Robert Simmons (prisoner)
Robert A. Simmons was an African American conscientious objector and anti-war activist who was imprisoned on Alcatraz Island shortly after World War I.[1][2]
Biography[edit]
Simmons lived in Savannah, Georgia and later in Southern California.[3][2]
During World War I, Simmons sought conscientious objector status after being deployed to France as a member of Company C, 323rd Labor Battalion.[4][5] His anti-war stance led to his arrest, military court-martial, and a 10-year prison sentence at the United States Disciplinary Barracks in Fort Leavenworth, Kansas in 1919. While there, he was registered as General Prisoner #17417.[6] On August 5, 1919, Simmons was among a group of around 130 prisoners that were transferred to the Pacific Branch of the United States Disciplinary Barracks, located on Alcatraz Island, where he would arrive on August 11.[7]
Simmons was one of the conscientious objectors referred to as "absolutists," who refused to obey any military order and as a result, faced harsh punishment and extended sentences.[8][9] During his imprisonment, Simmons was held in solitary confinement in "the hole" for 14 days. During his time as a prisoner, Simmons was forced to stand, chained to a cell door, and unable to sit or turn around for a total of eight hours each day.[10]
Simmons' incarceration was subject to wide criticism and protest among the African American community and civil rights groups. The National Civil Liberties Bureau formally petitioned the U.S. military for the release of Simmons, which reached U.S. Secretary of War Newton D. Baker.[2]
Despite the Armistice of November 11, 1918, Simmons remained imprisoned at Alcatraz until February 27, 1920.[11] During the duration of his sentence, Simmons spent a total of 84 days in solitary confinement, the maximum limit under U.S. Army regulations at the time.[12][1][2]
The Messenger wrote that Simmons' "gentle sturdiness had gained for him the respect of inmates and guards alike."[13]
Legacy[edit]
Simmons is featured in an exhibit in the Alcatraz Dining Hall titled "The Big Lockup: Incarceration in the United States."[14]
References[edit]
- ^ a b "Robert Simmons (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved 2023-01-18.
- ^ a b c d "San Francisco Call 26 February 1920 — California Digital Newspaper Collection". cdnc.ucr.edu. Retrieved 2023-01-18.
- ^ "Vietnam Veterans Against the War: THE VETERAN: Imprisoned at Alcatraz - for Opposing War". www.vvaw.org. Retrieved 2023-01-18.
- ^ "Conscientious Objection". National Campaign for a Peace Tax Fund. Retrieved 2023-01-18.
- ^ Office of the Adjutant General. "Roster of Company C. 323rd Labor Battalion, A.P.O.#712, at midnight April 30, 1919". Muster Rolls & Rosters Nov 1912-Dec 1939. FamilySearch. National Archives and Records Administration. p. 3. Originally on microfilm, reel 5.56, roll 1715.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link) - ^ Recapitulation of General Prisoners, United States Disciplinary Barracks, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas; August 1919, p. 76; Returns of General Prisoners, 1918–1925; Records of the Adjutant General's Office, 1905-1981, Record Group 407; National Archives Building, College Park, MD.
- ^ "Army Prisons are Crowded". San Francisco Chronicle. August 12, 1919. p. 5.
- ^ Gingerich, Melvin (1949). Service for Peace, A History of Mennonite Civilian Public Service. Mennonite Central Committee.
- ^ Smith, C. Henry (1981). Smith's Story of the Mennonites. Revised and expanded by Cornelius Krahn. Newton, Kansas: Faith and Life Press. ISBN 0-87303-069-9.
- ^ "Imprisoned at Alcatraz - for Opposing War". National Campaign for a Peace Tax Fund. Retrieved 2023-01-18.
- ^ "Man Too Mean For Prisoner, Officers Say". Oakland Tribune. February 27, 1920. p. 2.
- ^ Reedy's Mirror. 1920.
- ^ The Messenger. Messenger Publishing Company. 1921.
- ^ "The Big Lockup: Mass Incarceration in the U.S. - Golden Gate National Recreation Area (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved 2023-01-18.