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Shyness (also called diffidence) is the feeling of apprehension, lack of comfort, or awkwardness experienced when an individual is in proximity to, approaching, or being approached by others, especially in new situations or with unfamiliar people. Shyness may come from genetic traits, the environment in which a person is raised and personal experiences. There are many degrees of shyness. Stronger forms are usually referred to as social anxiety or social phobia. It may merely be a personality trait or can occur at certain stages of a child's development.It is normal for children between the ages of 5-6 months and 2 years to experience shyness and it is considered a natural part of the developmental process that is usually temporary.[1] The primary defining characteristic of shyness is a largely ego-driven fear of what other people will think of a person's behavior, which results in he or shebecoming scared of doing or saying what he or she wants to, out of fear of negative reactions, criticism, or rejection, and simply opting to avoid social situations instead.[2] Shyness also has strong cultural aspects, for example in China, if a student or a peer is shy then that student is looked up to and praised while in North America being shy is seen negatively.[3]

Social inhibition versus behavioral inhibition[edit]

Those considered shy are also said to be socially inhibited. Social inhibition is the conscious or unconscious constraint of a process or behavior that a person considers objectionable in a social setting. In other words, social inhibition is that which holds one back. There are different levels of social inhibition, from mild to severe. Being socially inhibited is good when preventing one from harming another and bad when causing one to refrain from participating in class discussions. Behavioral inhibition is a temperament or personality style that predisposes a person to become fearful, distressed and withdrawn in novel situations.[4]

Origins[edit]

The initial causes of shyness vary. Scientists believe they have located genetic data supporting the hypothesis that shyness is at least partially genetic. However, there is also evidence that suggests the environment in which a person is raised can also be responsible for his or her shyness. This includes child abuse, particularly emotional abuse such as ridicule. Shyness can originate after a person has experienced a physical anxiety reaction; at other times, shyness seems to develop first and then later causes physical symptoms of anxiety. Shyness differs from social anxiety, which is a broader, often depression-related psychological condition including the experience of fear, apprehension or worrying about being evaluated by others in social situations to the extent of inducing panic.

Genetics and heredity[edit]

Shyness is often seen as a hindrance on people and their development. The cause of shyness is often disputed but it is found that fear is positively related to shyness,[5] suggesting that fearful children are much more likely to develop being shy as opposed to less fearful children. Shyness can also be seen on a biological level as a result of an excess of cortisol. When cortisol is present in greater quantities it is known to suppress an individual’s immune system, making them more susceptible to illness and disease.[6] The genetics of shyness is a relatively small area of research that has been receiving an even smaller amount of attention, although papers on the biological bases of shyness date back to 1988. Some research has indicated that shyness and aggression are related—through long and short forms of the gene DRD4, though considerably more research on this is needed. Further, it has been suggested that shyness and social phobia (the distinction between the two is becoming ever more blurred) are related to obsessive-compulsive disorder. As with other studies of behavioral genetics, the study of shyness is complicated by the number of genes involved in, and the confusion in defining, the phenotype. Naming the phenotype – and translation of terms between genetics and psychology — also causes problems.

Several genetic links to shyness are current areas of research. One is the serotonin transporter promoter region polymorphism (5-HTTLPR), the long form of which has been shown to be modestly correlated with shyness in grade school children.[7] Previous studies had shown a connection between this form of the gene and both obsessive-compulsive disorder and autism.[8] Mouse models have also been used, to derive genes suitable for further study in humans; one such gene, the glutamic acid decarboxylase gene (which encodes an enzyme that functions in GABA synthesis), has so far been shown to have some association with behavioral inhibition.[9]

Another gene, the dopamine D4 receptor gene (DRD4) exon III polymorphism, had been the subject of studies in both shyness and aggression, and is currently the subject of studies on the "novelty seeking" trait. A 1996 study of anxiety-related traits (shyness being one of these) remarked that, "Although twin studies have indicated that individual variation in measures of anxiety-related personality traits is 40-60% heritable, none of the relevant genes has yet been identified," and that "10 to 15 genes might be predicted to be involved" in the anxiety trait. Progress has been made since then, especially in identifying other potential genes involved in personality traits, but there has been little progress made towards confirming these relationships.[10] The long version of the 5-HTT gene-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) is now postulated to be correlated with shyness,[7] but in the 1996 study, the short version was shown to be related to anxiety-based traits.

Technology has helped to pinpoint changes in socially anxious brains. Using MRI scans, Dr. Murray Stein, of the University of California, San Diego, found that when people with the disorder are shown pictures of angry faces, their amygdala lights up with more activity than it does in people without the condition.


Prenatal development[edit]

The prevalence of shyness in some children can be linked to day length during pregnancy, particularly during the midpoint of prenatal development.[11] An analysis of longitudinal data from children living at specific latitudes in the United States and New Zealand revealed a significant relationship between hours of day length during the midpoint of pregnancy and the prevalence of shyness in children. "The odds of being classified as shy were 1.52 times greater for children exposed to shorter compared to longer daylengths during gestation."[11] In their analysis, scientists assigned conception dates to the children relative to their known birth dates, which allowed them to obtain random samples from children who had a mid-gestation point during the longest hours of the year and the shortest hours of the year (June and December, depending on whether the cohorts were in the United States or New Zealand).

The longitudinal survey data included measurements of shyness on a five-point scale based on interviews with the families being surveyed, and children in the top 25th percentile of shyness scores were identified. The data revealed a significant co-variance between the children who presented as being consistently shy over a two-year period, and shorter day length during their mid-prenatal development period. "Taken together, these estimates indicate that about one out of five cases of extreme shyness in children can be associated with gestation during months of limited daylength."[11]

Low birthrates[edit]

In recent years correlations between birth weight and shyness have been studied. Findings suggest that those born at low birth weights are more likely to be shy, risk-aversive and cautious compared to those born at normal birth weights. These results do not however imply a cause-and-effect relationship.[12]

Personality trait[edit]

Shyness is most likely to occur during unfamiliar situations, though in severe cases it may hinder an individual in his or her most familiar situations and relationships as well. Shy people avoid the objects of their apprehension in order to keep from feeling uncomfortable and inept; thus, the situations remain unfamiliar and the shyness perpetuates itself. Shyness may fade with time; e.g., a child who is shy towards strangers may eventually lose this trait when older and become more socially adept. This often occurs by adolescence or young adulthood (generally around the age of 13). In some cases, though, it may become an integrated, lifelong character trait. Longitudinal data suggests that the three different personality types evident in infancy easy, slow-to-warm-up, and difficult tend to change as children mature. Extreme traits become less pronounced, and personalities evolve in predictable patterns over time. What has been proven to remain constant is the tendency to internalize or externalize problems.[13] This relates to individuals with shy personalities because they tend to internalize their problems, or dwell on their problems internally instead of expressing their concerns, which leads to disorders like depression and anxiety.[14] Humans experience shyness to different degrees and in different areas. In addition, shyness may manifest when one is in the company of certain people and completely disappear when with others— one may be outgoing with friends and family, but experience love-shyness toward potential partners, even if strangers are generally not an obstacle.

Shyness can also be seen as an academic determinant. It has been determined that there is a negative relationship between shyness and classroom performance. As the shyness of an individual increased, classroom performance was known to decrease, and vice versa.[15]

The condition of true shyness may simply involve the discomfort of difficulty in knowing what to say in social situations, or may include crippling physical manifestations of uneasiness. Shyness usually involves a combination of both symptoms, and may be quite devastating for the sufferer, in many cases leading them to feel that they are boring, or exhibit bizarre behavior in an attempt to create interest, alienating them further. Behavioral traits in social situations such as smiling, easily producing suitable conversational topics, assuming a relaxed posture and making good eye contact, may not be second nature for a shy person. Such people might only affect such traits by great difficulty, or they may even be impossible to display.

Those who are shy are actually perceived more negatively, in cultures that value sociability, because of the way they act towards others.[16] Shy individuals are often distant during conversations, which may cause others to create poor impressions of them. People who are not shy may be too up-front, aggressive, or critical towards shy people in an attempt "to get them out of their shell." This may actually make a shy person feel worse, as it can draw attention to them (making them more self-conscious and uncomfortable) or cause them to think there is something very wrong with themselves.

Misconceptions and negative aspects[edit]

Many misconceptions/ stereotypes about shy individuals exist in western culture and negative peer reactions to "shy" behavior abound. This takes place because individualistic cultures don't value quietness and meekness, and more often reward outgoing behaviors. Some misconceptions include viewing introversion and social phobia synonymous with shyness, and believing that shy people are less intelligent.[16][17][18]

Intelligence[edit]

No correlation (positive or negative) exists between intelligence and shyness but data collected leans toward a positive rather than negative correlation between intelligence and shyness, though it isn't statistically significant.[18] The stereotype exists that shy people are less intelligent and peers initially perceive them this way.[citation needed] The data supporting this hypothesis falsely identifies a cause and effect relationship between low academic standing and high levels of shyness, when in fact a third factor, academic engagement (verbally expressing knowledge) accounts for this correlation.[citation needed] Research indicates that shy children have a harder time expressing their knowledge in social situations (which many academic curriculum utilize) and because they do not engage actively in discussions, teachers view them as less intelligent. Test scores, however, prove that shyness is unrelated to actual academic knowledge, and therefore only academic engagement.[17] Depending on the level of a teacher's own shyness, more indirect (vs. socially oriented) strategies are used with shy individuals to assess knowledge in the classroom, and accommodations are made.[18] Observed peer evaluations of shy people during initial meeting and social interactions thereafter found that peers evaluate shy individuals as less intelligent during the first encounter. During subsequent interactions, however, peers perceived shy individuals' intelligence more positively.[16]

Shyness vs. introversion[edit]

The term shyness may be implemented as a lay blanket-term for a family of related and partially overlapping afflictions, including timidity (apprehension in meeting new people), bashfulness and diffidence (reluctance in asserting oneself), apprehension and anticipation (general fear of potential interaction), or intimidation (relating to the object of fear rather than one's low confidence).[19] Apparent shyness, as perceived by others, may simply be the manifestation of reservation or introversion, character traits which cause an individual to voluntarily avoid excessive social contact or be terse in communication, but are not motivated or accompanied by discomfort, apprehension, or lack of confidence.

Rather, according to Bernardo J. Carducci, director of the Shyness Research Institute, introverts choose to avoid social situations because they derive no reward from them, or may find surplus sensory input overwhelming. Conversely, shy people may fear such situations and feel that they "should" avoid them.[20] This generally poor reception of shyness may be misinterpreted by the suffering individual as aversion related to his or her personality, rather than simply to his or her shyness. Both conditions can lead to a compounding of a shy individual's low self-confidence.

Both shyness and introversion (unsociability) can be classified as personalities that lead to socially withdrawn behaviors (behavioral tendencies to avoid social situations, especially when they are unfamiliar). A variety of research has been done suggesting that these two personalities possess clearly distinct motivational forces and lead to uniquely different personal and peer reactions and therefore cannot be described as theoretically the same.[14][21][22]

Research done suggests that no unique physiological response, such as an increased heart beat, accompanies socially withdrawn behavior in familiar compared with unfamiliar social situations. But unsociability leads to decreased exposure to unfamiliar social situations and shyness causes a lack of response in such situations, suggesting that shyness and unsociability affect two different aspects of sociability and are distinct personality traits.[21] In addition, different cultures perceive unsociability and shyness in different ways, leading to either positive or negative individual feelings of self-esteem. Collectivist cultures view shyness as a more positive trait related to compliance with group ideals and self-control, while perceiving chosen isolation (introverted behavior) negatively, as a threat to group harmony. Because society accepts shyness and rejects unsociability, shy individuals develop higher self-esteem than introverted individuals.[22] On the other hand, individualistic cultures perceive shyness as a weakness and a character flaw, while unsociable personality traits (preference to spend time alone) are accepted because they uphold the value of autonomy. So, in contrast, shy individuals develop low self-esteem in Western cultures while unsociable individuals develop high self-esteem.[14] Psychological methods and pharmaceutical drugs are commonly used to treat shyness in individuals who feel crippled because of low self-esteem and psychological symptoms, such as depression or loneliness. According to research, early intervention methods that expose shy children to social interactions involve working team work, especially team sports, decrease their anxiety in social interactions and increase their all around self-confidence later on.[23] Implementing such tactics could prove to be an important step in combating the psychological effects of shyness that make living normal life difficult for anxious individuals.

Shyness vs. social phobia[edit]

An extreme case of shyness is identified as a psychiatric illness, which made its debut as "social phobia" in DSM-III in 1980, but was then described as rare.[24] By 1994, however, when DSM-IV was published, it was given a second, alternative name in parentheses (social anxiety disorder) and was now said to be relatively common, affecting between 3 and 13% of the population at some point during their lifetime.[25][26] This process has been seen as a case study of "disease-mongering" in psychiatry.[27]

Shyness affects people mildly in unfamiliar social situations where one feels anxiety about interacting with new people. Social anxiety disorder, on the other hand, is a strong irrational fear of interacting with people, or being in situations which may involve public scrutiny, because one feels overly concerned about being criticized if one embarrasses oneself. Two types of social phobia exist, generalized social phobia, the fear of most social situations, and specific social phobia, the fear of one or several kinds of social situations (such as public speaking). The generalized form of this condition can interfere with normal living because people who feel this way may avoid social situations as much as possible. Physical symptoms of social phobia can include shortness of breath, trembling, increased heart rate, and sweating; in some cases, these symptoms are intense enough and numerous enough to constitute a panic attack. Shyness, on the other hand, may incorporate many of these symptoms, but at a lower intensity, infrequently, and does not interfere tremendously with normal living.[2]

Positive points of shyness and sociological perspectives[edit]

Being shy can have its advantages as well, according to Thomas Benton in his article "Shyness and Academe", published in May 2004. The author says that because shy people "have a tendency toward self-criticism, they are often high achievers, and not just in solitary activities like research and writing. Perhaps even more than the drive toward independent achievement, shy people long to make connections to others often through altruistic behavior. Susan Cain, in her article "Shyness: Evolutionary Tactic?", describes the benefits that shy people bring to society that western views devalue. Without characteristics that shy people bring to social interactions, such as sensitivity to the emotions of others, contemplation of ideas, and valuable listening skills, there would be no balance to society. In earlier generations, such as the 1950's, society perceived shyness as a more socially attractive trait, especially in women. This indicates that views on shyness vary with the culture.[28] Sociologist Susie Scott, in her book Shyness and Society (2007), is one expert who has sought to challenge the pathological interpretation and treatment of shyness. "By treating shyness as an individual pathology, ... we forget that this is also a socially oriented state of mind that is socially produced and managed."[29] She explores the idea that "shyness is a form of deviance: a problem for society as much as for the individual", and concludes that, to some extent, "we are all impostors, faking our way through social life".[30] One of her interview subjects (self-defined as shy) puts this point of view even more strongly:

"Sometimes I want to take my cue from the militant disabled lobbyists and say, 'hey, it's not MY problem, it's society's'. I want to be proud to be shy: on the whole, shys are probably more sensitive, and nicer people, than 'normals'. I shouldn't have to change: society should adapt to meet my needs."[31]

Author and broadcaster Garrison Keillor has similarly, tongue-in-cheek but sympathetically, published a manifesto of "shy rights":

"[S]hyness is not a disability or disease to be 'overcome'. It is simply the way we are. And in our own quiet way, we are secretly proud of it."[32]

Different cultural views on shyness[edit]

In cultures that value outspokenness and overt confidence, shyness can be perceived as weakness.[14] To an unsympathetic observer, a shy individual may be mistaken as cold, distant, arrogant or aloof, which can be frustrating for that individual.[16] However, in other cultures, shy people may be perceived as being thoughtful, intelligent, as being good listeners, and as being more likely to think before they speak.[28] Furthermore, boldness, the opposite of shyness, may cause its own problems, such as impertinence or inappropriate behavior.

In cultures that value autonomy, shyness is often analyzed in the context of being a social dysfunction, and is frequently contemplated as a personality disorder or mental health issue. It should be noted that such analyses are conducted from a Western cultural perspective, and often do not consider shyness as having any potential utility in a social framework, either outside or within Western culture. Some researchers are beginning to study comparisons between individualistic and collectivistic cultures, to examine the role that shyness might play in matters of social etiquette and achieving group-oriented goals. "Shyness is one of the emotions that may serve as behavioral regulators of social relationships in collectivistic cultures. For example, social shyness is evaluated more positively in a collectivistic society, but negatively evaluated in an individualistic society." [33]

Perceptions of Eastern cultures on shyness-inhibition[edit]

Individuals who are shy and inhibited in Eastern cultures do not share the same issues as those in Western cultures. Shyness-inhibition is seen as positive and those that exhibit these traits are viewed well by peers and are accepted, also, they have high competence in education and show high psychological well-being. Shy individuals are also more likely to attain leadership status in school. Being shy or inhibited does not correlate with loneliness or depression as those in the West do. In Eastern cultures' being shy and inhibited is a sign of politeness, respectfulness, and thoughtfulness.[34]

Perceptions of Western cultures on shyness-inhibition[edit]

In Western countries shyness-inhibition plays an important role in psychological and social adjustment. It has been found that shyness-inhibition is associated with a variety of mal-adaptive behaviors. Being shy or inhibited in Western cultures causes for a host of issues such as, rejection by peers, isolation and being viewed as socially incompetent by adults. Such attitudes pertaining to shyness and inhibition cause individuals in Western cultures to exhibit higher rates of depression and social dissatisfaction.[34]

Some examples of cultural views on shyness and inhibition[edit]

In Hispanic cultures shyness and inhibition with authority figures is common. For instance, Hispanic students may feel shy towards being praised by teachers in front of others, this is because in Hispanic cultures students are rewarded with a touch, a smile, or spoken word of praise in private. A student's shyness may not be exactly that, it is considered rude to excel over peers and siblings; therefore it is common for Hispanic students to be reserved in classroom settings. Adults also show reluctance to share personal matters about themselves to authority figures such as nurses and doctors.[35]

Cultures in which the community is closed and based on agriculture (Kenya, India, etc.) experience lower social engagement than those in more open communities (United States, Okinawa, etc.) where interactions with peers is encouraged. Children in Mayan, Indian, Mexican, and Kenyan cultures are less expressive in social styles during interactions and spend little time engaged in socio-dramatic activities, they are also less assertive in social situations. Self-expression and assertiveness in social interactions are related to shyness and inhibition [34] in that when one is shy or inhibited he or she exhibits little or no expressive tendencies. Assertiveness is demonstrated in the same way, being shy and inhibited lessen ones' chances of being assertive because of a lack of confidence.

In the Italian culture emotional expressiveness during interpersonal interaction is encouraged. From a young age children engage in debates or discussions that encourage and strengthen social assertiveness. Independence and social competence during childhood is also promoted. Being inhibited is looked down upon and those who show this characteristic are viewed negatively by their parents and peers. Like other cultures in where shyness and inhibition is viewed negatively, peers of shy and inhibited Italian children reject the socially fearful, cautious and withdrawn. These withdrawn and socially fearful children express loneliness and believe themselves to be lacking the social skills needed in social interactions. [36]

Study[edit]

In a cross-cultural study of Chinese and Canadian school children, researchers sought to measure several variables related to social reputation and peer relationships, including "shyness-sensitivity." Using peer nomination questionnaire, students evaluated their fellow students using positive and negative playmate nominations. "Shyness-sensitivity was significantly and negatively correlated with measures of peer acceptance in the Canadian sample. Inconsistent with Western results, it was found that items describing shyness-sensitivity were separated from items assessing isolation in the factor structure for the Chinese sample. Shyness-sensitivity was positively associated with sociability-leadership and with peer acceptance in the Chinese sample."[33]


See also[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Shyness.

References[edit]

  1. ^ Kristin Zoltan. "Shyness". Education.com. Center of Effective Parenting. Retrieved 25 March 2013. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  2. ^ a b Royal College of Psychiatrists.(2012). Shyness and social phobia. Retrieved from http://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/mentalhealthinfo/problems/anxietyphobias/shynessandsocialphobia.aspx
  3. ^ Retrieved from Social Anxiety to Social Phobia: Multiple Perspectives, Stefan G. Hoffman (2001)
  4. ^ "Behavioral Inhibition as a childhood predictor of social anxiety, part 1". Andrew Kukes foundation for social anxiety. Retrieved 26 March 2013.
  5. ^ Eggum, Natalie et al. "Development of Shyness: Relations With Children’s Fearfulness, Sex, and Maternal Behavior".Infancy 14:3-325. 2009.
  6. ^ Evans, Mary A, and Joanna Y Chung. "Shyness and symptoms of illness in young children". Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science 32. 1:49. 2000.
  7. ^ a b Arbelle et al. 2003.
  8. ^ Brune, C.W., Kim, S., Salt J., Leventhal, B.L., Lord, C., Cook, E.H.(2006)5-HTTLPR Genotype-Specific Phenotype in Children and Adolescents With Autism. The American Journal of Psychology, 163, 2148-2156.
  9. ^ Smoller et al. 2001.
  10. ^ Lesch et al. 1996.
  11. ^ a b c Gortmaker, SL. et al. Daylength during pregnancy and shyness in children: results from northern and southern hemispheres. 1997.
  12. ^ U.S, News Staff (9 July 2008). "Do Underweight Newborns Make for Shy Adult". Retrieved 14 March 2013.
  13. ^ Janson, H., & Matheisen, K.S.(2008). Temperament profiles from infancy to middle childhood: Developmentand associations with behavior problems. Developmental Psychology,44(5), 1314-1328.
  14. ^ a b c d Coplan, R. J., Rose-Krasnor, L., Weeks, M., Kingsbury, A., Kingsbury, M., & Bullock, A. (2012). Alone is a crowd: Social motivations, social withdrawal, and socioemotional functioning in later childhood. Developmental Psychology. doi:10.1037/a0028861
  15. ^ Chisti, Saeed-ul-Hasan, Anwar, Saeed, and Shahinshah Babar Khan. "Relationship between shyness and classroom performance at graduation level in Pakistan". Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research In Business 3. 4:532-538. 2011.
  16. ^ a b c d Paulhus, D.L., & Morgan, K.L. (1997). Perceptions of intelligence in leaderless groups: The dynamic effects of shyness and acquaintance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,72(3), 581-591.
  17. ^ a b Hughes, K., & Coplan, R.J. (2010). Exploring processes linking shyness and academic achievement in childhood. School Psychology Quarterly, 25(4), 213-222.
  18. ^ a b c Coplan, J.R., Hughes, K., Bosacki, S., & Rose-Kransnor, L. (2011) Is silence golden? Elementary school teachers’ strategies and beliefs regarding hypothetical shy/quiet and exuberant/talkative children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 103(4), 939-951.
  19. ^ "Shy | Define Shy at Dictionary.com". Dictionary.reference.com. Retrieved 13 August 2012.
  20. ^ Whitten, Meredith (21 August 2001). "All About Shyness". Psych Central. Retrieved 13 August 2012.
  21. ^ a b Asendorpf, J.B., & Meier, G.H. (1993). Personality effects on children's speech in everyday life: Sociability-mediated exposure and shyness-mediated reactivity to social situations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64(6), 1072-1083.
  22. ^ a b Chen, X., Wang, L., & Cao, R. (2011). Shyness-sensitivity and unsociability in rural Chinese children: Relations with social, school, and psychological adjustment. Child Development, 82(5), 1531-1543.
  23. ^ Findlay, L.C., & Coplan, R.J. (2008). Come out and play: Shyness in childhood and the benefits of organized sports participation. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 40(3), 153-161.
  24. ^ Lane, C. Shyness: How Normal Behavior Became a Sickness. 2007.
  25. ^ American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Anxiety disorders. In Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev., pp. 450–456). Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association.
  26. ^ R.E. Stone. Is the American Psychiatric Association in Bed with Big Pharma? 2011.
  27. ^ Lane 2008.
  28. ^ a b Cain, S. (2011, June 25). Shyness: Evolutionary tactic?. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/26/opinion/sunday/26shyness.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0
  29. ^ Scott 2007, p. 2.
  30. ^ Scott 2007, pp. 165, 174.
  31. ^ Scott 2007, p. 164.
  32. ^ Keillor 1986, p. 211.
  33. ^ Frijda, N.H., & Mesquita, B. Social roles and functions: A interaction functions of emotion. 1994.
  34. ^ a b c Kenneth H. Rubin and Robert J. Coplan, ed. (2010). "10". The Development of Shyness and Social Withdrawl. New York, NY: The Guilford Press. pp. 213–227. ISBN 978-1-60623-522-5. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  35. ^ "How the students' culture effects their behavior". Teaching from a Hispanic perspective a handbook for non-Hispanic adult educators. Retrieved 2 March 2013.
  36. ^ Rubin, Kenneth (2006). "A cross-cultural study of behavioral inhibition in toddlers: East-West-North-South". International Journal of Behavioral Development. 3. 30: 119–125. doi:10.1177/0165025406066723. Retrieved 22 February 2013. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

Bibliography[edit]

  • Angell, Marcia (15 January 2009). "Drug companies & doctors: a story of corruption". New York Review of Books. 56 (1).
  • Arbelle, Shoshana; Benjamin, Jonathan; Golin, Moshe; Kremer, Ilana; Belmaker, Robert H.; Ebstein, Richard P. (2003). "Relation of shyness in grade school children to the genotype for the long form of the serotonin transporter promoter region polymorphism". American Journal of Psychiatry. 160 (4): 671–676. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.160.4.671. PMID 12668354. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  • Crozier, W. R. (2001). Understanding Shyness: psychological perspectives. Basingstoke: Palgrave. ISBN 0-333-77371-3.
  • Keillor, Garrison. "Shy rights: why not pretty soon?". Happy to be Here. London: Faber. pp. 209–216. ISBN 0571146961.
  • Kluger, A. N.; Siegfried, Z.; Epbstein, R. P. (2002). "A meta-analysis of the association between DRD4 polymorphism and novelty seeking". Molecular Psychiatry. 7: 712–717.
  • Lane, Christopher (2008). Shyness: How Normal Behavior Became a Sickness. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300124460.
  • Lesch, Klaus-Peter; Bengal, Dietmar; Heils, Armin; Sabol, Sue Z.; Greenberg, Benjamin D.; Petri, Susanne; Benjamin, Jonathan; Muller, Clemens R.; Hamer, Dean H.; Murphy, Dennis L. (1996). "Association of anxiety-related traits with a polymorphism in the serotonin transporter gene regulatory region". Science. 274 (5292): 1527–1531.
  • Miller, Rowland S.; Perlman, Daniel; Brehn, Sharon S. (2007). Intimate Relationships (4th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. p. 430. ISBN 9780072938012.
  • Scott, Susie (2007). Shyness and Society: the illusion of competence. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9781403996039.
  • Smoller, Jordan W.; Rosenbaum, Jerold F.; Biederman, Joseph; Susswein, Lisa S.; Kennedy, John; Kagan, Jerome; Snidman, Nancy; Laird, Nan; Tsuang, Ming T.; Faraone, Stephen V.; Schwarz, Alysandra; Slaugenhaupt, Susan A. (2001). "Genetic association analysis of behavioral inhibition using candidate loci from mouse models". American Journal of Medical Genetics. 105: 226–235.
  • Zimbardo, Philip G. (1977). Shyness: what it is, what to do about it. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley.

External links[edit]

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