User:Dranoel26/Jewish Princedom in feudal France (article)

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Umayyad troops leaving Narbonne to Pépin the Short, in 759. Painting of 1880
The Iberian Peninsula in 750 CE

A vassal Jewish Princedom in feudal France (768-900 CE) was established in Narbonne (Septimania) by the Carolingian king Pepin as a reward for Jewish cooperation in the Frankish conquest of the city in 759 CE from the Umayyad Saracens. The dynasty of Jewish rulers was later also confirmed by Pepin's son Charlemagne and endowed with significant lands and privileges. The Jewish rulers were recognised by the Carolingians also as Counts and Dukes of Toulouse (Aquitaine) and Barcelona (Spanish March). The first ruler is Makhir of Narbonne, a likely a descendant of the Babylonian Exilarch Bostanai, of the 7th century CE.

The princedom played an important role as a buffer zone in the border area between the Moslem caliphate south of the Pyrenees and the christian Frankish Empire in the north. Its counts played influential roles in the imperial military campaigns in the Spanish March and a Aquitaine and at the Carolingian court in Aachen.[1][2]

This article is summarising the Zuckerman's Princedom thesis[1] which is under ongoing critical debate and parts of which were disputed by some historians.

Geopolitical Situation in the time of the Princedom[edit]

During the the Early Middle Ages (6 - 10 century CE) we see the Byzantine Empire loosing significant territories to the expanding Umayyad Caliphate of Damascus which split around 750 CE into Abbasid Caliphate in the East and Emirate of Córdoba on the Iberian Peninsula.

The Frankish Empire in Western Europe under the Merovingian and Carolingian dynasties became the leading European power and reached its greatest expansion by the early 9th century. At that time the empire ruled over multitude of small vassal kingdoms and princedoms, often effectively independent. Their ambition for imperial office impelled Pepin and Charlemagne into a political coalition with the Abbasid Caliphate and the local Jews in the Kingdom of Franks against the Emirate of Cordoba.

In the 8th century the Vikings are expanding their settlements into European coastal and river areas effectively challenging all the ruling powers on the continent.

From religious point of view during the Early Middle Ages the Byzantine and Frankish Empires were predominantly christian, the Visigoths in the Moslem ruled Iberian Peninsula adhered to Arianism but were over time converting to Catholicism. The pagan Vikings and Slavs were Christianized only between 7th and 12th centuries. The Middle East, North Africa and Maghreb regions were under muslim rule.

The Jews during this period were able to achieve significant autonomy or even independence in some areas. In Eastern Europe the mighty Khazar Empire dominated during the Early Middle Ages wast areas north of the Caucasus up to the central parts of moder European Russia. In the second half of the 8th century, in the decades after the founding of the Princedom - the Khazars adopted Judaism as their main religion and became the largest ever Jewish kingdom of the Jewish Diaspora. They became effectively a buffer state between Byzantine Empire, nomads of the northern steppes and the Abbasid Caliphate[3]. In North Africa, just few decades before the founding of the Princedom - around 700 CE, succeeded the Jewish Jarawa Berber tribe under their legendary warrior queen Dihya to delay the Umayyad expansion into Mahreb for several years. The Abbasids recognised widely the Babylonian Exilarchs governance over the Jews. The Exilarchs executed a limited autonomy and ruled over as much as 90% of the Jewish nation of that period.[4] Overall the situation for Jews on both sites of the Pyrenees in the 7 - 10 century was relatively good, on the Spanish site even considered a Golden Age.

Makhiri Dynasty according to Zuckerman[edit]

Methodology[edit]

Princedom[1] is analysing in exhaustive way on 490 pages wast amounts of sources of different origins: monastery records, Carolingian archives, Jewish medieval texts from Europe and Babylonia, Moslem sources, Gesta heroic songs and others. Lot of energy is spend on recovering the original history from challenging sources like monastery records some of which were manipulated, re-edited and even intentionally forged in later centuries to legalise the confiscation of Jewish property[5], or from legendary and mythological sources like Gesta, which were written by many authors in multiple literary layers over several centuries around their original historical narrative. Zuckerman's approach is holistic, multicultural, combining extensive linguistic knowledge of Hebrew, Aramaic, Latin, Greek, Arabic with attention to Jewish, Christian and Moslem practice and international political alliances in Europe, Orient and North Africa in medieval times.

Zuckerman's reexamination of the source material results in new understanding and much-needed extended scholarly debate of the Septimanian history, which is only possible against the background of the historic dynamic around the Makhiri Dynasty of Jewish rulers.

Onomastic evidence[edit]

Further efforts are spend on correlating Jewish naming conventions from different cultural backgrounds. It is well known that the Exilarchs of Baghdad frequently had at least two names - a familiar Persian or Aramaic name and a formal Hebrew-biblical name [6]. The geographical and cultural mobility of Jews in post-Exilic period led to such widespread practice of combining traditional Jewish names with kinnui'im (secular nick names). As result a Jew who received a traditional Hebrew name at birth can have further Arabic or Aramaic name equivalents, if he lives in that cultural area, only to add a Latin, Greek or Frank name if moving to Europe later on. Against this practice it is for example argued that Makhir of Narbonne - the most multi-cultural personality of the dynasty - had Hebrew, Aramaic and Frank names even combined with a further nick name based on Gesta[7]. A similar approach is applied if relevant for his later descendants.

The Carolingians and the Davidic Line[edit]

The Carolingians were sensitive to accusations of the usurpation of the crown through conquest from the Merovingians. Succession to the biblical king David would be a claim of divine sanction to rule as it would legitimise their royal power. It is documented that Charlemagne called himself occasionally by the name of David.[8]. However the Charlemagnes own thinking of being the successor for biblical kings of the Jewish people required a governance over the Jews and at least nominal control over Jerusalem. Creating a vassal Jewish princedom, intermarrying with it's Davidian dynasty and building a strategic alliance with the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad who ruled also over the land of Israel and provided Charlemagne a symbolic hold in Jerusalem fulfilled both preconditions. However ideas such as these were in tension with the views of the church and the Pope Leo III. and developed in later decades into fierce opposition and conflicts[9].

Name[edit]

The Makhiri Dynasty is named after its founder Makhir of Narbonne and first Jewish ruler over the Princedom in Septimania.

The three early generations - Princedom founded by Makhir[edit]

From Babylonia to Frankia - Makhir of Narbonne[edit]

Frankish Empire 481–843 CE

Makhir of Narbonne (born in Babylonia, died 6. July, 793 in Pannonia). Known also by Hebrew name: מכיר, Machir, Aramaic name: Natronai b. Habibai, Arabic name: Al-Makhiri, Frank name: Theodoric, suggested Gesta nick name: Aymeri de Narbonne. Originally a nasi from Baghdad, was appointed by Pepin the Short in 768 a count in the Princedom of the Jews in Septimania.

Makhir was a Babylonian Exilarch and rabbinic scholar also known in Babylonia by his Aramaic name Natronai b. Habibai a scion of the "pure Jewish line" of the Exilarch Bostanai (and his wife Adoa). During the years of 763-766 CE his Exilarch succession was challenged by Zakkai b. Ahunai, known also as Baboi, of the Persian line. As a result "the Exilarch Natronai went to the West" - or according to variant readings to Tsarfat (France) or Sfarad (Spain). From the standpoint of Baghdad all of which would fit Narbonne which around these years transited from Spanish to French rule[10]. The Exilarch succession politics was interdependent with the upheaval in the Umayyad Caliphate and is paralleled with Pepins tree years diplomatic mission to Bagdad, which returned in 768 back to Marseilles and established coalition between the Carolingians and Caliph Al-Mansur against the rebellious Emirate of Córdoba. In the same year was Makhir invited by the Carolingians to became the first nasi (Exilarch) appointed as ruler in Narbonne.

The year 768 was significant from still other surprising aspect: during this year the King Messias ben Ephraim was expected according to some Jewish Kabbalistic interpretations as it coincided with the end of seven hundred years of the Second Temple destruction[11].

Rise to power, Life, Sources

For their cooperation to end the seven years long siege of Narbonne in 759 CE, Pepin the Short promised the local Jews a recognition and a prince nasi of their own.

This was implemented 9 years later in 768 when Makhir of the Davidic lineage was received from Baghdad by Pepin and his son Charlemagnes into the Frank nobility and dubbed with the distinguished name Theodoric. Makhir-Theodoric was granted by the Carolingian broad authority over Jews and Christians, extensive hereditary territories and "a great possession". Part of it was former church property lost decades before to the Umayyad Caliphate. Makhir became by an act of commendation a vassal of the Carolingian who in turn received overlordship of the Jews as evidence of entering legitimate biblical succession. Makhir received Carolingian princess as his wife - apparently Alda, the daughter of Charles Martel and sister of Pepin[7]. A Hebrew description of these events was documented by Abraham ibn Daud, author of Sefer Seder HaQabbalah (Book of the Order of Tradition) - specially in the Addendum to Sefer HaQabbalah (composed before 1165, when the then young nasi Kalonymos b. Tordos, a supposed descendant of Makhir is still alive). It refers consistently to Makhir and his descendants as a dynasty of nesi'im princes whose power and position in Narbonne were virtually identical with that of the Exilarchs (k'mo rashe galuyot) in Babylonia[12].

This assignment of "a great possession" was immediately sharply protested by Pope Stephen III. to no avail in a papal epistle dated 768 complaining bitterly about gift of money and cession of territory to the Narbonne Jewry[13]. Exactly the same claim of great endowment in favor of a Jewish scion of royal lineage from Baghdad finds corresponding evidence also in the Gesta.[14] Jewish principate in Septimania represented a significant theological challenge to the church during its whole existence and its aftertaste could be still perceived even in the 12th century after the Princedom lost most of its real power from the Carolingian era. In a caustic remark during a theological messianic dispute (before 1143) about Genesis 49:10 Peter the Venerable of Clune demanded from the Jews to produce an example of a king of the House of Juda and rejects their claim about a such Jewish King in Narbonne because he did not fulfil his theological expectation of ruling over the Holy Land: "As for me, I will not accept that king (as something worthy of ridicule) whom some of you claim to have in Narbonne, the city in Gaul, others in Rouen. I will not accept a Jew as a King of the Jews except one residing in and ruling the Kingdom of the Jews (namely, Palestine)". This document mentioning a Jewish king in Narbonne is older then any of the Hebrew and Gesta sources and is therefore independent of all of these[15].

Interestingly in 1829 Dumège reported the presence of a now lost manuscript from archives the Abbey Lagrasse near Narbonne telling a similar narrative of a king of the Jews, descendant of the prophet Daniel (also descendant of Davidic line according to rabbinic tradition[16]) who ruled in Narbonne during the reign of Charlemagne. This document also mentioned that in 791 the Jewish king send an embassy of ten Jews lead by Isaac to Charlemagne, paying a large summe for making the privilege to a king of their own in Narbonne permanent. Charlemagne accepted and ceded to them the part of Narbonne where they settled[17].

Further a fragment of a legal document from December 5th, 791 is explicitly naming Makhir of Narbonne as Maghario Count of Narbonne - a Romanized form of Makhir. It is the only non-Hebrew document specifically mentioning Makhir of Narbonne[18].

Makhir participated successfully in multiple military campaigns to secure the southwestern border of the Frankish empire.The most important was conquering the Spanish March on both sides of the Pyrenees in 791. In the same year Charlemagne's privilegium confirmed in an impressive council the Jewish Exilarchate as a permanent institution regulating and defining the power status in Septimania and March of Spain, mainly half of Narbonne and half of the King's income in the County and beyond. The possessions of the Nasi of Narbonne and the holdings of the Jews are shown to remain largely intact until the eleventh century[19].

With the rebellious border area to Spain now pacified Charlemagne turned his attention to the east to war against the Avars. A tremendous army was assembled and Makhir-Theodoric was charged with the command of one third of it. The enemy fled. However in the spring of 793 Makhir-Theodoric had to split his army and send significant part of his forces to Charlemagne in Frisia where it was massacred by Saxons on the Weser. Detached of his forces Makhir-Theodoric fell in battle on 6. July, 793 in Pannonia. He was succeeded by his son William[20].

Later on in the chansons de geste Makhir came to be known as Aymeri a famous warrior and an ancestor of a line of heroes[21].

Family and children

Makhir probably arrived to Narbonne already with his first wife and family, which might result in parallel lines of succession[22].

Makhir and an unnamed first wife had the following children:

  • Nathan b. Makhir (Rabbi Domatus[23])
  • Menachem b. Makhir.
  • Yakir b. Makhir
  • Nathan and Menachem (or their younger brother Yakir) wrote a family chronicle of the Makhiri dynasty which was probably one of the sources for Ma'ase HaMakhiri (Deed of the Makhiri) an 11th century work. Eliezer ben Nathan refers to it as "Thus did I see in the Ma'ase HaMakhiri" [24].

With his supposed second wife Alda of France he had the following son:

International politics and Conquest of Barcelona - William, Count of Toulouse and Gellone[edit]

William Count of Toulouse and Gellone (c. 755 – 28. May 812 or 814 CE) known also by Hebrew name: יצחק, Isaac. In the court circles he was sometimes called Naso as related to his Hebrew title nasi. In medieval epics he was known as William of the curved nose (Naso), sometimes used also as a derogatory nickname for his son Bernard[25]. William was the son of Makhir of Narbonne and Alda, a daughter of Charles Martel.

Reign and Life

The young William replaced the in 790 dismissed Chorso as commander and Duke of Toulouse. His magnificent physical strengt was distinguishing and William probably joined his father Makhir-Theodoric in the Charlemagne's campaigns in the East, which left the Septimania area unprotected and weakened by Makhirs dead. The new Emir Hisham I. took in 793 the opportunity, declared jihad against the Franks and attacked Girona and Narbonne areas and took large booty. William returned home from the eastern front too late to hold the invaders. As result William had to start his fathers reconquest of the Spanish March all over.

William was involved at Charlemagne's court in Frankish foreign policy as an ambassador. His knowledge of Hebrew, Arabic and further languages was impressive[26]. He was part of the Charlemagnes diplomatic mission to Harun ar-Rashid in Baghdad and Jerusalem 797-803 which secured for Charlemagne the Banner of Jerusalem, a symbolic transfer of the Holy City, for his coronation as emperor in 800 and political aliance for invasion to Spain. During the mission was William naturally referred by the Jewish participants by his Hebrew name Isaac. Isaac-William brought from his mission presents from Harun ar-Rashid to Charlemagne, including the famous Abul-Abbas [27].

After his return from Baghdad William led together with his sons Heribert and Bera the Frank forces at the siege and capture of Barcelona in November 803. Zuckerman rejects other dating of the siege and concludes that the chronicler who wrote the original report of the siege and fall of Barcelona, now found in Ermold Niger's Latin poem, clearly recorded the events according to the Jewish calendar - the siege was announced by King Louis for New Moon in September 803, but actually started only three days later after the conclusion of Rosh HaShana (Jewish New Year and new moon) and the subsequent Sabbath on Sunday 24 September 803, beginning of the Hebrew year 4564, continued only with low intensity over Sukkot (Feast of Tabernacles). Two months later on Saturday 18 October 803 Barcelona surrendered and opened its gates. However the Franks deliberately delayed the triumphant entry to the city till Sunday 19 October 803 to avoid desecration of "the Holly Sabbath", where unnecessary military activity is forbidden under Jewish law. The pious Duke William of Narbonne and Toulouse and his men conducted the whole military campaign with strict observance of Jewish Sabbath and holidays. King Louis joint the end of the siege and gave Bera command of the newly captured fortress enabling William to return home to Narbonne or Toulouse[28].

With William now at the height of his career and political influence a monastery legend lets him became a monk under the influence of Benedict of Aniane at a monastery of Gallone. The facts seem however quite the opposite, he never became a monk[29]. It is William's influence at the courts of Charlemagne and his son Louis the Pious which led to interest in Judaism on the part of several courtiers, some of whom eventually converted to Judaism, resulting in the next generation in the most prominent and dramatic conversion to Judaism of Bodo, Deacon of Emperor Louis[30]. All this was viewed by the church as negative Jewish influence in the court which needs to be banned. In fact it must be assumed that later court chronicles were carefully editing out evidence[31] about the constructive role of the Makhiri dynasty and calling attention to Jews "only under circumstances which compromise their loyalty or depict them as enemies of Christianity".[32]

The chansons on the other hand were less concerned about church censorship and picture William as hero protecting Christianity from Moslem attacks, mentioning some William's typical Jewish practices - feeding his animals first, washing hands carefully before eating and even, with a portion of irony, having the pope to grand him a life long permission to eat meat every day of the week or having as many wives as he wants (polygamy was outlawed for European Jews only in the 11th century)[33].

As nasi William founded a library and academy of Jewish learning in Gallone - Bet-El (Casa Dei) which had also commercial and military function, and where he probably spend the last years before his death around 823. After his death the abbots of the neighbouring Aniane monastery took control of it and it was converted into a monastery[34].

William was a person of truly remarkable achievement. His passing emboldened the archbishop Agobard of Lyon who became the protagonist for restoration of church property and limiting of Jewish influence at the court[35].

Family and children

William's son and successor Bernard of Septimania was probably the youngest son from his wife Guiburc (Witburg) whom the chansons designate consistently as of non-Christian origin "from beyond the sea"[36].

William's second wife Cunegund and further children (Gerberga, Heribert and others[37]) are mentioned in two documents related to the founding of Gellone dated to December 14th and 15th 804. These documents were forged in the 11th century during a property conflict between the monasteries of Gellone and Aniane. Some researches believe further that Bernard of Septimania was intentionally removed from the later document to hide the fact that Bernard's son also named William was executed, his brother Heribert was blinded other brother Gothselm was decapitated, his sister Gerberga was drowned for witchcraft while their father Bernard was put to death by the order of Charles the Bald[38].

Bera, Count of Barcelona was probably also a son of William.

Rise and fall - Bernard of Septimania[edit]

Lands of Bernard of Septimania 835 CE

Bernard of Septimania (born about 805-806, died 844) was the son of William Count of Toulouse and Gellone and Guiburc and the grandson of Makhir-Theodoric. Like them he was Duke of Septimania. Like his father he was sometimes called at the court Naso as related to his Hebrew title nasi. Sometimes used by his opponents also as a derogatory nickname for his prominent nose[25].

Reign and Life

Bernard was the most colourful son of William. He held significant power in his domain, the March of Spain. His life is well documented mainly because of being the chamberlain of Emperor Louis the Pious. He was considered at court second after the King and at the time of his death Septimania was known as "kingdom"[39].

Zuckerman is in general well aligned with Bernard's widely accepted history, but he reconstructs several important elements which can be best understood against his background as nasi. As a protagonist of Empress Judith, protector of her son Charles and advocate of new court order he aroused fierce opposition. Bernard's court opponents Wala and bishop Agobard circulated rumours that Bernard and the young pretty queen Judith were guilty of adulterous relations. Walla also accused Bernard of casting a magic spell against the Emperor Louis[40].

In the midst of these developments took place a further dramatic incident; Bodo, Deacon of Emperor Louis converted to Judaism in 838. Bodo fled to Spain, changed his name to Eleazar, married a Jewish women, engaged in literary debate with Albar of Cordova, which is also viewed as related to the Makhiri role in Frankia. Bodo-Eleazar eventually became a prominent member of the Talmudic academies in Babylonia[30].

Bernard's position in Frankish Jewry and growing political influence resulted in strong antagonism in church circles. The rebellion against Emperor Louis targeted also Bernard and limited his power. The dead of Emperor Louis forced Bernard to maneuver between the Pepin's and Charles the Bald's parties. The intrigues alienated Charles, who executed Bernard for treason at Toulouse in 844[41].

Ther clergy became big beneficiary of the execution as it now received multiple properties and land grands around Narbonne[42].

The execution of the nasi led the Carolingians to revise their policy regarding Jews as protectors of the southern coastal areas and considering their replacement. The execution of Bernard also strengthened the church party who now hoped for stronger anti-Jewish legislation. These efforts were led by bishop Hincmar and bishop Amolo, successor of Agobard and antagonist of Jews[43] and culminated at church councils of Meaux-Paris 845-846 creating multiple anti-Jewish canons and laws focusing on limiting Jewish influence in the court, military, governance, commerce and forbidding conversion from Christians to Judaism and the management of church properties by Jews[44]. During 8th and 9th century some Goths (Visigoths) who's ancestors adhered to Arianism in the past converted to Judaism in Septimania (later Gothia) and Spanish March (called later also Gotholania, Catalonia). At that time the christian Goths were called Gothi, but also Jews in the area were called Gothi as the term connoted a population inhabiting that geographical area and not necessarily an ethnic or religious community. This blurred the distinction between Jews and non-Jews in the documents during the reign of the Makhiri dynasty making it extremely difficult to identify Jews who are designated Gothi during that period[45].

Bernard's line died out with his execution in 844 and with the passing of his sons who left no known Jewish offspring[46].

Family and children

Bernard married Dhuoda at Aix-la-Chapelle on 25 June 824. According to some sources Dhuoda was sister of sister in law of Emperor Louis le Dembonnaire[47]. They had two sons:

  • William of Septimania (born 29 November 826 - 850) - to him the learned Dhuoda addressed her famous Manual, which is, at least in its present form, a pious Christian document[48]. William was 18 at the time of his father death. He continued his fathers alliance with Pepin II. but before he could stabilise his power in the south he was executed in 850 at young age after fleeing to Barcelona on the order of Charles the Bald[49][50].
  • Marquis Bernard (22 March 841 at Uzes - 872) - Dhuoda mentioned in her Manual that before her new-born infant could be baptised, her husband ordered his son to be brought to him in Aquitaine (presumably for circumcision on the eight day after birth). Surprisingly "Bishop" Elefant, who carried Bernard's order did not baptised the infant and even eight months later it is still reported unbaptised[48]. Marquis Bernard was nine years old when his father died and he was the only surviving male member of the Makhir-William-Bernard clan[50].

Other family:

Bernard's brother Heribert was blinded, his other brother Gothselm was decapitated, his sister Gerberga "a religious" was drowned for witchcraft by Lothar[49][51].

The late generations - Salomon's branch of the family[edit]

Saving the continuity after disaster - Salomon Makhiri[edit]

Salomon Makhiri, (dead between 18 August 868 and April 870) count of several regions south of the Pyrenees became Marquis of the Spanish March and Septimania and leader of the Jews after Bernard's older son William of Septimania died in 850. He was married to the daughter of William, Count of Toulouse (or daughter of Makhir of Narbonne)[52]. Salomon was probably not of direct Makhir lineage but he emerged as the leader of the dynasty after the disastrous deaths of the Bernards relatives[44]. Salomon and his father are both mentioned in a medieval Targum[53] (Aramaic Bible translation) as the ancestors of the text Punctuator. The correct reading of the father's name is disputed (suggested readings are: Anatom, Aghatos, Tobias, Menachem[54]) but it is clear that Salomon is member of the Makhiri clan or married into it, because two of his ancestors bore this family name. This text also implies that Salomon frustrated the efforts ("... broke in pieces the horn of the scoffer...") of Hincmar, archbishop of Reims[55]. He is therefore celebrated in the Chansons as Bueve Cornebut - Bovo Horn Buster (implying the Hebrew biblical term keren in meaning of power, breaking power)[52].

Reign and Life

After Bernard's execution the Jews, who were till now highly efficient protectors of the Spanish frontier, felt that King Charles the Bald had broken their pact. Simultaneously the military situation derogated under multiple Viking and Saracen attacks during 844-847. Salomon's political role became essential for Charles the Bald as Salomon, in line with the experience of his predecessors, engineered in 846-847 in Rheims a peace treaty with the Emir of Cordoba. The grateful king, in anticipation, reconsidered his attitude towards the Jewish community and to the frustration of the Bishops Hincmar and Amolo, rejected in 846 at Diet of Epernay their anti-Jewish pro-ecclesiastical program and returned to the old political arrangements. Such gesture of reconciliation by Salomon reunited the cooperation of the Jewish community with Charles the Bald which eventually isolated further Bernard's older son William in his support for Pepin II. against Charles[56].

It is suggested that Abbasids of Baghdad, the former allies of the Carolingians and the Makhir dynasty helped in 852 to reconquer Barcelona. This strengthened once again the Jewry of the Spanish March, Narbonne-Barcelona area (called Ispamia in Hebrew sources[57]), which emerged as well advanced cultural and political power in the area, leading to about 40 years of great prosperity. Paltoi Gaon of Pumbeditha (842-858) sent to these communities the entire Talmud with commentary at their request. This imply stability, growth in learning as well as material resources. Natronai Gaon of Sura (853-858/63) reports about Jewish immigration from Kairouan to the Barcelona County and about his halachic and spiritual guidance provided to them. Some letters between the Babylonian Sura and Ispamia are addressed to the "Sages of Barcelona" implying the existence of substantial community[44][58].

Salomon went in 863 on a diplomatic mission to Cordoba to ensure the continuation peaceful relations with Frankia. The rise of Salomon as a very close confidant of Charles the Bald coincided with the decline of Archbishop Hincmar's power[59]. During Salomon's rule was his area called in some sources as kingdom[60].

Salomon lost his live in the hands of a young assassin Winfred le Velu between 18 August 868 and April 870 when the Velu clan started a rebellion in the Spanish March[61]. He was succeeded by his son Makhir of Auvergne also called Bernard[62].

Kingdom in the summit of expansion - Makhir of Avern (Auvergne)[edit]

Makhir of Auvergne (died c. 886) is mentioned as the son of Salomon Makhiri in the same Targum source as his father[53]. Zuckerman identifies him as identical with Bernard Plantevelue, husband of Ermengarde. Bernard-Makhir succeeded his father Salomon.

Reign and Life

In June 864 Bernard--Makhi replaced the rebelling Humphrey as Count of Autun - these lands were once held in trust by Emperor Louis for William, son of Bernard of Septimania. In 866 Count Bernard appears as lay abbot of St. Julien de Brioude in the Auvergne. Bernard holds similarly to his father Salomon the title marquis and also the dignity duke. His office and extended possessions in Auvergne, Autun, Aquitaine and the March of Spain made him a ranking personage of the Midi. He took his residence in Narbonne (mentioned in court judgement in 13 June 870)[63]. During this period there are three person known as Bernard in south Frankia, resulting in disputes among the historians[64].

The Threaty of Meersen added in 870 Lotharingia to the kingdom of Charles the Bald. The ascension of Charles to the imperial office in 875 increased also the dignity and responsibility of Bernard-Makhir. Following the inclusion of Lotharingia Bernard-Makhir received as nasi the conditional pledge of homage of Lotharingian Jewry. This was conditional on abolishing the annual disgraceful public wounding of an Jewish leader in Toulouse by church representative while paying an wax oblation[2]. Bernard-Makhir brought charges against the ecclesiastical authorities, the Emperor ordered a court investigation and the decision went against the church authorities. However it was re-instituted after the monarch died. The nasi continued complaining, in the new less favorable political situation and could still achieve an improved royal decision in 883. It seems that archbishop Hincmar of Rheims was the leading spirit behind taxing Jews and restitution of former ecclesiastical properties. His dead in 882 opened the way for a more favorable royal decision in 883.

In 872 Bernard son of Bernard of Septimatia died in an ambush, which terminated that line of Makhiri[60]. In the same year Makhir-Bernard of Avern received royal appointment to the triumvirate of Aquitaine. He was responsible for the reconquest of Barcelona for the Franks in 876 or early 877 as result of the efforts by the Jews, who remained loyal to the Emperor, and reintegration of the Spanish March back into the Frank control after the flight of Winfred le Velu and his associates[60].

The dead of Carloman in 884 catapulted Duke Bernard Plantevelue - Makhir of Auvergne to the summit of his power and prestige. He reached in the South similar glory to his ancestors William of Toulouse and Gellone and Makhir of Narbonne. He may even have surpassed them as he is reputed a virtual king of his own domain. Occasionally in the ninth century is Septimania entitled "kingdom"[60]. Bernard-Makhir now appears as chief warrior of the legitimate Carolingian dynasty and of the Emperor Charles the Fat against the usurper Boso.

Duke Bernard Plantapilosa-Makhir of Auvergne lost his life in battle in 886, fighting for his sovereign, Emperor Charles the Fat[65].

Family and children

Bernard-Makhir married Ermengaude. Their son was Margrave William and daughter Adelinde.

Decline - Margrave William[edit]

Markgrave William (died 6 July, 918), son of Makhir-Bernhard secured confirmation of his late father's offices and estates by act of Emperor Charles the Fat in 886. He inherited significant territories in Frankia's Midi; Toulouse, Auvergne, Septimania, Spanish March and others[66]. Some monastery editors are painting him at the time of his dead as William the "Pious".

Reign and Life

It is unclear if Markgrave William continued also his father's office as nasi and possibly this office was now separated from the duke office. Markgrave William was over time unable to retain the large inheritance. We see Wifred le Velu to reappear in the Spanish March and taking control at least in part of it. Control of the Spanish March would be significant for the office of nasi[67].

Anarchy begins to rule Frankia after the Emperor Charles the Fast died in 886.

Markgrave William's dead on 6 July, 918 without heirs marked the terminal point of this dynasty of Makhiri exilarchs in Narbonne[68].

William the Young, an older nephew, succeeded Margrave William. William the Young and his younger brother Effroi (Acfred) were the offspring of his sister Adelinde and Count Effroi of Razes. Willian the Young maintained his loyalty to King Charles the Simple. Effroi died on 11 October 927 as the last know scion of the Makhiri dynasty mentioned in non-Hebrew documents[69].

It is possible that Vita S. Austremonii intents for Markgrave William alias Princeps Judaeorum - Prince of the Jews, as becoming extremely angry after the Saint baptised his son Boso[70].

Family and children

Markgrave William married Engelberga the daughter of King Boso and Queen Ermengarde. Their son was named Boso, after his grandfather and died young during the life of his father[68].

Matrix of the seal of nasi Kalonymos ben Todros, last Jewish ruler of Narbonne c. 1200 CE, showing the royal lion of Judah.

Legacy, Descendants of the Makhiri Dynasty[edit]

Zuckerman's research follows the Jewish princes until the tents century, where their traces are getting lost in the chaotic conditions which marked the decline and the end of the Carolingian rule.

A collateral branch of the family known as Kalonymides came to power when in the year 917 CE when King Charles the Simple invited Rabbi Moses the Elder and his family to emigrate from Lucca and his son's name En-Kalonymos points to a residence in South of France[68].

After the 10th century one part of the dynasty descendants possibly assimilated further with the surrounding Frankish aristocracy. Others might be found during the middle ages in the Benveniste and related families on both sides of the Pyrenees.

In eleventh-century Granada a report that Josef son of Samuel ibn Nagrela started negotiation with a neighbouring ruler about setting up a Jewish principality led to a riot[71].

The past glory still echoed in the internal Jewish pre-revolutionary discussion around 1788 about their future status where the french southwestern Jews who "were convinced that they belonged to the aristocracy, if only because they were descended from the leading families of the tribe of Juda" expressed worries that the upcoming emancipation could result in loosing some of their privileges and reducing their status to the level of their Alsatian brothers[72].

Timeline[edit]

Years CE
719 - 720 Moslems capture Narbonne
756 Emirate of Cordoba proclaimed independent from the Abassid Caliphate
752 - 759 Pepin's siege of Narbonne, resulting in a conquest of the city with Jewish assistance
763 - 766 Makhir's Exilarch succession challenged in Baghdad, he "leaves to the West". Paralleled with an upheaval in the Umayyad Caliphate.
765 - 768 Pepin's diplomatic mission to Bagdad
768 Makhir of Narbonne invited by the Carolingians as its first nasi and ruler. Jewish Princedom established in Narbonne, Septimania.
790 Young William Count of Toulouse replaced the in 790 dismissed Chorso as commander and Duke of Toulouse
791 Makhir's Conquest of the Spanish March. Jewish Princedom becomes a permanent institution, recognised by Charlemagne
793 Makhir-Theodoric fell in battle in Pannonia, Saracens attacked Girona and Narbonne. William succeeds Makhir
797-803 William-Isaac is ambassador in the Charlemagne's diplomatic mission to Baghdad and Jerusalem
800 Charlemagne coronated as emperor in Rome
803 William Count of Toulouse and Gellone captures Barcelona in November 803
816 Agobard of Lyon became archbishop of Lyon
before 823 William Count of Toulouse and Gellone died at age of about 53
829 Bernard of Septimania became chamberlain of Louis the Pious
838 Bodo-Eleazar, Deacon of Emperor incident
840 death of Louis the Pious, Bernard's alliance with Pepin II.
844 Bernard executed in Toulouse. Vikings took Bordeaux and attack Toulouse in the same year
845 & 847 Vikings attacking Paris
846 Saracens invaded Italy
847 Salomon Makhiri arranged peace treaty with the Emir
850 Bernard's son William of Septimania was executed in Barcelona
863 Salomon went on a diplomatic mission to Cordoba
c. 869 Salomom Makhiri assassinated in Barcelona
864 Makhir of Auvergne (Bernard Plantevelue) replaced the rebelling Humphrey as Count of Autun
876 Makhir-Bernard reintegrated Barcelona into the Frank realm
877 Dead of Emperor Charles the Bald
881 Charles the Fat became Emperor
886 Dead of Makhir-Bernard
886 Markgrave William son of Makhir-Bernard confirmed as successor by Charles the Fat
888 Dead of Emperor Charles the Fat
918 Dead of Markgrave William, the last nasi of Makhiri dynasty
917 Kalonymides branch of family in succession
927 Dead of Effroi son of Markgrave William, last heir of the Makhiri dynasty

Discussion and Controversy[edit]

Since its publication in 1972 much critical debate has centred on the idea of Jewish Princedom and the identity of the dynasty members. There are two main positions:

Rejecting approach[edit]

In 1973 Chazan criticised in the Princedom book review Zuckerman's interpretation of the Pope's Stephen III. epistle.[73][74]

In 1997 Taylor published an article which mostly rejects the idea of a Jewish Princedom and the Makhiri dynasty and lamented its spreading into genealogical circles. He considers the Jewish medieval sources and the epic cycle of Chanson de geste mostly legendary and therefore not very convincing. But his strongest rejection is addressing Zuckerman's postulate correlating the "real or imagined" dynasty of Jewish leaders with the Guilhemides and the related onomastic evidence. Taylor's article also summarises the earlier articles of Graboïs[75], Cohen[76] and Bachrach[77] who published similar articles critiquing some elements of Zuckerman's thesis.[78]

Supporting approach[edit]

In 1972 Baron wrote a foreword to the first edition of the Princedom, hoping that it will lead to reexamination of the source materials and much-needed extended scholarly debate about the dark period of Narbonnese Jewry. He points out that despite the efforts of Rashi and other Tosafists to impose upon medieval French Jewry observances as formulated by the Babylonia Talmud, many ancient traditions, divergent customs, uncommon behavioural patterns and kabbalistic speculations among the Jews of Narbonne and southern France survived as late as 14th century and can only be understood against the background of a uniquely independent Jewish community well apart from French and world Jewish cultural life.[79]

In 1977 Kelley wrote similar ideas about descents from King David.[80]

In 1982 Moncreiffe in his compilation of the British royals genealogy mentions the difficulty to undertake genealogical research outside of Christendom. The investigations of Kelley and Zimmerman are viewed as "strong probability" which makes "good case" for identifying Makhir of Narbonne of the Royal House of David with Theuderic, Duke of Toulouse and making him ancestor of Arnaud 'manzer', Count of Angoulême, himself the forefather of Queen Isabella of Angoulême, mother of King Henry III. of England.[81]

In 2003 Kelley published a study supporting Zuckerman's Princedom thesis in general. Kelley considers that Salomon, Count of Roussillon was indeed a Jewish king of Narbonne and is "a priori the most probable" of all suggested Jewish rulers. However Salomon's identification with Bernard, Count of Auvergne is rejected. Further he suggests that alternative to Zuckerman's identification of Makhir (Hebrew name) with Exilarch Natronai (Aramic name) these are actually two person, who might be brothers. He considers it reasonable that both were of the House of David and likely descendants of the Exilarch Bustanai. Further he considers reasonable that Isaac the Ambassador was indeed the son of Makhir and points out that Taylor's rejection of this possibility is wrong.[82]

The Princedom thesis is receiving undiminished attention in many genealogical publications, at the Augustan Society[83] and others.[84][85][86][87][88][89]

In art[edit]

The area of Septimania, neighbouring counties and specifically the medieval Rennes-le-Château fascinated since long time mystery seekers and fantasy book authors. Legends about the lost treasures of the Second Temple last seen when the Visigoths conquered Rome are in the air, Holy Grail stories and medieval Jewish Kabbalist meet all in the same geographical area, challenging the historians, but inspiring the artists.

Books about the Jewish Kingdom in Septimania:

The Messiah of Septimania, by Lee Levin (2010)[90] is a historic novel about Makhir, the first Jewish ruler of Septimania. Written in adherence to strickt historical accuracy based on Zuckerman's research. It includes an Epilogue revealing what is true and what is fantasy in the story.

Septimania, by Jonathan Levi (2017)[91] is a fantasy novel combining present and past, spy agency, dyslexic math genius and the former Jewish Kingdom of Septimania into one mystery.

See also[edit]

List of Jewish states and dynasties

History of the Jews in France

Davidic line

Bostanai

Benveniste

List of Jewish Kabbalists

Hachmei Provence

County of Barcelona

Treaty of Verdun

Notes[edit]


References[edit]

  1. ^ a b c Zuckerman, Arthur J. (1972). A Jewish princedom in feudal France, 768-900. New York,: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-03298-6. OCLC 333768.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  2. ^ a b Zuckerman, Arthur J. (1965). "The Nasi of Frankland in the Ninth Century and the "Colaphus Judaeorum" in Toulouse". Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research. 33: 51. doi:10.2307/3622409.
  3. ^ Brook, Kevin Alan,. The Jews of Khazaria (Third edition ed.). Lanham. ISBN 978-1-5381-0342-5. OCLC 1006532607. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. ^ Gubbay, Lucien. (2000). Sunlight and shadow : the Jewish experience of Islam. New York: Other Press. ISBN 1-892746-69-7. OCLC 44454671.
  5. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. pp. 167-168.
  6. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. pp. 82.
  7. ^ a b Zuckerman, Princedom. pp. 372-373.
  8. ^ Garipzanov, Ildar H. (2008). The symbolic language of authority in the Carolingian world (c. 751-877). Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-474-3340-8. OCLC 593231627.
  9. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. pp. 32-35. (also citing P. Munz)
  10. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. pp. 79-80.
  11. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. pp. 102-111.
  12. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. pp. 58-60, 89-90. (citing A. ibn Daud, Sefer HaQabbalah)
  13. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. pp. 72-73.
  14. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. pp. 61.
  15. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. pp. 96. (Citing L. Loeb, Polemiste chretiens et juifs)
  16. ^ Daniel. Ezra. Nehemiah : Hebrew text & English translation. Slotki, Judah J., Oratz, Ephraim., Shahar, Ravshalom. (Rev. 2nd ed ed.). London: Soncino Press. 1992. pp. xi. ISBN 1-871055-75-X. OCLC 26587111. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: others (link)
  17. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. pp. 63, 138-139. (citing A. Dumège)
  18. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. pp. 180. (from Johannis Mabillon, De re diplomatica)
  19. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. pp. 175-178, 373.
  20. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. pp. 181.
  21. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. pp. 374.
  22. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. pp. 120.
  23. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. pp. 252-254.
  24. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. pp. 244.
  25. ^ a b Zuckerman, Princedom. pp. 263. (Calmette, De Bernardo)
  26. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. pp. 117. (multiple references)
  27. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. pp. 172, 186, 190.
  28. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. pp. 192-197.
  29. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. pp. 207 ff
  30. ^ a b Zuckerman, Princedom. p. 374.
  31. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. p. 209. (citing Pückert about falsification of sources )
  32. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. p. 205
  33. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. p. 203. note #71
  34. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. pp. 222-233, 244, 375.
  35. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. pp. 245-258, 375.
  36. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. p. 263.
  37. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. pp. 121, 184, 191, 193, 266, 310.
  38. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. pp. 226-229. citing Pückert
  39. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. p. 267 (citing Nithard, Historia)
  40. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. p. 270.
  41. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. pp. 375-376.
  42. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. pp. 289-290.
  43. ^ Bishop Amolo. Epistola Contra Judaeos.
  44. ^ a b c Zuckerman, Princedom. p. 376.
  45. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. pp. 261, 192 - note #39, 343 note #66.
  46. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. p. 265.
  47. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. p. 122. (citing Gesta Domini Ludovici imperatoris)
  48. ^ a b Zuckerman, Princedom. p. 264.
  49. ^ a b Zuckerman, Princedom. p. 228.
  50. ^ a b Zuckerman, Princedom. p. 314
  51. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. p. 272.
  52. ^ a b Zuckerman, Princedom. p. 315. (citing Langlois and Suchier)
  53. ^ a b MS Codex der Rossi. Parma. 1311. pp. no. 12 (2004).
  54. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. p. 308. (citing Neubauer and Graetz)
  55. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. pp. 308.
  56. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. p. 312.
  57. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. p. 317. (citing rabbinic Responsa)
  58. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. p. 321.
  59. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. p. 330.
  60. ^ a b c d Zuckerman, Princedom. p. 377
  61. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. p. 332. (citing Gesta comitum Barcinonensium)
  62. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. p. 334.
  63. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. pp. 334-336.
  64. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. pp. 336-341.
  65. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. p. 361.
  66. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. p. 362.
  67. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. p. 363.
  68. ^ a b c Zuckerman, Princedom. p. 368
  69. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. p. 370.
  70. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. pp. 365-367.
  71. ^ Perlmann, M. (1949). Eleventh Century Andalusian Authors on the Jews. PAAJR. pp. p. 289. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  72. ^ Benbassa, Esther. (2001). The Jews of France : a History from Antiquity to the Present. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 73. ISBN 978-1-4008-2314-7. OCLC 700688446.
  73. ^ Zuckerman, Arthur J. "Communications". Jewish Social Studies. 37:2: 187–189.
  74. ^ Chazan, Robert (April 1973). "Review of 'A Jewish Princedom in Feudal France, 768–900', by Arthur J. Zuckerman". Jewish Social Studies. 35:2: 163–165.
  75. ^ Graboïs, Aryeh (1973). "Une Principaute Juive dans la France du Midi a l'Époque Carolingienne?". Annales du Midi. 85: pp. 191-202. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  76. ^ Cohen, Jeremy (1977). "The Nasi of Narbonne: A Problem in Medieval Historiography". AJS Review. 2: pp. 45-76. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  77. ^ Bechrach, Bernard (1980). "On the role of the Jews in the establishment of the Spanish March (768-814)". Hispanica Judaica: Studies in the History, Language and Literature of the Jews in the Hispanic World: pp. 11-19. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  78. ^ Taylor, Nathaniel L. (1997). "Saint William, King David, and Makhir: A Controversial Medieval Descent". The American Genealogist. 72: 203–221.
  79. ^ Zuckerman, Princedom. pp. vii. - Foreword by Salo W. Baron, Columbia University
  80. ^ Kelley, David H. "Who Descends from King David?". Toledot: the Journal of Jewish Genealogy. 1977–78, 1.3: 3–5.
  81. ^ Moncreiffe of that Ilk, Iain, 1919-1985. (1982). Royal Highness : ancestry of the royal child. London: Hamish Hamilton. pp. 8–9. ISBN 0-241-10840-3. OCLC 9731644.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  82. ^ Kelley, David H. (2003). "Was Solomon, Count of Roussillon, A Jewish King of Narbonne?". Foundations. 1 (2): 75–80.
  83. ^ Bryant-Abraham, Charles. "De Domo et Familia David: Davidic Descents to the House of Plantagenet". The Augustan. Vol. XXV, No. 3, Issue #107 in 1996 and later: 47 pp. {{cite journal}}: |volume= has extra text (help)
  84. ^ Wagner, Anthony, 1908-1995. (1975). Pedigree and progress : essays in the genealogical interpretation of history. London: Phillimore. ISBN 0-85033-198-6. OCLC 2312003.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  85. ^ "Review of Holy Blood, Holy Grail". The Genealogist. 3 (1982): 249–263.
  86. ^ Baigent, Michael. (2004). Holy blood, Holy Grail. Leigh, Richard, 1943-2007., Lincoln, Henry. (Delta trade paperback ed ed.). New York: Delta Trade Paperbacks. ISBN 0-385-33845-7. OCLC 54530039. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
  87. ^ Stuart, Roderick W. (2002). Royalty for commoners : the complete known lineage of John of Gaunt, son of Edward III, King of England, and Queen Philippa (4th ed ed.). Baltimore, MD: Genealogical Pub. Co. ISBN 0-8063-1687-X. OCLC 48937386. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
  88. ^ Stone, Done Charles (1996). Some Ancient and Medieval Descents. Philadelphia. pp. chart 72.
  89. ^ Hughes, David (2013). Chronicle of the Kings and Queens of Britain. Heritage Books, Inc. ISBN 9780788454974.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  90. ^ Levin, Lee. (2011). The messiah of Septimania : a Jewish kingdom in medieval France : a novel. [Kansas City, MO]: Royal Heritage Press. ISBN 978-0-9831027-1-7. OCLC 754910115.
  91. ^ Levi, Jonathan, 1955-. Septimania : a novel (First edition ed.). New York, NY. ISBN 978-1-4683-1333-8. OCLC 946075122. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)


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