallow groundwater quality, utilized for drinking or irrigation, can also be affected.[13] Coastal canals can be entirely silted in case of a tsunami and require desilting and drainage for operational restoration. Cross-contamination can be caused by the destruction of urban water supply and sewage networks, posing health risks for the population.[14] Coastal habitats and ecosystems risk destruction, with far-reaching implications for livelihoods. Additionally, the environmental risks of reconstruction operations loom large, particularly when environmental considerations are not integrated into planning and managing activities such as waste disposal and cleanup.[14] Careful attention to these factors is essential for responsible and sustainable post-disaster recovery.

Ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction (Eco-DRR)[edit]

Eco-DRR (Ecosystem-based Disaster Risk Reduction) is an approach to reducing disaster risks by utilizing ecosystems and their services. It aims to maintain ecosystems and their services, using them as buffers for dangerous natural phenomena or hazards and providing humans and local communities with functions such as food and water supply. Eco-DRR focuses on managing ecosystems and their services to reduce disaster risks and achieve sustainable development.Ecosystem services such as flood control, erosion prevention, and water filtration, provide natural buffers against hazards and reduce disaster risks and minimize the impacts of natural hazards.[15]

Examples of ECO-DRR in Japan[edit]

Green belts in Tokyo[edit]

In cities like Tokyo, there are natural barriers against flooding and typhoon-related damage. Indeed, strategically incorporating parks and green spaces around vulnerable areas to absorb excess water during heavy rainfall will significantly reduce the risk of urban flooding.[16]Tokyo's green belts were found to have reduced the impact of waves and protected houses during the 2011 Tohoku tsunami. While the green belt system became less critical after the rapid economic growth of the 1970s, it is being reevaluated and revitalized as a crucial measure for disaster risk reduction.[17] Local communities traditionally undertake the maintenance of green belts and their role remains important their maintenance. Green belts in urban areas, such as those in Tokyo, serve as a vital component of ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction (Eco-DRR) by providing natural buffers against hazards and reducing the risk of urban flooding and typhoon-related damage.

Green psychology[edit]

Green belts exemplify green psychology, demonstrating the importance of incorporating environmental considerations and sustainable practices in urban planning and the development of DRR strategies. Green psychology focuses on the relationship between human well-being and the natural environment, and it emphasizes the need for balancing economic development with environmental protection[18] . Green spaces, such as green belts, have been shown to improve mental health and well-being in urban dwellers, as they provide opportunities for relaxation, physical activity, and connection with nature but also high protection from natural hazards[19] . They also contribute to the overall quality of life in urban areas by providing recreational spaces, improving air quality, and reducing urban heat island effects[20] [21] . Finally, green belts can help achieve sustainable development goals by protecting natural resources, promoting biodiversity, and reducing waste[22]

Community-based forest management[edit]

Community-based forest management involves empowering local communities to manage forests sustainably, which helps prevent wildfires and reduces the risk of soil erosion and landslides.[23] The Satoyama Initiative in Japan encourages local communities to participate in managing and conserving forests actively, exemplifying the integration of community-based forest management into Eco-DRR initiatives.[24] Therefore, Eco-DRR and community-based forest management are interconnected strategies that aim to reduce disaster risks by leveraging ecosystems' sustainable management and local communities' active involvement.

Intrinsic value of ecosystems[edit]

Intrinsic value reflects the perspective that nature has value in its own right, independent of human uses. Intrinsic value opens us to the possibility that nature has value even if it does not directly or indirectly benefit humans. Intrinsic value is viewed from an ecocentric standpoint.[25]. In Japan, forests are protected for conserving forest ecosystems and their intrinsic value and community-based forest management is an essential component of sustainable forest management[26]. Forests provide several intangible benefits often overlooked. These services include provisioning, supporting, and regulating services alongside cultural and spiritual values.[27] [28] Forests hold deep cultural and spiritual significance for local communities. Community-based forest management can help ensure that these values are respected and preserved. [29]

Behavioural factors and group dynamics[edit]

The ability of the Japanese people to prepare for disasters, draw lessons from their traumatic experiences, and pass on this knowledge as part of their cultural heritage from generation to generation has always been essential to their survival. Components including laws, regulations, robust civic cultures, and technical measures have produced a distinct culture of prevention known as "Bonsai Bunka" in Japanese. These standards help the nation deal with and learn from disasters.[30]

The ethnographic dimensions of the case study focus on the cultural and societal aspects contributing to proactive behavior in disaster preparedness. This includes examining traditional values of community and collectivism in Japanese society.

Social bonds "Kizuna" 絆[edit]

Traditional Japanese values emphasize the concept of "Kizuna," which translates to mutual assistance or bonds of solidarity. In the face of natural disasters, communities unite to support each other. This may involve sharing resources, providing shelter, and offering emotional support to those affected.[31]

Caring for others "omotenashi" お持て成し[edit]

In Japan, the values of caring for others, known as "omotenashi," are firmly rooted in the culture. These cultures show themselves via simple acts of goodwill in daily life and by coming together during significant disasters. Their cultural background greatly influences the helping nature and behavior of the Japanese people.[4]

Omotenashi is the spirit of giving strangers and guests a warm welcome and hospitality. This spirit is apparent, particularly in ryotei restaurants and traditional Japanese tea ceremonies. This hospitality inspires mutual aid at times of disaster and fosters an attitude and habit of caring for others.

Hardwork "hatarakimono" 働き者[edit]

The Japanese view "do one's best" in challenging situations as a virtue. The Ganbarasu spirit is the leading and empowering force in national and regional unity and cooperation regarding disaster recovery and reconstruction. The Ganbarasu spirit epitomizes commitment and determination and encourages the Japanese to deal with challenges with a can-do attitude.[4]

Normative influence[edit]

The normative influence of hard work in Japan is an example of proactive behavior, as it is deeply ingrained in the country's cultural and historical context. The Japanese work culture emphasizes group harmony, dedication, and loyalty in their work, which has led to a strong emphasis on disaster risk management, preparedness, and recovery efforts[32]. Japan's experience with natural disasters has led to a dynamic and innovative approach to disaster risk management, focusing on structural and nonstructural measures.[33]. Additionally, Japan's focus on low-probability, high-impact events has helped the country adapt its DRM strategies and infrastructure to withstand better natural disasters[34]. The country has also implemented various measures to ensure that people are better prepared for future disasters, such as the enactment of the Forest Conservation and Flood Control Urgent Measures Law in 1960 and the observation of Disaster Prevention Day on September 19 [35]. After major disasters, Japan has demonstrated a strong commitment to recovery and reconstruction, often linked to the preparation for future disasters, ensuring a continuous cycle of improvement and resilience[36]. Therefore, the normative influence of hard work in Japan can be seen as a proactive behavior that has helped the country better prepare for and respond to natural disasters.

Harmony "wa" 和[edit]

The value system of Japanese culture honors "wa." This ideology, which strongly emphasizes social harmony and peace, contributes to developing a mindset that values collaboration and mutual aid while having an attitude that refuses conflict and strife.[4]

Importance of elderlies and their wisdom "Chie" 知恵[edit]

In Japanese culture, "ibasho" refers to a place where people, especially elderly people (a significant portion of the country's population), feel profoundly accepted and purposeful for being who they are. Rejecting common misconceptions about aging, the basho approach actively involves elderlies and counteracts adverse effects associated with aging stereotypes by presenting them as valuable contributors to their community. Ibasho turns older people into proactive agents of positive change by addressing problems like social isolation, loss of dignity, and a sense of worthlessness. This strategy improves senior citizens' quality of life and makes the community more resilient to natural disasters. Ibasho strengthens social capital in all age groups by cultivating a solid informal support network that centers around elders, ultimately building a more resilient and cohesive community. In addition, Japanese society places a high value on respecting elders and acknowledging their wisdom (Chie). During disasters, communities often turn to experienced individuals for guidance and decision-making. This intergenerational collaboration enhances the resilience of the community. [37]

Bond with nature[edit]

Nature and the coexistence between humans and nature have always been at the core of traditional Japanese religion and culture. Buddhism and Shinto place a strong emphasis on valuing and respecting nature. This philosophy has shaped their response to natural disasters and mutual support during crises.[4]

Biospheric concern[edit]

The importance of nature in disaster risk reduction (DRR) in Japan is exemplified by the country's focus on biospheric concerns, which involve the preservation of healthy ecosystems to serve as barriers against disasters.

Sustainability[edit]

Disaster resilience is fundamental to sustainable development, although it is not explicitly listed as one of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). However, it is intricately linked to many of these goals and is considered a critical component of the overall sustainable development agenda.[38] The integration of disaster resilience with sustainable development is emphasized in various publications and initiatives. For instance, the book "Disaster Resilience and Sustainability" highlights the central role of disaster resilience in achieving the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals, particularly in vulnerable regions characterized by extreme inequality and an increasing frequency and intensity of disasters.[39] The 3rd International Symposium on Disaster Resilience and Sustainable Development (DRSD) also focuses on the complex and long-term implications of evolving disaster risks on societal sustainable development, emphasizing the need for deeper understanding and investigation of risk drivers to achieve and maintain sustainable development goals.[40]

The Sendai Framework[edit]

The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-2030) is an international policy agreement adopted at the Third United Nations World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction in Sendai, Japan, on March 18, 2015. The framework aims to substantially reduce disaster risk and losses in lives, livelihoods, health, and the economic, physical, social, cultural, and environmental assets of persons, businesses, communities, and countries over the next 15 years. The Sendai Framework focuses on adopting measures that address the three dimensions of disaster risk (exposure to hazards, vulnerability, and capacity) to prevent the creation of new risks, reduce existing risks, and increase resilience.[41]

Economic considerations[edit]

Japan strongly focuses on economic considerations for disaster risk reduction (DRR). Historically, Japan has invested more than 5 percent of its fiscal resources in disaster risk reduction, reflecting a significant commitment to building resilient infrastructure[42]and urban planning. The Great East Japan Earthquake in 2011 led to government spending representing an estimated 8% of its GDP and 20.7% of the general budget, highlighting the substantial economic impact of disasters[1]. The government also invests in disaster preparedness training programs and stimulus for recovery training professionals and citizens to face any kind of hazards and disasters. The Japan-World Bank Program for Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Management in Developing Countries supports over 100 countries' resilience efforts, emphasizing the importance of financial viability, efficiency, and resiliency in infrastructure development[42]. Additionally, a study on flood protection investment cycles in Japan aims to identify various factors affecting investments in disaster risk reduction, with the potential to provide valuable lessons for other countries in establishing financing mechanisms for DRR[43]. This demonstrates Japan's proactive approach to DRR and its economic implications.

Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) in Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) are a significant economic incentive in Japan, involving collaboration between the public and private sectors to share resources, expertise, and risks in DRR initiatives.[44] The government and experts work collaboratively in community-based DRR initiatives to provide adequate knowledge and training to local communities.[44]They also Several examples and good practices of PPPs for DRR in Japan have been documented, showcasing the successful integration of private sector capabilities and community engagement in disaster resilience efforts. The Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) has been instrumental in promoting and facilitating PPPs, inviting proposals from Japanese enterprises, and collaborating with successful proponents.[45]The establishment of the Office for Private Sector Partnership and the Private Sector Partnership and Finance Department within JICA further demonstrates the country's commitment to fostering PPPs in DRR.[45]Additionally, Japanese companies have increasingly implemented social contribution programs, reflecting a growing awareness of corporate social responsibility and the potential for new partnerships between Official Development Assistance (ODA) projects and private sector activities.[46] The promotion of PPPs in DRR is aligned with the broader goal of revitalizing the Global Partnership for Sustainable Development and strengthening the means of implementation. Overall, the emphasis on PPPs in DRR in Japan underscores the country's proactive approach to leveraging private sector resources and expertise to enhance disaster resilience and contribute to sustainable development.

Public perception, media coverage and challenges[edit]

Public perception[edit]

Public perception plays a crucial role in Japan's Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR). The positive perception of citizens, trust in the government[47], and the importance of cultural norms and values are essential factors influencing people's attitudes toward DRR and their willingness to engage in proactive behavior.[48]

Japanese citizens generally recognize the importance of DRR and know the risks associated with natural disasters. This positive perception and trust in their government encourages them to take preventive measures and engage in community-based DRR initiatives.

Cultural norms and values in Japan emphasize preparedness, resilience, and community support, which influence people's attitudes toward DRR.[48] By understanding and leveraging these cultural norms, DRR programs can be designed to encourage proactive behavior and promote resilience at the individual, community, and national levels. Concomitantly, the Japanese government must consider the social norms and cultures when applying policies to avoid any form of reluctance or challenges in the implementation.

Cognitive bias: The protection-motivation theory[edit]

The public perception of Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) in Japan is influenced by various factors such as trust in the government, cultural norms, and cognitive biases. Cognitive biases, prevalent in decision-making, can affect risk perception and attitudes towards disaster. The Protection Motivation Theory (PMT) can be applied to Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) in Japan by examining how it influences people's behavior and decision-making in the face of disasters. According to PMT, behavior is induced by protective motives formed from two mediation factors: threat appraisal and coping potential.[49] Threat appraisal emphasizes the idea that people's perception of the severity and likelihood of disasters can impact their motivation to take preventive measures and follow DRR guidelines. For example, during the July 2018 torrential rain event in western Japan, people's threat appraisal of the situation influenced their evacuation decisions[50] [51]. On the other hand, coping potential suggests that people's perceived ability to cope with disasters can affect their motivation to take preventive measures and follow DRR guidelines. Formal education and disaster response training can enhance people's coping potential, leading to increased motivation for DRR[52]. Finally, it is essential to know that PMT can help explain the existence of a risk perception paradox in DRR, where people may overestimate their ability to cope with disasters, leading to a mismatch between their risk perception and their actual preparedness and behavior[53]

Media coverage[edit]

Media coverage is critical in Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) by raising public awareness, disseminating information on preparedness measures, and highlighting technological advances.

Media coverage is a powerful tool to alert, inform, and educate the public on disasters and the significance of DRR, ultimately contributing to saving lives.[54] Social media, television, and other non-media sources are instrumental in communicating DRR information and promoting preparedness. Moreover, Journalists and media outlets play a crucial role in drawing attention to neglected risks while displaying the challenges and lessons learned from previous disasters and holding authorities accountable for inadequate planning and mitigation.

Media transparency and effective communication are essential in DRR as they facilitate preparedness and reinforce mutual trust between the citizens and their government or institutions in disaster management.[55]

Challenges[edit]

Urbanization and Infrastructure Challenges[edit]

Urban areas, in particular, may face challenges in implementing disaster reduction policies due to densely populated spaces, complex infrastructure, and competing land use priorities. Retrofitting existing structures and implementing effective evacuation plans can be logistically challenging.[56]

Environmental Concerns[edit]

Policies involving large-scale construction projects for disaster resilience may face opposition from environmental activists or those concerned about the impact on natural ecosystems. Striking a balance between environmental sustainability and disaster preparedness can be challenging. Furthermore, the implementation of disaster recovery measures may have adverse effects on the environment and ecosystems. For example, the disposal of radioactive waste from the Fukushima Daiichi disaster into the ocean has raised concerns about its negative impact on the marine ecosystem, leading to public outrage and activism.[57]

Public trust[edit]

Maintaining public trust is crucial for successful policy implementation. If there are perceived failures in past disaster response efforts or the government is seen as unresponsive, trust may erode, making it more difficult to gain public cooperation.

Privacy Concerns[edit]

Some disaster reduction measures, such as advanced monitoring technologies, may raise privacy concerns among the public. Implementing technologies in disaster recovery measures can sometimes be met with psychological reactance, a natural response to the perceived loss of autonomy. Hence, balancing effectively monitoring and respecting individual privacy rights is an ongoing challenge.[58] Using media and non-media sources for disaster risk reduction (DRR) is also crucial, as they can influence public perception and awareness of DRR.[59] However, media coverage can sometimes be sensationalized, leading to misinformation and panic.

Societal Diversity[edit]

Japan is a diverse society with varying demographics and levels of vulnerability, and policies that do not consider the needs of all societal groups, including vulnerable populations, may face resistance or result in unequal protection.[60] This is particularly relevant in an aging and decreasing population. Furthermore, Japan is a diverse country with a variety of social classes and an increasing rate of foreigners, which means that disaster preparedness and communication strategies need to be tailored to the specific needs of these populations. Foreign residents in Japan often face challenges in understanding disaster information due to language barriers, which can hinder their ability to prepare for and respond to disasters.[61]

Education and Awareness Gaps[edit]

The Japanese educational system has a unique opportunity to address DRR through Disaster Resilience Education (DRE)[62], which focuses on learning about natural hazards in the local environment and how to respond to disasters. However, integrating DRR into education curricula is not enough to bring about meaningful risk reduction. Indeed, disparities in education and awareness levels across different population segments can impede the successful implementation of disaster reduction policies. Ensuring that disaster risk reduction (DRR) information is accessible to and understandable by all communities, including parents, teachers, government officials, and older individuals with limited access to education and awareness of disaster preparedness, is essential.[63] The aging population in Japan faces unique challenges during disasters, and tailored DRR education and awareness programs are necessary to address their specific needs. The awareness of the elderly's needs and assistance requirements should be integrated into DRR education and preparedness plans. Despite the known benefits of disaster preparedness for older individuals, there is a lack of widespread implementation of disaster education and planning for this demographic. Therefore, it is imperative for stakeholders, including the government, public health, humanitarian professionals, volunteers, and community-based organizations, to provide comprehensive education that specifically addresses the needs of the elderly population.[64] Additionally, it is crucial to strengthen the capacity of organizations and local associations working with older people in planning and implementing age-sensitive responses to disasters. This includes collecting information on their communities' hazards, vulnerabilities, and capacities and training older individuals to manage information and contribute to DRR plans and activities.

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