User:Jnestorius/Amateurism

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Core

See also

Definitions[edit]

Holt, Richard (2003). "The Historical Meaning of Amateurism; An outline". In Dunning, Eric; Malcolm, Dominic (eds.). Sport: Critical Concepts in Sociology. Vol. III: Sport and Power Relations. Taylor & Francis. pp. 270–285. ISBN 978-0-415-26295-8.

  • is there a maximum cash prize and/or maximum prize value for amateurs
  • applies to teachers of sport, club professionals, markers
  • salary, appearance fees, endorsements
  • athletic scholarships
  • own sport or all sports? (GAA no)
  • class-based, "gentleman".
  • costs of participation
    • sponsorship of equipment
    • government grants for training
      • Krüger (1999) argues that the Swedes can be considered the ones who invented the state amateur, recruiting athletes from the army in their national teams.[1]
    • broken time
      • rugby split
      • GAA 1950s
  • does amateurism apply only to players or also to coaches, administrators?

Quotations[edit]

1880: National Association of Amateur Athletes of America Constitution, Article IV

  • An amateur is any person who has never competed in an open competition, or for a stake, or for public money, or for gate money, or under a false name; or with a professional for a prize or where gate money is charged: nor has ever, at any period of his life, taught or pursued athletic exercises as a means of livelihood.

WHITNEY, CASPAR W. (2 June 1894). "A SPORTING PILGRIMAGE; VIII TRACK AND FIELD ATHLETICS". Harper's Weekly: 522–525.

During these the halcyon days [1855–1880] of English athletics men competed for sport; “amateur" was truthfully applied, and the skirmishers of the great unwashed had not put themselves in evidence to sneer at the laurel wreath and demand expenses, compensation for loss of time, and extravagant prizes.

How many an English sportsman-how many a one in America, for here, too, we have run foul of the pot-hunter-fervidly wishes he had answered the first challenge by fighting it out on the every-man-to-his own vine-and-fig-tree lines, if it had taken half a lifetime. Now there is no thing left for us but to abandon the bower planted in pride and nourished with such tender solicitude, and raise up another where experience will guard us against the vermin that have made this one uninhabitable.

Having now reminded the reader that the very early epochs of English athletics have been elaborated for his edification in the university articles of this series, it becomes my uncongenial task to bring him up to date in nonuniversity athletics.

It is not a pleasing journey, for the way is muddy and the resting-stones are few and far between.

Born in strife, the Amateur Atbletic Association has been ever since a child of contention. It owed its origin to a quarrel between university and non-university athletes over the time of year the championships should be held, which resulted in a meeting of the prominent members of each and the change of date from spring to summer, where it remains to this day.

The recognition of their claims and the organization of an institution that would officially and conspicuously label them gentlemen-for it was argued to be an amateur was to be a gentleman, and the latter distinction rather than the former was the dearer ambition-gave great zest to the sport of the people, and athletic contests throughout Great Britain multiplied extraordinarily. But as the spirit expanded, and the meetings grew and became prosperous, the element of greed replaced what there had been of sport. That class which had in times past popularized such brutish spectacles as cock-fighting, rat-killing, and the like, recognizing the [p.523] rare chance of becoming “gentlemen” and winning prizes that could be turned to a pretty penny at one and the same time, threw itself bodily into the more lucrative field of athletics, and book-making, “roping,” and every manner of swindling, crushed all semblance of honesty out of the sport that had been inaugurated under such happy condition. And a situation, too, that occasions a loss hard to estimate, for of all the hundreds of men graduated annually from the universities and the public schools, who would naturally infuse athletics with a wholesome spirit, but very few, almost none, maintain an active interest, and in all of England, with its ever-apparent sporting spirit, only one athletic club (the London A.C.) attracts entries to its games from Oxford and Cambridge! The Association has striven hard enough to steer a straight course, but its earnest laborers are so few, and the task so huge, that their efforts have been about as effective as would be the tiny stream of a Babcock fire-extinguisher on a roaring bonfire.

ciate the predicament of the minority in the English Association when I tell them it is identical with that of the few honestly amateur sport-caring members of the Metropolitan branch of our own Amateur Athletic Union. The Metropolitan Association is a growth of the last few years, membered and controlled by a precisely similar element to that which forms an overwhelming majority in English athletics. We know perfectly well what a farce is amateurism in a large percentage of the Metropolitan clubs, certainly in all of the boxing clubs. If, now, instead of swaying only the Metropolitan Association, this element should extend its control to the very Union itself and dominate national athletics, then should we have such a condition as obtains in England.

I hope no one will understand me as disparaging athleticism among the lower classes, for I should not wish to be so interpreted. As I began, so I desire to end, this series of articles with a sincere expression of unfeigned admiration of the universal sporting spirit in Great Britain, and an unshaken belief in the incalculable benefit it has been to the national manhood.

The value of athletics cannot be over-estimated. It makes manly, enduring, and ready men. It cultivates the best vitality in the human form, and it must, in proportion, develop a certain precision and decision in cases of emergency. It has invariably an influence towards the improvement of one's self, for of a given number of participants a certain percentage must always be the better men for it, morally as well as physically; and who will deny that these qualities bespeak a purer heredity?

I should therefore be the veriest dolt to advise against athletics in all stations of every race of people on earth. It is not against the widespread athletic activity that I would protest, but against the dissimulation and swindling that have been drawn into it by the effort to harmonize what may be called the university element with men who by every instinct and education are unfitted to appreciate or live up to the standard of those nurtured in more cultured surroundings. Only after generations of refining influence can be accomplished what these athletic associations, nothing daunted, set out to do off-hand. Nor do I wish what I say on the only practicable definition of an amateur to be set down to snobbishness; few who follow my writings will so misjudge me, I fancy. I fully appreciate how very difficult and many-sided a problem it is, but surely England's nearly thirty years of experience counts for something, and it may safely be asserted that mankind averages about the same, whether under the reign of a Queen or a President. I am dwelling on this situation probably at greater length than the average reader will consider it warrants, because I wish to hold it up as a warning to America and to our own Amateur Athletic Union.

England's experience in letting down the bars to the class of men who formerly did and naturally always would fill the professional ranks teaches a lesson we cannot ignore if we would steer between the rocks that have wrecked amateur athletics in Great Britain. Theorists will argue that bringing this class of men in contact with those of most a higher conceptions and purer sentiments should have à refining and elevating influence on the former; possibly it should, but the plain fact is it has not. Such an education must be begun in the home, or under the wise system that obtains in the Young Men's Christian Association, and extends through all its branches in the United States and Great Britain. Properly applied athletics do have a decidedly refining influence, but the desired result is not brought about by bringing together on the track two elements that are not in sympathy, and where the wish to win is likely to be the dominating motive. The educating process must be slow and most carefully undertaken in a class that as a rule is wanting in the true sporting instinct of sport for sport's sake only; and it is comment enough on the folly of the experiment in England to say that at the last meeting of the Amateur Athletic Association an appropriation was made to bear the legal expenses being constantly incurred by the prosecution of these athletic transgressors. The A. A. A. is squandering its money in an attempt to retain the fealty of men who yielded allegiance in the first place only because they saw an opportunity of making it more lucrative than open professionalism, and who recognize the laws merely as so many obstacles to be evaded; thus, while this masquerading creature flourishes, the bona fide amateur languishes, and meanwhile athletics remain in a scandalous auspices.

With the ascendency of this element decency withdrew from active participation. Oxford and Cambridge sent no entries to games, and affairs went from bad to worse, until to day, of the two hundred and fifty clubs composing the Association, not more than a score may be called honestly amateur, of which number the three government military colleges and Oxford and Cambridge constitute five.

Such a state of affairs in any other country than England would, I have little doubt, eventually lead to a general decadence of amateur sport, but the sporting spirit and the love of out-doors are too thoroughly imbued in the Englishman to suffer that dire extreme; he is safe from intrusion at his school and college, and when he has gone down from his university there is hunting, boating, cricket, or golf, all of which have thus far escaped the taint of the athletic, cycling, and football "amature.”

What the outcome will be of this maddening problem few Englishmen care to hint, but my own observations lead me to believe that the day is not far distant when the mask (which deceives no one but the officers of the Amateur Athletic Association) will be torn from this class of “amateurs," and they will be called, what they have always been, professionals. To attempt to cleanse so-called amateur athletics in England by any other method would be simply an utter impossibility. The decay that was has advanced to putrefaction; it is no longer a case for the physician but the surgeon, and nothing short of complete amputation will save the parent body. Indeed, it is my opinion that the latter is already stricken beyond recovery, and that by flight only may the remaining healthful ones be saved from the approaching wreck. Let these survivors abandon the present Association to the class which is now in the majority, and form another organization in which an amateur shall be defined as in rowing.

Rather a drastic remedy, to be sure, but the condition is extreme, and entirely impervious to milder measures.

[...]

The A.A.A. amateur definition reads:

"An amateur is one who has never competed for a money prize or staked bet, or with or against a professional for any prize, or who has never taught, pursued, or assisted in the practice of athletic exercises as a means of obtaining a livelihood.
"The following exceptions shall be made to this rule
" (a.) That amateur athletes shall not lose their amateur status by competing with or against professional football-players in ordinary club matches for which no prizes are given, or in cup competitions permitted by the National Football Associations or Rugby Unions of England, Ireland, Scotland, or Wales, providing that such competitions or matches form no part of, nor have connection with, any athletic meeting.
(b.) That competitions at arms between volunteers and regulars shall not be considered as coming within the scope of the A.A.A. laws.
(c.) That competitors in officers' races at naval and military athletic meetings (such races being for officers only, and for which money prizes are not given, shall be exempt rom any of the laws of the A. A. A. disqualifying runners for competing at mixed meetings.
(d.) That the Championship of the Army'lace at the Aldershot sports be exempt from the effect of this rule.
(e.) That a paid handicapper is not a professional."

[...]

Challenge cups are offered at championship competitions together with gold medals for firsts and silver medals for seconds, besides which a gold medal is given for a record performance, and a bronze medal to those reaching a standard fixed by the committee. Prizes in handicaps may not be of greater value than £10 10s. ($52 50), but in a scratch race there is no limit.

[...]

In its constitution the Association proclaims that "all open betting must be suppressed at athletic meetings,” notwithstanding which, however, it flourishes to an extraordinary degree, despite the vigilance of officials at games, and the thorough placarding of grand stands warning book-makers that they will be "ejected” from the grounds.

[later similar laments about shamateurs in swimming and cycling affiliates]

Corinthian[edit]

NED Vol.2 p.992 sv. "Corinthian"

  • A. adj. 4. (U.S.) Yachting. Amateur. (1885 cite from Harper's)
  • B. n. 2. (From the proverbial wealth, luxury, and licentiousness of ancient Corinth):
    • a. A wealthy man [1577]; a profligate idler; a gay, licentious man [1697]; also, a shameless or 'brazen-faced' fellow [1785] Obs.
    • b. A 'swell'; a man of fashion about town. [1819]
    • c. A wealthy amateur of sport who rides his own horses, steers his own yacht, etc.; esp. in U.S. an amateur yachtsman. [1823]
Yacht clubs
Football

Philosophy[edit]

Regulations[edit]

  • "Mr John Smith" amateur vs "John Smith" pro; what sports used in?
  • is entire organisation amateur, or does it allow professionals separately?
  • can amateurs compete against professionals?
  • gradations of sanction for degrees of violating amateur rules?
  • reinstatement as amateur

Shamateurism[edit]

Olympics[edit]

"The history of amateurism within the Olympic Movement has been focused on several debates between the IOC and various international sport federations on defining the term ‘amateurism’ (Lucas 1992). The IOC has provided varying definitions over the decades of the world ‘amateur’ (Müller 2000). Several proposals for redefining the amateur code had been submitted but it was not until 1962 at the 58th IOC Session that a more detailed statement on amateurism was approved (Segrave and Chu 1981)."[4]

  • 1907 rules for 1908 games 7. The amateur status of every competitor must be guaranteed by the association which, in his own country, governs the sport in which he desires to enter as a competitor, or, where no such governing association or governing club exists, by a special committee of experts appointed by the Olympic Committee of that country.
  • 1912 games The task of properly defining the term “Amateur” was a most delicate one, as various athletic associations in different countries had long ago adopted such widely varying laws in this respect. One indispensable condition had to be laid down, however, viz., that only real amateurs should be allowed the privilege of taking part in the competitions of the Games. It was not within the bounds of possibility to draw up a definition of the term “Amateur” that should be common to all branches of athletics, and it was, therefore found necessary, in consideration of the many different demands that existed, to make a special definition of the term for each division of sport. It was an easy task to do this in those cases where there existed an international federation, as the Swedish Olympic Committee could at once adopt the amateur definition fixed by the international organization in question. But this could be done only in the cases of Cycling, Football and Swimming, and special definitions had to be drawn up for all the other branches of athletics.
  • Canada split 1906-09 on strictness of definition
  • 1910 possible unified defn
  • Coubertin 1928 letter "Imperfect humanity has ever tended to transform the Olympic athlete into the paid gladiator. But the two things are incompatible. We must choose between one formula and the other... Reform is necessary, and must be discussed before we undertake it. There are compromises and there are contradictions in the amateur regulations of the present day, which it will be the business of this Congress to consider."
  • 1960 "Modern Amateurism and the Olympic Code"
  • 1968 Int Ski Fed controversy over pro allegations.[5]
  • The IOC replaced the term ‘amateur’ with ‘non-professional’ in the Olympic code in 1974 and during the preparation for the 1984 Los Angeles Olympic Games, the IOC approved prize money, sponsorship and trust funds for athletes in 1981[6]
  • 1984 pros allowed in OG if IF is OK.[7]

Misc[edit]

1888 Aus rowing row

  • VRA crew included 2 saddlers, NSWRA said not bonafide amateurs -- classist
  • conference definition (not accepted by NSWRA), "anyone who has never..."
    1. entered for a race advertised as for watermen.
    2. competed in any open competition, for a stake, money, or entrance fee.
    3. earned, or partially earned, his living by rowing, or has taken money, directly or indirectly in recognition of his skill in rowing.
    4. taught, practised, or assisted in athletic exercises of any kind, as a means of gaining a livelihood or pecuniary benefit.
    5. been employed in or about boats for money or wages.
    6. competed in a match in connection with which a wager or bet is recognized.
  • later VRA proposal

Community Amateur Sports Clubs UK 2002; favorable tax treatment if:

  • non-profit making
  • only provides members and guests with the "ordinary benefits" that an amateur sports club would normally provide
  • maximum total pay of all players £10,000 per annum
  • if wound up, any property left after the payment of debts will be used for approved sporting or charitable purposes.

The British Olympic Association in 1989 hired Scott Naden as a Competitors' Employment Officer to give "career counselling for sportsmen and women whose careers are affected by the heavy demands of their training schedules".[8] "to head a scheme called Goldstart, aimed at placing current and potential Olympians with employers sympathetic to the demands of elite training and competition".[9]

NCAA[edit]

National Collegiate Athletic Association#Player compensation Controversy

Brickley 1915

  • baseball pro in football game; team said ineligible for baseball but eligible for football. standoff till college pres banned major-league but not minor-league players.
  • Pres criticised athletic scholarships; Eligibility Committee of some football teams later ruled out players for these
  • "the ICAAAA came up with a radically new concept of amateur eligibility that permitted an athlete to compete as an amateur even if he'd previously received money -- if he had written permission from an official of his university"
  • split ICAAAA from AAU

Women's sport separate into 1970s. Scholarships allowed in AAU governed ones like basketball but not others with women specific governing bodies like softball. Title IX ended this, over protests from some female administrators. lost-to-history-nebraskas-three-peat-college-softball-champions-paid-the-price-for-equity

By sport[edit]

  • 1908 Olympic Report has definitions by sport governing bodies.

Association football[edit]

England Amateur v Professional:

Definition from FIFA

  • 1928 Home Countries left in dispute over it
  • 1955
    • "Players of a National Association affiliated to FIFA are professionals, non amateurs or amateurs." Excerpt does not explain distinction between "professional" and "non amateur".
    • The amateur can get travel and maintenance, and "equitable" allowance for wages lost, with signed receipts.
    • "receive regular wages, payments for playing, bonuses, salaries, payments on account, or any other allowances" professional
    • "apparent, fictitious or sham employment or profession" professional
    • NF must keep official register of pro and non-ams; errant am will be registered there
    • can be re-instated but never again play in OG or FIFA am tournament
  • 1956 similar but preface:
    • "According to its object F. I. F. A. accepts two classes of footballers; amateurs and professionals. ... Because of variations in definitions of players by affiliated National Associations a third class of player is now referred to as the non-amateur under contract or licence."
    • Also clarifies that NFs may use a different definition but must conform to FIFA definition in FIFA competition [or rather must be at least as strict as FIFA; possibly allowed to be more strict]
  • 1956 comment from R. W. Seeldrayers:
    • change codifies regulation adopted in 1928 whwen broken time legalised; "implicitly accredited by the formula qualifying the amateur status that has been sanctioned at the Olympic Session in Stockholm." [was that 1956 or 1912?]
    • Not counter to IOC as (a) IOC knew and did not object (b) [some] other sports do likewise
    • "sham amateurism" allegations are for NF not FIFA

Athletics[edit]

  • George Buff of the Netherlands competed in professional long-distance races in 1900, but was selected for the 1908 Olympic marathon. Anthony Th. Bijkerk suggests the inchoate nature of Dutch athletics administration of the era allowed his professional history to escape the notice of the selectors.[10]
  • Athletics at the 1912 Summer Olympics — Jim Thorpe, minor-league baseball
  • Charley Paddock controversy 1920s[11]
  • Athletics at the 1932 Summer Olympics — Paavo Nurmi, suspended by IAAF in April; IAAF head was Sigfrid Edström, a Swede, who became a hate figure in Finland. Nurmi had earned money from tours of the United States in 1925 and 1929, after winning Olympic gold medals in 1924 and 1928.[12] Jules Ladoumègue of France and Stanislaw Patkiewicz of Poland were also banned.
  • 1962, David Cecil, 6th Marquess of Exeter (then IAAF Pres and IOC VP)[13]
    • " the idea that amateurism in athletics is a relic of the past, invented by a few wealthy people to keep others out, simply is not true."
    • "[British] Amateur athletes ... are entitled to receive all expenses up to 28 days in the year when running abroad, and also for certain competitions in this country."
    • "amateurism is much more of an approach to life or a frame of mind than something for which you can draw up a tight legal definition"
    • "As regards ‘athletic’ scholarships, which are opposed by all the important universities in the U.S.A., each application must be judged on its merits. If an athlete is offered a scholarship for intellectual reasons, then a permit to run is given. If, however, it is just the thinly veiled hiring of a gladiator to raise the importance of the university in the athletic world, then it is not."

See Turrini, Joseph M. (2010). The End of Amateurism in American Track and Field. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 9780252077074.

Australian Rules football[edit]

  • VFL to a lesser degree [than rugby league 1907] the issue of amateurism was involved in the formation of the Victorian Football League
  • SAAFL founded 1911; controversy in 1970s; dropped amateurism in 1996

Cricket[edit]

Amateur status in first-class cricket

  • Gentlemen v Players 1806–1962
  • W. G. Grace#Grace's amateur status was an "amateur" but paid more than basic expenses.
  • On 31 January 1963, the committee of the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) agreed unanimously to abolish the concept of amateurism
  • "In its final form, ... amateurism in the highest levels of cricket became so ludicrous in its presentation and corrupt in its practice that it had to go."[14]

Croquet[edit]

Dorothy Steel [world's best woman player] "refused to travel [from England to Australia for the 1927 MacRobertson International Croquet Shield] unless her expenses were paid, compelling the council of the Croquet Association to relax its strict rules on professionalism".[15]

Equestrian[edit]

Decisions from FEI:[16]

  • 1921 : FEI established "to organise and regulate International Equestrian Championships (amateur and professional) and the Olympic Games"
  • 1926 : A former or reserve officer dealing in horses and involved in dressage on a profit-making basis is not a gentleman but a professional, and may not take part in the Olympic Games in any capacity
  • 1927 #8: "Non-commissioned officers will never be considered as amateurs"
  • 1927 #9: "The equestrian Games are reserved for officers and amateurs. Non-commissioned officers may only take part in pentathlon events."
  • 1929 : The term gentleman-rider is defined as being of current usage, the official term used in the Games is that of amateur.
  • 1933 : "Discussion of the question of amateurs and semi-professionals."
  • 1934 #20 : The definition of a gentleman : any rider with an honourable education and the savoir-vivre required for being received in the best society. A gentleman's licence may not be given to a professional. International competitions are forbidden to military ranks. [ranks I guess ass opposed to officers?]
  • 1934 #21: Definition of an amateur: a rider who practises horse-riding for the love of it, for pleasure, with a sporting, non profit-making aim, without benefitting from his sport. Each year, an amateur must obtain a licence from his national federation. An amateur cannot be recognised as a gentleman. A professional in any kind of sport can be neither an amateur nor a gentleman. Officers in active service are entitled to qualify as gentlemen and are not obliged to obtain a licence.
  • 1935 : max 6000 FRF prize "requested" as "Sums of prize money which are too high run the risk of compromising the amateur status of riders."
  • 1936 : OG dressage horse "must have been ridden by an amateur during the previous twelve months" [presumably ridden by an amateur "only ever" rather than "at least once"]
  • 1938 : "uncontrollable restriction" from 1936 red from 12 mths to 3 mths
  • 1946 : post-war exception to allow pros to regain amateur status. "A breeder who only sells occasionally, may not be considered as a horse dealer, he is an amateur-breeder."
  • 1947 : Secretary General protests Sweden's request to IOC for "withdrawal of the term gentleman from the vocabulary of the FEI. This term has never been used to send a wealthy rider in preference to a rider from a modest background to official competitions." [Also, NCO amateur of 5 years can compete in dressage after 1948; privates still banned]
  • 1948: The term gentleman is unanimously withdrawn from the FEI regulations, as well as the rule forbidding all professionals in other sports admission as amateurs in equestrian sports. Only amateurs are qualified for taking part in [Olympics]. Amateurs and professionals can meet outside Olympics.
  • 1949 : "N.C.Os, corporals and soldiers with an amateur licence from their NF" can be in OG [does "with an amateur licence" qualify privates only, or NCOs also?]
  • 1968 : study "problems which arose" in OG68. "The assembly will not make a decision concerning amateur and professional status before knowing the position of the IOC on this subject." NOC rules on doubtful cases.
  • 1969 : modified regulations concerning amateur and professional status
  • 1972 : no commercial naming rights to horses ridden by amateurs
  • 1973 : separate "amateur, professional, open" jumping world champs
  • 1985 : end 1972 ban on commercial naming rights to horses ridden by amateurs

Fencing[edit]

Fencing masters (from 1896) exceptionally allowed

GAA[edit]

Rule 1.10 "Amateur Status":[21]

The Association is an Amateur Association. A player, team, official or member shall not accept payment in cash or in kind in conjunction with the playing of Gaelic Games. A player, team, official or member shall not contract himself/itself to any agent other than those officially approved by Central Council. Expenses paid to all officials, players, and members shall not exceed the standard rates laid down by the Central Council. Members of the Association may not participate in full-time training. This Rule shall not prohibit the payment of salaries or wages to employees of the Association.
Penalty: Twenty four weeks Suspension or Expulsion

2018 strategic plan:[22] "Values":[23]

Amateur Status
  • We are a volunteer led organisation.
  • All our players and members participate in our games as amateurs.
  • We provide a games programme at all levels to meet the needs of all our players.
Goal 5: Protect and Grow our Association[24]
Objectives Specific Actions Progress Indicators
5.2: Examine our Commitment to our Amateur Status Value Define amateur status in a GAA context in the modern era Defined position on our amateur status
Identify behaviours and practices that are acceptable/not acceptable in line with our amateur status A set of behaviours and practices developed and agreed
Carry out an awareness campaign to re-affirm amateur status as a core value of the Association Implementation of an awareness campaign

Stádas Amaitéarach Tuarascáil. Report of the Committee Established to Review the GAA's Amateur Status. Dublin: Gaelic Athletic Association. 1997.

More info:[25][26][27] [28]

Golf[edit]

1914[29]

"Some years ago, when our own [R&A] amateur definition was about to be revised, GOLFING expressed the opinion that the only reason for drawing any distinction between amateur and professional is to separate those who possess the advantage that in the ordinary employment by which they earn their living they are at the same time improving their skill in the game from those who do not possess that advantage but can only obtain the practice necessary for their play in their leisure time. Apart from this consideration, the distinction would be mere snobbery." [Also opines club-makers should be able to be amateur.]

United States Amateur Championship (golf) mostly college players who hope to turn pro; U.S. Mid-Amateur Golf Championship for those over 25.

Majors (and others?) have "low amateur" prizes (a silver medal for the British Open).

horse racing[edit]

In order to ride as an amateur jockey, rules required John Oaksey to have another job. Therefore, he took up journalism as a career. (He was of the gentry and I guess had a private income, which would of itself have made him the perfect Corinthian amateur in an earlier age.)

Rowing[edit]

Rugby union[edit]

Though rugby league formed by amateur split, Aus RFU (and maybe others) banned players of amateur rugby league.[32]

By the early 1980s, the International Rugby Football Board had three items on its annual agenda: the laws of the game, the international calendar, and the maintenance of the game's amateur status "with which they were becoming increasingly preoccupied".[33] Fear of creeping professionalism created opposition to the establishment of the Rugby World Cup.

Tennis[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ Chatziefstathiou p.93
  2. ^ "The formation of the Corinthian Yacht Club". Corinthian Yacht Club. Retrieved 15 September 2017.
  3. ^ Annals of the Corinthian Football Club p.5
  4. ^ Chatziefstathiou p.66
  5. ^ Chatziefstathiou p.116
  6. ^ Chatziefstathiou p.63
  7. ^ Chatziefstathiou p.121
  8. ^ "BRITISH OLYMPIC ASSOCIATION seeks a Competitor's Employment Officer [job advertisement]". The Guardian. 4 February 1989. p. 54 – via Newspapers.com.
  9. ^ "National Committees". Olympic Review (260): 290. June 1989. Retrieved 8 August 2021.
  10. ^ Anthony Th. Bijkerk, "The Professional Amateur" Journal of Olympic History (May 2000) pp.55–57
  11. ^ Charley Paddock and the Changing State of Olympic Amateurism Olympika 2012
  12. ^ Yttergren 2006, p.112
  13. ^ Marquess of Exeter, "Athletes and their amateur status" Bulletic of the IOC (15 August 1962) No.79 pp.32–34
  14. ^ Williams 2012, Preface
  15. ^ Pottle, Mark (23 September 2004). "Steel, Dorothy Dyne". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/63683. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
  16. ^ "The Development of the FEI through Annual General Meetings" (PDF). Olympic Review (Olympic Encyclopedia — Equestrian Sports (Supplement to number 224)): 8–20. 1986.
  17. ^ "Agenda for 1914 Annual Congress". Centenary. GAA. p. 4, Motion 28. Retrieved 9 August 2018.
  18. ^ "Agenda for 1915 Annual Congress". GAA. p. 1, motion 2.
  19. ^ Clerkin, Malachy (26 May 2023). "It's wild to think Kevin Moran played for Dublin and Manchester United at the same time". The Irish Times. Retrieved 26 May 2023.
  20. ^ a b Wright, Rob (23 July 2020). "Dean caught between a Rock and a hard place". RTÉ News. Retrieved 23 July 2020.
  21. ^ Official Guide 2017 GAA
  22. ^ Ryan, Eoin (8 June 2018). "GAA's plan to define amateurism and balance fixtures". RTE.ie. Retrieved 8 June 2018.
  23. ^ GAA 2018, p.11
  24. ^ GAA 2018, p.28 §5.2
  25. ^ Hassan, David (27 July 2010). Hassan, David; Hamil, Sean (eds.). "Governance and the Gaelic Athletic Association: time to move beyond the amateur ideal?". Soccer & Society. 11 (4: Who Owns Football?: Models of Football Governance and Management in International Sport). Routledge: 414–427. doi:10.1080/14660971003780313. ISBN 9781317996361. S2CID 144779466. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
  26. ^ Connolly, John; Dolan, Paddy (April 2013). "The Amplification and De-Amplification of Amateurism and Professionalism in the Gaelic Athletic Association". The International Journal of the History of Sport. 30 (8): 853–870. doi:10.1080/09523367.2012.763031. S2CID 145122659.
  27. ^ Frain, Michael H. (2010). The amateur-professional debate: an exploration of attitudes and opinions within the Gaelic Athletic Association (Masters). University of Limerick. Retrieved 2 August 2018.
  28. ^ Horan, Niall (2010). An investigation into whether the GAA's embrace of professionalism is being hindered by its inherited culture (Master's). Galway–Mayo Institute of Technology. Retrieved 8 October 2020.
  29. ^ Golfing, London; cited in "THE AMATEUR DEFINITION" (PDF). The American Golfer: 1076. 1914.
  30. ^ Halladay, p.88
  31. ^ Halladay, Preface
  32. ^ “Definitions for Definers, not the Defined” p.3
  33. ^ Davies, Gerald (2003). The history of the Rugby World Cup. Viking. ISBN 978-0670041015.; cited in Rees, Paul (25 June 2020). "The Breakdown; Rugby should look at 1987 World Cup and take another leap into unknown". The Guardian. Retrieved 25 June 2020.

Sources[edit]

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