User:Kharbaan Ghaltaan/sandbox

Economy (!)

Oil and gas

Over 3 billion barrels (480,000,000 m³) of oil are estimated to exist off the coast and beneath occupied Palestinian lands. The Levant Basin holds around 1.7 billion barrels (270,000,000 m³) of oil, with another 1.5 billion barrels (240,000,000 m³) barrels beneath the occupied West Bank area. According to a report by the UNCTAD, around 1,250 billion barrels (1.99×10¹¹ m³)of oil reserves exists in the occupied West Bank. In the West Bank, according to the Palestinian Authority, 80% of Meged oil field falls under lands of Palestinians.

Masadder, a subsidiary of PIF is developing the oilfield in the West Bank. Block-1 field, which spans an area of 432 square kilometres (167 sq mi) from northwest Ramallah to Qalqilya in Palestine, has significant potential for recoverable hydrocarbon resources. It is estimated to have a P90 (a level of certainty) of 0.03 billion barrels (4,800,000 m³) of recoverable oil and 6,000,000,000 cubic feet (170,000,000 m³).

Economy

Oil and gas

Main article: Oil and gas in Palestine

The presence of oil and gas reserves in Palestine is contentious. Over 3 billion barrels of oil are estimated to exist off the coast and beneath occupied Palestinian lands. The Levant Basin holds around 1.7 billion barrels of oil, with another 1.5 billion barrels beneath the occupied West Bank area. According to a report by the UNCTAD, around 1,250 billion barrels of oil reserves exists in the occupied West Bank.

Over 3 billion barrels (480,000,000 m³) of oil are estimated to exist off the coast and beneath occupied Palestinian lands. The Levant Basin holds around 1.7 billion barrels (270,000,000 m³) of oil, with another 1.5 billion barrels (240,000,000 m³) barrels beneath the occupied West Bank area. According to a report by the UNCTAD, around 1,250 billion barrels (1.99×10¹¹ m³)of oil reserves exists in the occupied West Bank. In the West Bank, according to the Palestinian Authority, 80% of Meged oil field falls under lands of Palestinians.

Masadder, a subsidiary of PIF is developing the oilfield in the West Bank. Block-1 field, which spans an area of 432 square kilometres (167 sq mi) from northwest Ramallah to Qalqilya in Palestine, has significant potential for recoverable hydrocarbon resources. It is estimated to have a P90 (a level of certainty) of 0.03 billion barrels (4,800,000 m³) of recoverable oil and 6,000,000,000 cubic feet (170,000,000 m³).

Block-1 field, which spans an area of 432 square kilometres (167 sq mi) from northwest Ramallah to Qalqilya in Palestine, has significant potential for recoverable hydrocarbon resources. It is estimated to have a P90 (a level of certainty) of 30 million barrels of recoverable oil and 60 billion cubic feet

of recoverable gas.

Recognizing the importance of oil and natural gas development for sustainable economic growth in Palestine, the Palestine Investment Fund, through Massader, has prepared an investment program for the development of the West Bank Oil Field, also known as the "Block 1 Field." The estimated cost for the development of the field is $390 million, and it will be carried out under a production sharing agreement with the Government of Palestine. Currently, an initial pre-exploration work program is underway to prepare for designing an exploration plan for approval, which will precede the full-fledged development of the field.

Around 2 billion barrels (320,000,000 m³) of oil reserves are beleived to exist in shore of the Gaza Strip. While 1,250 billion barrels (1.99×10¹¹ m³) of oil reserves are in the occupied Palestinian territory of the West Bank, probably the Meged oil field. As per the Palestinian Authority, 80% of this oil field falls under the lands owned by Palestinians.

Israel has started taking 500 barrels per day (79 m³/d).

Iraqi

The main languages spoken in Iraq are Mesopotamian Arabic and Kurdish, followed by the Iraqi Turkmen/Turkoman dialect of Turkish, and the Neo-Aramaic languages (specifically Chaldean and Assyrian). Arabic and Kurdish are written with versions of the Arabic script. Since 2005, the Turkmen/Turkoman have switched from the Arabic script to the Turkish alphabet. In addition, the Neo-Aramaic languages use the Syriac script. Other smaller minority languages include Mandaic, Shabaki, Armenian, Circassian and Persian.

Prior to the invasion in 2003, Arabic was the sole official language. Since the new Constitution of Iraq was approved in 2005, both Arabic and Kurdish are recognised (Article 4) as official languages of Iraq, while three other languages: Turkmen, Syriac and Armenian, are also recognised as minority languages. In addition, any region or province may declare other languages official if a majority of the population approves in a general referendum.

According to the Constitution of Iraq (Article 4):

The Arabic language and the Kurdish language are the two official languages of Iraq. The right of Iraqis to educate their children in their mother tongue, such as Turkmen, Syriac, and Armenian shall be guaranteed in government educational institutions in accordance with educational guidelines, or in any other language in private educational institutions.

History

State of Palestine

Arafat initially wished to eliminate Israel and built historic Palestine. But he changed his stance, accepted two-state solution based on 1967 borders and affirming Israel's right to exist. Violence in the uprisings continued till 1993. In midst of the intifada, Yasser Arafat issued declaration of establishing Palestine and was composed by Mahmoud Darwish in Algerian capital of Algiers. Saddam Hussein of Iraq, became an inspirational figure in Palestinian cause. He received support from Arafat and Palestinians. In 1991, Saddam ordered firing of scud missiles in Israeli cities, causing damage in Haifa and Tel Aviv. Though before these attacks, Saddam presented a peace offer to U.S, the ally of Israel, demanding withdraw of Israel from the West Bank, the Gaza Strip and the Golan Heights. In exchange, Iraq will relinquish from Kuwait and promote peace. However, these plan failed.

In 1991, a peace conference was held in Madrid, which included Palestine, Syria and Jordan. Then PLO and Israel engaged in several secret negotiations, which resulted Oslo Accords. The Oslo Accords, signed between Yitzhak Rabin and Arafat, mediated by then U.S president Bill Clinton led establishment of self-governing Palestinian Authority in allotted areas.

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Largest cities or towns in Palestine Source?
	Rank		Administrative division	Pop.
Gaza East Jerusalem	1	Gaza	Gaza Governorate	766,331	Hebron Nablus
	2	East Jerusalem	Jerusalem Governorate	361,700
	3	Hebron	Hebron Governorate	308,750
	4	Nablus	Nablus Governorate	{{{pop_4}}}
	5	[[{{{city_5}}}]]	[[{{{div_5}}}]]	{{{pop_5}}}
	6	[[{{{city_6}}}]]	[[{{{div_6}}}]]	{{{pop_6}}}
	7	[[{{{city_7}}}]]	[[{{{div_7}}}]]	{{{pop_7}}}
	8	[[{{{city_8}}}]]	[[{{{div_8}}}]]	{{{pop_8}}}
	9	[[{{{city_9}}}]]	[[{{{div_9}}}]]	{{{pop_9}}}
	10	[[{{{city_10}}}]]	[[{{{div_10}}}]]	{{{pop_10}}}

Palestine, officially known as the State of Palestine, is a country in Western Asia, with limited recognition. The country is located in the Levantine part of the Middle East and consists of two non-contiguous territories, the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. It shares its borders with Israel, Jordan and Egypt. The Gaza Strip is located on coast of the Mediterranean Sea, while the West Bank is situated within the Jordan River and the Dead Sea. With an actual population of 5.5 million peoples, Palestine is known as homeland for 14 million Palestinians, who are ethnically Arabs.

Modern state of Palestine is traditionally part of Holy Land (Eretz Israel or Al-Ard Al-Muqaddasah), which holds significance to Abrahamic religions — Christianity, Islam and Judaism and to Mandaeism, Baháʼí Faith, Samaritanism and Druze. Throughout centuries, Palestine have been ruled by various entities such as Kingdom of Israel, Babylonian Empire, Roman Empire, Byzantine Empire, Islamic Caliphate, Mamluk Sultanate, Ayyubid Dynasty and Ottoman Empire.

After fall of the Ottoman Empire in World War I, British government established Mandatory Palestine and facilitated immigration of Jews, giving rise to Zionism. This brought clashes between Arabs and Zionists. After end of Mandate, British withdrawn from Palestine. In 1948 UN prepared a partition plan, rejected by the Arabs. After declaration of independence of Israel, neighboring Arab countries in support of Palestine have fought four major wars in 1948, 1956, 1967 and 1973, as a part of Israeli–Palestinian conflict and wider Arab–Israeli conflict. Since the Six Day War of 1967, Israel occupied the West Bank including East Jerusalem. The current efforts is to reach a permanent agreement, which will give Palestinians full right to establish their country and end the conflict.

Palestine is a democratic country, governed by a provisional government, headed by President. The country struggles with territorial disputes, broader political violence and status of Jerusalem. Despite its political position, Palestine have made notable progress. Palestine ranks among most educated countries in the Arab world. Palestine ranks 17th in the Open Data Inventory 2022. The country is part of the United Nations, the Union for Mediterranean, the Arab League, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation, the Al Quds Committee and the International Olympic Committee. Gaza is largest city, East Jerusalem is the capital of Palestine, while temporary administrative center is in financial hub Ramallah and Hebron is the industrial center.

Palestine

Falastin
Flag Coat of arms
Status	Disputed
Capital	East Jerusalem (disputed) Ramallah (temporary)
Muqata	Ramallah
Largest city	Gaza
Official languages	Arabic
Recognized national languages	Arabic
Recognized regional languages	Hebrew
Common languages	Arabic, Hebrew
Ethnic groups	Palestinians
Religion	Islam, Christianity
Demonym(s)	Palestinian
Non-member observer state	United Nations
Government	Democratic, Semi-presidential
• President	Mahmoud Abbas
• Prime Minister	Shtayyeh
• Leader of Gaza	Yahya Sinwar
Legislature	Palestine Legislative Council
Disputed
History
• Established	1988
Population
• 2016 estimate	5.5 million
• Census	2016
GDP (PPP)	estimate
• Total	$44 billion
• Per capita	$6,575
GDP (nominal)	estimate
• Total	$20 billion
Currency	Shekel, Jordanian Dinar
Website https://www.palgov.ps/en

Palestine, officially known as the State of Palestine, is an Arab country in Western Asia. The country is located in the Levantine part of the Middle East and consists of two non-contiguous territories, the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. It shares borders with Israel, Jordan and Egypt. Palestine is known as homeland for 14 millions Palestinians, who are ethnically Arabs.

Today’s Palestine lies in a region known as Holy Land to Abrahamic religions of Christianity, Islam and Judaism, as well to Mandaenism, Samaritan and Druze. Throughout centuries, Palestine have been ruled by various entities such as Kingdom of Israel, Babylonian Empire, Roman Empire, Byzantine Empire, Islamic Caliphate, Mamluk Sultanate, Ayyubid Dynasty and Ottoman Empire.

After fall of the Ottoman Empire in World War I, British government established Mandatory Palestine and facilitated immigration of Jews, giving rise to Zionism. This brought clashes between Arabs and Zionists. After end of Mandate, British withdrawn from Palestine. In 1948 UN prepared a partition plan, rejected by the Arabs. After declaration of independence of Israel, neighboring Arab countries in support of Palestine have fought four major wars in 1948, 1956, 1967 and 1973, as a part of Israeli–Palestinian conflict and wider Arab–Israeli conflict. Since the Six Day War of 1967, Israel occupied the West Bank and East Jerusalem. The current efforts is to reach a permanent agreement, which will give Palestinians full right to establish their country and end the conflict.

Palestine is a democratic country, governed by a provisional government, headed by President and Prime Minister. The country struggles with territorial disputes, terrorism activities, broader political violence and status of Jerusalem. Despite its political position, Palestine have made notable progress. Palestine ranks among most educated countries in the Arab world. The country is part of the United Nations, the Union for Mediterranean, the Arab League, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation, the Al Quds Committee and the International Olympic Committee. Gaza is largest city, East Jerusalem is the capital of Palestine, while temporary administrative center is in financial hub Ramallah and Hebron is the industrial center.

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History (?)

Early historical period

Origination of Judaism and Jewish rule

Judaism, one of the world's oldest monotheistic religions, has its roots in historic Palestine during biblical times. The story begins with the biblical patriarch Abraham, who lived around 2000 BCE. According to Jewish tradition, God made a covenant with Abraham, promising him descendants and land. Abraham's descendants, known as the Israelites, settled in the land of Canaan, which would later become known as Palestine. The Israelites faced various challenges in Palestine, including periods of enslavement, oppression, and exile. The Exodus from Egypt, led by Moses, is a pivotal event in Jewish history. It is believed that God delivered the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and led them back to their ancestral homeland. The Israelites established themselves as a distinct people with a unique religious identity, centered around the worship of the God of Israel.

The Israelite kingdom reached its peak during the reigns of King David and his son Solomon in the 10th century BCE. Under their rule, Jerusalem became the political and religious center of the Israelites. Solomon constructed the First Temple in Jerusalem, which became a sacred site for Jewish worship. However, the kingdom of Israel eventually split into the northern kingdom of Israel and the southern kingdom of Judah. The Israelites faced numerous challenges, including foreign invasions and internal strife, which led to the destruction of the First Temple by the Babylonians in 586 BCE. This event marked a significant turning point for Judaism, as it led to the Babylonian exile and the dispersion of the Jewish people throughout the region.

During the Babylonian exile, Jewish religious practices and beliefs were reinforced and codified. The exiled Jews maintained their faith and cultural identity, preserving their religious traditions, laws, and stories. After the Babylonian empire fell, some Jews returned to Palestine and rebuilt the Second Temple in Jerusalem. Throughout the subsequent centuries, Palestine came under the rule of various empires, including the Persians, Greeks, and Romans. Despite foreign domination, Jewish religious and cultural identity persisted. The emergence of different Jewish sects, such as the Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes, contributed to the diversity within Judaism and the development of religious interpretation and practice.

Birth of Christianity

Christianity, one of the world's major religions, has its origins in ancient Palestine during the first century CE. The birth and early history of Christianity are closely associated with the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth, who is considered the central figure of the religion. Jesus was born in Bethlehem, a town in historic Palestine, and spent much of his life in the region. According to Christian beliefs, Jesus' ministry began around the age of 30, during which he preached a message of love, compassion, and the coming of God's kingdom. He performed miracles, gathered disciples, and challenged the religious authorities of the time. Jesus' teachings and his claim to be the Messiah, the anointed one of God, attracted followers and sparked a movement that later became known as Christianity.

The crucifixion of Jesus by the Roman authorities in Jerusalem is a pivotal event in Christian history. Christians believe that Jesus' death and resurrection brought about salvation and forgiveness of sins for humanity. The disciples and early followers of Jesus, known as apostles, spread his teachings throughout the region and beyond. The growth of Christianity faced challenges and persecution in the early centuries. However, the conversion of the Roman Emperor Constantine to Christianity in the fourth century CE marked a significant turning point. Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire, leading to its widespread acceptance and the construction of churches and religious institutions.

Islamic influence of Palestine

Historic Palestine holds a significant place in the history of Islam, with several key events and developments taking place in the region. One of the pivotal events in Islamic history is the Isra and Miraj, which refers to the night journey and ascension of the Prophet Muhammad. According to Islamic tradition, during the Isra, the Prophet Muhammad was transported from Mecca to Jerusalem in a single night, where he led a congregational prayer at the Al-Aqsa Mosque. This event solidified Jerusalem's importance as a holy city in Islam.

The Miraj, the subsequent ascension of the Prophet Muhammad to the heavens, is believed to have taken place from the Al-Aqsa Mosque. During this spiritual journey, the Prophet Muhammad is said to have encountered various prophets and received instructions for the Muslim community, including the command to establish the five daily prayers (Salah). The Qibla, the direction Muslims face during prayer, initially faced towards Jerusalem. However, in the early years of Islam, the Qibla was changed to face Mecca. This change occurred after the Muslims migrated from Mecca to Medina and solidified the religious and symbolic significance of Mecca as the holiest city in Islam.

Roman Empire

In 63 BCE, Roman General Pompey captured Jerusalem, marking the beginning of Roman rule in the region. Judea became a client kingdom under Roman control, with local rulers appointed by the Romans. The Herodian dynasty, established by Herod the Great, ruled over Judea as Roman client kings. Herod initiated ambitious building projects, including the expansion and renovation of the Second Temple in Jerusalem. The Roman rule faced resistance from Jewish factions. The First Jewish-Roman War erupted in 66 CE, resulting in the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE by Roman forces under Titus. Another major revolt, known as the Bar Kokhba Revolt, took place in 132-136 CE but was ultimately crushed by the Romans.

After the Jewish revolts, the Romans abolished the client kingdom and transformed Judea into a Roman province called Judea. The Roman administration imposed direct rule, leading to the dispersal of Jewish communities and the exile of many Jews. he destruction of the Second Temple and the Roman occupation contributed to the Jewish diaspora, the scattering of Jewish communities throughout the Roman Empire and beyond. Jewish populations settled in various regions, including Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East.

Palestine, particularly Jerusalem, became a significant center for early Christianity. Jesus' crucifixion and resurrection took place in Jerusalem, and it became a focal point for Christian pilgrimage and worship. Christian communities grew, and numerous churches were established in the region. In the 4th century, the Roman Empire transitioned into the Byzantine Empire. Palestine remained under Byzantine control, and Christianity continued to flourish, with the construction of important religious sites and the development of Christian theology and institutions.

Middle Ages

Muslim conquest

Main article: Muslim conquest of the Levant

The Islamic conquest of Palestine occurred during the caliphate of Umar ibn al-Khattab in the mid-7th century CE. Muslim armies, under the command of General Shurahbil ibn Hasana, entered Palestine and gradually brought the region under Muslim rule. The conquest of Jerusalem took place in 638 CE when the city surrendered to the Muslim forces. Following the Islamic conquest of Palestine in the 7th century CE, Jerusalem became a focal point of Muslim worship. The Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock, situated in the Haram al-Sharif compound, became prominent Islamic landmarks and centers of spiritual and religious activities.

Islamic governance in Palestine brought about significant architectural and cultural developments. Mosques, educational institutions, and other Islamic infrastructure were established, contributing to the growth of Islamic civilization in the region. Throughout history, Palestine has remained a cherished destination for Muslims on pilgrimage, with Jerusalem's holy sites attracting millions of visitors each year. Jews, Christians and other religion were given freedom of religion. The Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock continue to serve as symbols of Islamic heritage and religious identity. Under Islamic rule, Palestine became part of the larger Islamic Caliphate and experienced cultural, religious, and architectural developments. Muslims considered Jerusalem as a holy city due to its association with the Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock, both of which hold immense significance in Islam.

Salahuddin Ayyub

Main articles: Ayyubid dynasty, Siege of Jerusalem (1187), and Salahuddin Ayubi

Saladin — The conqueror of Jerusalem

After 90 years, Salahuddin collected troops from the Muslim world and decided to invade and take control of Palestine. He was a Kurdish military leader and the first sultan of Egypt and Syria, known for his efforts to counter the Crusader presence in the region. During Salahuddin's time, Palestine was under the control of the Crusader states, with Jerusalem being one of their key strongholds. Salahuddin's rise to power and subsequent military campaigns led to the eventual recapture of Jerusalem from the Crusaders in 1187.

After the Battle of Hattin in 1187, Salahuddin's forces were able to defeat the Crusader armies, and this victory paved the way for the reconquest of many cities and territories in Palestine. As a result, Salahuddin gained control over significant parts of the region, including Jerusalem. Salahuddin is often remembered for his chivalry and magnanimity towards the defeated Crusaders. He allowed Christians to leave peacefully and granted them safe passage, showing a degree of religious tolerance uncommon for the time.

Salahuddin's recapture of Jerusalem and his subsequent efforts to govern the region had a lasting impact on the history and memory of Palestine, and he is still celebrated as a symbol of resistance and unity in the region today. He is known as "the conqueror of Jerusalem'.

Ottoman Palestine

Main article: Ottoman Palestine

Suleiman the Magnificent

By 14th century, the Ottoman Empire took control of the entire region. In 1516, the Ottoman Empire, led by Sultan Selim I, conquered Palestine from the Mamluks, who had ruled the region for several centuries. Under Ottoman rule, Palestine became part of a larger administrative unit known as the Sanjak of Jerusalem, which was initially part of the larger province of Syria. The Sanjak of Jerusalem included areas such as Jerusalem, Nablus, Gaza, and Jaffa.

Turk officer protecting Tower of David

The Ottoman Empire implemented a centralized administrative system in Palestine, with local governance under the control of appointed officials known as pashas or governors. These officials were responsible for maintaining law and order, collecting taxes, and overseeing the administration of justice. Palestine's economic landscape experienced changes during the Ottoman period. The empire encouraged agricultural development, and various measures were taken to enhance agricultural productivity. The construction of irrigation systems, such as the qanat system, helped improve water distribution and facilitated agricultural expansion. Under Ottoman rule, Palestine saw an increase in the cultivation of cash crops like cotton and olives, which were exported to other regions. Religiously, Palestine held great significance for Muslims, Christians, and Jews. The Ottomans maintained control over the holy sites in Jerusalem, including the Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. They also regulated access to these sites and implemented various policies to manage religious affairs.

Under the Ottoman Empire , Jews and Christians enjoyed a significant degree of protection and autonomy, particularly within the framework of the Ottoman millet system. The millet system recognized religious communities as separate legal entities, allowing them to govern their own internal affairs, including religious, educational, and legal matters. During periods of Jewish persecution in Europe, particularly during the late 15th century and onward, the Ottoman Empire provided a relative haven for Jewish refugees.

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, as nationalist sentiments grew across the region, Palestinian Arab nationalism also began to emerge. Intellectuals and elites in Palestine expressed a sense of identity and called for greater autonomy and self-governance. This period coincided with the rise of the Young Turks movement within the Ottoman Empire, which introduced some political reforms but also faced opposition from various groups.

Abdul Hamid II, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, who opposed Zionist movement led by Herzl

In the early 20th century, the Zionist movement gained momentum, aiming to establish a Jewish homeland in Palestine. Jewish immigration increased, and Zionist organizations purchased land from local landowners, leading to tensions between Jewish and Arab communities. The end of the Ottoman Empire's rule in Palestine came with the conclusion of World War I. Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire, the region came under British control with the implementation of the British Mandate for Palestine in 1920.

British Mandate of Palestine

Main article: Mandatory Palestine

See also: Fall of the Ottoman Empire

Pontifical Biblical Institute near King David Hotel

Under British rule, the history of Palestine witnessed significant political, social, and economic transformations. The British Mandate for Palestine began in 1920 after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. The mandate was established under the League of Nations, with the objective of facilitating the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine while protecting the rights of the Arab population.

During the initial years of the mandate, tensions between Jewish and Arab communities emerged. The British faced challenges in balancing the interests and demands of both groups. In 1936, a widespread Arab revolt erupted, demanding an end to Jewish immigration and land sales to Jewish settlers. The revolt was eventually suppressed by the British, leading to increased restrictions on both Arab and Jewish activities. As Jewish immigration continued, especially in the years leading up to and following World War II, the Zionist movement gained momentum. Jewish settlements expanded, and tensions between Jewish and Arab communities escalated. White Paper was released by the British government, which rejected Peel Commission and proposed a unified Palestine as future country for both Arabs and Jews. As a response and acceptance, revolt was ceased. However, the Zionist entity refused to accept the plan and started protesting against the White Paper. Military groups such as Irgun, Stern Gang and Haganah, started preparing for terror attacks. These includes King David Hotel bombing, Deir Yassin massacre and Haifa Oil Refinery massacre. Menachem Begin and Yitzhak Shamir were behind these attacks, who later became political leader of future Israel. The British struggled to maintain control and peace, and in 1947, they decided to withdraw from Palestine.

The British withdrawal set the stage for the United Nations to propose the partition of Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states. The partition plan was met with mixed reactions, and it ultimately led to the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. The war resulted in the establishment of the State of Israel and the displacement of a significant number of Palestinians, creating the Palestinian refugee crisis. During their rule, the British implemented various policies and measures that shaped the future of Palestine. They introduced administrative systems, infrastructure development, and modernization efforts. They also facilitated the growth of Jewish settlements and institutions, which laid the foundation for the future State of Israel.

However, the British mandate also faced criticism and resistance from both Jewish and Arab communities. Arab resentment towards British policies and the perception of favoring Jewish interests fueled anti-British sentiment.

Wars

Nasser, Shah Faisal and Yasser Arafat at the 1970 Arab League summit

After the establishment of Israel in 1948, the history of Palestine underwent significant changes and challenges, as well as ongoing Israeli-Palestinian conflict dynamics. The establishment of Israel led to the displacement and expulsion of hundreds of thousands of Palestinians, resulting in the Palestinian refugee crisis that persists to this day. In the aftermath of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, Jordan occupied the West Bank, and Egypt took control of the Gaza Strip. The Palestinian territories were not granted independent statehood but became administered by these respective Arab states. The Arab countries, along with the Palestinians, contested the legitimacy of Israel's existence and sought to reclaim the lost territories.

The Suez Crisis unfolded in 1956 when Israel, together with France and the United Kingdom, launched a military campaign against Egypt after the nationalization of the Suez Canal by Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser. The Israeli forces quickly defeated the Egyptian military, but international pressure, particularly from the United States and the Soviet Union, forced the three aggressor countries to withdraw. The Suez Crisis highlighted the complexities and power dynamics in the region, as well as the ongoing tensions between Israel and Arab states.

Gaza Port in 1967, after occupation by Israel

During this period, Palestinian political organizations began to emerge, most notably the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), founded in 1964. The PLO aimed to represent the Palestinian people and their national aspirations, advocating for the establishment of a Palestinian state and the right of return for refugees. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the PLO, under the leadership of Yasser Arafat, gained international recognition and support. The PLO engaged in armed resistance and acts of terrorism against Israeli targets, leading to further escalations in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.

In 1967, the Six-Day War took place, resulting in Israel's occupation of the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and the Gaza Strip, Golan Heights of Syria and entire Sinai Peninsula of Egypt. This occupation further complicated the political landscape and intensified the struggle for Palestinian self-determination. Israel began establishing settlements in the occupied territories, which became a contentious issue in subsequent peace negotiations. Since 1967, Israel have established settlements, which are considered illegal under the international law. In 1973, the Yom Kippur War (also known as the October War) erupted. Egypt and Syria launched a surprise attack on Israel during the Jewish holiday of Yom Kippur. The war resulted in initial gains for the Arab coalition but ended in a stalemate. The conflict marked a turning point in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, as it led to a diplomatic opening and the eventual Camp David Accords in 1978 between Egypt and Israel. The accords established a framework for peace between the two countries but did not directly address the Palestinian question.

In 1987, a popular uprising known as the First Intifada erupted in the occupied territories. It was a grassroots movement involving mass protests, civil disobedience, and acts of resistance against Israeli occupation. The First Intifada brought international attention to the Palestinian cause and led to renewed efforts to find a political solution.

State of Palestine

In 1988, the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), under the leadership of Yasser Arafat, declared the establishment of an independent Palestinian state in the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and the Gaza Strip. This declaration, known as the Algiers Declaration, marked a pivotal moment in Palestinian history and represented a shift towards a negotiated settlement with Israel. However, during this period, the Israeli-Palestinian conflict continued to witness cycles of violence and unrest. In the late 1980s, the First Intifada, a popular uprising against Israeli occupation, erupted in the Palestinian territories. The Intifada involved mass protests, civil disobedience, and occasional violent confrontations, leading to significant casualties and damage.

Yasser Arafat (1929–2004), chairman of PLO and president of PNA

Saddam Hussein, the president of Iraq, emerged as a hero among Palestinians during the Gulf War and received support from Arafat. He launched rocket attacks on Israeli cities. However, before these attacks, Saddam presented a peace offer to the U.S. (an ally of Israel). The offer stated that if Israel withdrew from the West Bank, Gaza Strip, and Golan Heights, he would cease the invasion of Kuwait and work towards promoting peace in the region. Unfortunately, this offer did not work. Amidst this backdrop, diplomatic efforts were underway to find a resolution to the conflict. In 1991, the Madrid Conference marked the first direct negotiations between Israel and a joint Palestinian-Jordanian delegation. These talks aimed to address the core issues of the conflict, including borders, settlements, security, and the status of Jerusalem.

After the attack at the Cave of the Patriarchs, Hebron in 1994

However, substantial progress was limited. In 1993, a significant breakthrough occurred with the signing of the Oslo Accords. Negotiated in secret, the accords established a framework for Palestinian self-rule, with the creation of the Palestinian Authority and the division of the West Bank into areas under Palestinian control (Areas A and B) and Israeli control (Area C). The accords also outlined a phased process for Israeli withdrawal from parts of the West Bank and Gaza Strip. The Oslo Accords brought a sense of optimism and hope for a peaceful resolution to the conflict. In 1994, the Palestinian National Authority was established, assuming limited self-governance responsibilities in parts of the Palestinian territories. Yasser Arafat returned from exile and became the leader of the newly formed Palestinian Authority

However, challenges persisted. Militant groups, such as Hamas and Islamic Jihad, opposed the peace process and carried out attacks against Israeli targets. These acts of violence further complicated the situation and strained the fragile peace. In 1995, another significant milestone was reached with the signing of the Oslo II Accord, also known as the Taba Agreement. This agreement expanded the Palestinian Authority's control over additional areas in the West Bank and outlined a timeline for further Israeli withdrawals. Tragically, the hopes for peace were marred by the assassination of Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin in November 1995. Rabin, who played a key role in the Oslo Accords, was assassinated by Yigal Amir, an extremist opposed to the peace process. This event deeply impacted the region and led to a period of uncertainty and setback in the peace negotiations.

In 1997, negotiations led to the Hebron Protocol, which expanded Palestinian self-rule in the city of Hebron and further redeployments of Israeli forces in the West Bank. This agreement demonstrated some progress, but the core issues of the conflict, including the status of Jerusalem, borders, settlements, and refugees, remained unresolved. The late 1990s witnessed a series of diplomatic efforts to revive the peace process. In 1998, the Wye River Memorandum was signed between Israel and the Palestine Authority under U.S. mediation. This agreement aimed to facilitate the implementation of previous agreements, including the withdrawal of Israeli forces from additional areas of the West Bank. However, the implementation of the Wye River Memorandum faced significant challenges and delays.

During the 1990s, Palestine experienced a period of relatively good economic growth despite the challenging political and security environment. The establishment of the Palestinian Authority and the implementation of the Oslo Accords brought an influx of international aid and investment, leading to increased infrastructure development, expansion of industries, and improved access to markets. The economy witnessed positive growth rates, driven by sectors such as agriculture, manufacturing, and services. Additionally, the growth of the tourism industry and the establishment of Palestinian banks and financial institutions contributed to the overall economic stability and improved living conditions for many Palestinians during this period.

Second Intifada (2000–2005)

Main article: Second Intifada

The Church of the Nativity at the city of Bethlehem in siege under Israel Defense Forces in 2002

The Second Intifada, which lasted from 2000 to 2005, was a period of intense conflict and violence between Israelis and Palestinians. Despite the diplomatic efforts, the peace process suffered a severe setback in 1999 when negotiations between Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak and Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat at the Camp David Summit failed to reach a final status agreement. Disagreements over the issues of Jerusalem, borders, and the right of return for Palestinian refugees proved insurmountable. Following the failure of the Camp David Summit in 2000, tensions between Israelis and Palestinians escalated dramatically. In September 2000, the Second Intifada, also known as the Al-Aqsa Intifada, erupted. The Second Intifada was characterized by a wave of violence, including suicide bombings, shootings, and Israeli military responses, resulting in a high number of casualties on both sides.

Efforts to revive the peace process continued, including the convening of the Taba Summit in January 2001. Although progress was made, negotiations eventually broke down due to the escalating violence and political changes in both Israeli and Palestinian leadership. In 2002, Israel launched Operation Defensive Shield, a major military incursion into Palestinian cities in response to the ongoing violence. The operation aimed to dismantle Palestinian militant infrastructure and restore security. However, it resulted in significant destruction and loss of life. Israel implemented stringent security measures, including checkpoints, curfews, and the construction of a separation barrier, to curb the attacks. These measures, while intended to enhance security, also led to restrictions on the movement of Palestinians, economic hardship, and the exacerbation of humanitarian conditions.

Efforts to mediate a ceasefire and resume peace negotiations were ongoing throughout this period. International actors, including the United States, the United Nations, and the European Union, made attempts to broker a truce and revive the peace process. However, these efforts faced significant challenges, including the deep-seated distrust, the escalation of violence, and the inability to address the core issues of the conflict.

During this period, international efforts to revive the peace process gained momentum. The Quartet on the Middle East, consisting of the United States, the European Union, Russia, and the United Nations, proposed the Roadmap for Peace in 2003. The roadmap outlined a series of steps towards the establishment of an independent Palestinian state alongside a secure Israel. However, the implementation of the roadmap faced significant challenges, and progress remained limited.

Post Arafat era

Against this backdrop of violence and political instability, Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat remained a central figure. In 2004, Arafat's health deteriorated, and he was confined to his headquarters in Ramallah by Israeli authorities. In November 2004, Yasser Arafat died, marking the end of an era for the Palestinian national movement. Following Arafat's death, Mahmoud Abbas, also known as Abu Mazen, assumed leadership of the Palestinian Authority. Abbas advocated for a negotiated settlement with Israel and worked towards a ceasefire agreement, leading to a relative decrease in violence.

In 2005, Israel unilaterally disengaged from the Gaza Strip, withdrawing its military forces and dismantling settlements. The move was seen as a step towards Palestinian self-governance and the potential for progress. However, the withdrawal did not lead to a significant improvement in the overall situation, as Gaza soon fell under the control of the militant group Hamas.

Internal divisions between the two main Palestinian political factions, Fatah and Hamas, intensified during this period. In 2006, Hamas won a majority in the Palestinian Legislative Council (PLC) elections, leading to a political standoff with Fatah. The power struggle eventually escalated into armed clashes and resulted in a split between the West Bank, governed by Fatah and the Palestinian Authority, and the Gaza Strip, controlled by Hamas. The division between the West Bank and Gaza complicated efforts to achieve Palestinian unity and negotiate a comprehensive peace agreement with Israel. Multiple rounds of reconciliation talks were held, but no lasting agreement was reached. The division also hindered the establishment of a unified Palestinian state and led to different governance structures and policies in the two territories.

Throughout this period, there were sporadic outbreaks of violence and tensions between Palestinians and Israelis. Since 2001, Incidents of rocket attacks from Gaza into Israeli territory and Israeli military operations in response often resulted in casualties and further strained the situation.

International efforts to revive the peace process continued. The United States, under the leadership of different administrations, made various attempts to broker negotiations between Israel and the Palestinians. However, significant obstacles such as settlement expansion, the status of Jerusalem, borders, and the right of return for Palestinian refugees, remained unresolved. In recent years, diplomatic initiatives have emerged, including the normalization agreements between Israel and several Arab states, known as the Abraham Accords. These agreements, while not directly addressing the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, have reshaped regional dynamics and raised questions about the future of Palestinian aspirations for statehood. The status quo remains challenging for Palestinians, with ongoing issues of occupation, settlement expansion, restricted movement, and economic hardships. Efforts to find a just and lasting solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict continue, but the path towards a comprehensive peace agreement and the establishment of a viable, independent Palestinian state remains uncertain.

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Post Arafanaabamat era

Death of Yasser Arafat on 11 November 2004, marked an end of Arafat era. Mahmoud Abbas became president and chairman of PLO. Yassin Ahmed, leader of Hamas was killed in an airstrike by the Israel Defense Force in same year. In 2005, Israel withdraws its forces and dismantles settlements from the Gaza Strip as part of the unilateral disengagement plan. However, Israel retains control over Gaza's borders, airspace, and coastline. Israel approved construction of an Israeli settlement in the West Bank known as "Ma'ale Adumim E1," in 2005 which draws international criticism and raises concerns about the viability of a future Palestinian state.

In 2006 Hamas won the elections, which gave birth to Fatah–Hamas conflict, initiating Battle of Gaza in 2007. As a result of war, Hamas got control of the Gaza Strip and the West Bank went on hands of Fatah. Fearing any attacks in the future, Israel and Egypt imposed a blockade on Gaza, since 2007. Since then, Gaza is ruled by Hamas, with whom Israel often engages in frequent wars and conflicts. In 2023, Hamas launched a surprise attack on Southern Israel, in response to Ramadan Al Aqsa clashes. Next day, Benjamin Netanyahu declared war on Hamas. The war is continuously taking place between Hamas and IDF. More 25,000 Palestinians were killed in Gaza. The current objective of the Palestinians and their supporters is to reach in a state of ceasefire.

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Salahuddin, known as "Conqueror of Jerusalem", capture Jerusalem and took control of Palestine. Once again Palestine came under control of Muslims. Salahuddin's capture of Jerusalem marked a significant turning point in the history of Palestine. Instead of the mass slaughter and pillaging that often accompanied conquests during that time, Salahuddin showed remarkable magnanimity and tolerance towards the defeated Crusaders and the city's inhabitants. He allowed Christians to leave peacefully and ensured the safety of their holy sites, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.

Ottoman Palestine

Main article: Ottoman Palestine

By 14th century, the Ottoman Empire took control of the entire region. In 1516, the Ottoman Empire, led by Sultan Selim I, conquered Palestine from the Mamluks, who had ruled the region for several centuries. Under Ottoman rule, Palestine became part of a larger administrative unit known as the Sanjak of Jerusalem, which was initially part of the larger province of Syria. The Sanjak of Jerusalem included areas such as Jerusalem, Nablus, Gaza, and Jaffa.

Turk officer protecting Tower of David

The Ottoman Empire implemented a centralized administrative system in Palestine, with local governance under the control of appointed officials known as pashas or governors. These officials were responsible for maintaining law and order, collecting taxes, and overseeing the administration of justice. Palestine's economic landscape experienced changes during the Ottoman period. The empire encouraged agricultural development, and various measures were taken to enhance agricultural productivity. The construction of irrigation systems, such as the qanat system, helped improve water distribution and facilitated agricultural expansion. Under Ottoman rule, Palestine saw an increase in the cultivation of cash crops like cotton and olives, which were exported to other regions. Religiously, Palestine held great significance for Muslims, Christians, and Jews. The Ottomans maintained control over the holy sites in Jerusalem, including the Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. They also regulated access to these sites and implemented various policies to manage religious affairs.

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, as nationalist sentiments grew across the region, Palestinian Arab nationalism also began to emerge. Intellectuals and elites in Palestine expressed a sense of identity and called for greater autonomy and self-governance. This period coincided with the rise of the Young Turks movement within the Ottoman Empire, which introduced some political reforms but also faced opposition from various groups. In the early 20th century, the Zionist movement gained momentum, aiming to establish a Jewish homeland in Palestine. Jewish immigration increased, and Zionist organizations purchased land from local landowners, leading to tensions between Jewish and Arab communities.

The end of the Ottoman Empire's rule in Palestine came with the conclusion of World War I. Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire, the region came under British control with the implementation of the British Mandate for Palestine in 1920.

Modern period

Fall of the Ottoman Empire

Palestine has a complex and turbulent history, marked by various conflicts and significant events. One notable period is the Sinai and Palestine Campaign (1915–1918), which occurred during World War I. This campaign aimed to secure control over the Sinai Peninsula and Palestine region and included battles such as the decisive Battle of Megiddo in 1918.

British Mandate of Palestine

Main article: Mandatory Palestine

In the aftermath of World War I, tensions between Arab and Jewish communities in Palestine escalated, leading to the 1920 Palestine riots. These violent disturbances occurred in multiple cities and towns, resulting in casualties and property damage. Subsequently, the Jaffa riots of 1921 erupted in the city of Jaffa, fueled by growing Arab-Jewish tensions. The year 1929 witnessed further unrest with the 1929 Palestine riots. These incidents, triggered by religious and nationalist tensions, swept across Palestine, causing loss of life and displacing communities. The 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine saw a widespread uprising against British colonial rule and Jewish immigration, characterized by guerrilla warfare and acts of civil disobedience.

During World War II, Palestine also experienced bombings by German and Italian forces, known as the Bombing of Palestine. These bombings targeted British military installations, infrastructure, and civilian areas, resulting in substantial damage and casualties.

Wars and conflicts

The year 1948 marked a crucial turning point in Palestine's history with the 1948 Palestine war, also known as the Arab-Israeli War or War of Independence. This conflict between the newly declared State of Israel and surrounding Arab states resulted in significant territorial changes and the displacement of a large number of Palestinians. The war was followed by the 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight, known as the Nakba, leading to mass displacement. In the aftermath of the war, between 1949 and 1956, there was an ongoing Palestinian exodus due to various factors, including Israeli policies, military operations, and economic conditions. The Kfar Qasim massacre in 1956 stands as a tragic event during this period, where Israeli border police killed Palestinian villagers who were returning to the village unaware of a curfew imposed by Israeli authorities.

The 1967 War, also known as the Six-Day War, had a profound impact on Palestine. Israel's victory in this conflict resulted in the capture of the Sinai Peninsula, Gaza Strip, West Bank, and East Jerusalem. The war triggered a new wave of Palestinian displacement, known as the 1967 Palestinian exodus, as a consequence of Israeli occupation and military actions. Throughout subsequent years, various battles and conflicts shaped Palestine's history. These include the Battle of Karameh in 1968, the events of Black September in Jordan in 1970, the Lebanese Civil War lasting from 1975 to 1990, and the 1982 Lebanon War. The latter saw the Sabra and Shatila massacre, where Lebanese Christian militias attacked Palestinian refugee camps in Beirut, resulting in significant loss of life.

State of Palestine

In 1988, Yasser Arafat declared establishment of Palestine.

Palestine under Arafat

The period of Palestine under the leadership of Yasser Arafat is known a Arafat era.

In beginning of Palestinian statehood, Yasser Arafat dominated politics of Palestine. Figures such as Ghassan Kanafani, George Habash and Abu Abbas also played important role in the statehood movement.

Contemporary

Palestinian Authority under Yasser Arafat

Yasser Arafat became chairman and president of the Palestinian National Authority.

Second Intifada

In the early 2000s, the Second Intifada erupted, a period of intensified Palestinian-Israeli conflict marked by protests, violence, and armed confrontations. This period saw significant battles such as the Battle of Jenin and the Battle of Nablus. Additionally, the Siege of the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem took place in 2002, involving a prolonged standoff between Israeli forces and Palestinian militants seeking refuge inside the church.

Hamas Israel conflict

The Gaza–Israel conflict remains an ongoing challenge in Palestine's history. Periodic escalations of violence, military operations, rocket attacks, blockades, and border clashes continue to impact the region, resulting in significant casualties and humanitarian challenges.

Administration

The government of Palestine is divided into two main entities: the Palestinian Authority and the Hamas-led government in the Gaza Strip. The Palestinian Authority was established in 1994 as part of the Oslo Accords, which aimed to create a framework for peace negotiations between Israel and Palestine. The PA has limited self-governance over certain areas in the West Bank, known as Areas A and B, where it exercises civil and security control. The PA is headed by a President, who is elected by popular vote, and has its own executive, legislative, and judicial branches.

The President of the Palestinian Authority is the head of state and is elected by the Palestinian people. The President appoints a Prime Minister to head the government and is responsible for representing Palestine internationally. The Council of Ministers, also known as the Cabinet, is appointed by the President and approved by the Palestinian Legislative Council (PLC). It consists of ministers who oversee various government departments and agencies. The Council of Ministers is responsible for implementing policies and managing public affairs. The PLC serves as the legislative body of the Palestinian Authority. Its members are elected by the Palestinian people. The PLC is responsible for enacting laws, approving the budget, and overseeing the work of the government.

Since 2007, the Gaza Strip has been governed by Hamas, an Islamist political and military organization. Hamas won legislative elections in 2006 but faced political tensions with the Palestinian Authority, leading to a split in governance. The Hamas-led government operates independently from the PA, and its governance structure is distinct. The executive authority in the Gaza Strip is led by a Prime Minister, appointed by the Hamas leadership. The Prime Minister is responsible for overseeing the government's policies and administration within the Gaza Strip. Palestinian Legislative Council elections, held in 2006, resulted in a majority for Hamas. However, the council's functioning has been disrupted due to political divisions and the lack of regular elections.

Administrative Divisions

The administrative division of Palestine is primarily based on the Oslo Accords, which divided the West Bank into three areas of varying degrees of Palestinian and Israeli control.

Area A is under full civil and security control of the Palestinian Authority. This includes major Palestinian cities such as Ramallah, Bethlehem, and Jericho. Area B is under joint Israeli-Palestinian control. While the Palestinian Authority has civil control over this area, Israel retains overall security control. Under full Israeli civil and security control, Area C comprises the majority of the West Bank and includes Israeli settlements, military bases, and nature reserves. The Israeli military maintains control over security matters, planning and zoning, and infrastructure development. Additionally, the Gaza Strip, which is geographically separated from the West Bank, is under the de facto control of Hamas since 2007. It operates as a distinct administrative entity with its own governing institutions.

The West Bank is divided into 11 governorates (often referred to as districts) and Gaza Strip into five governorates. Gaza Governorate was the largest governorate before Israel–Hamas war and invasion of Gaza. Jerusalem Governorate is largest governorate in the West Bank, followed by

Foreign Relations

Palestine has been recognized as a state by over 140 countries and has gained membership or non-member observer status in several international organizations, including the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) as a non-member observer state in 2012. The country has established diplomatic relations with numerous countries around the world. Many nations have diplomatic missions, including embassies or representative offices, in the Palestinian territories. These diplomatic relations focus on political, economic, and cultural cooperation.

Belgian Consulate to Palestine in Jerusalem

Palestine enjoys strong support from Arab and Muslim nations. Many of these countries recognize Palestine as a sovereign state and have established diplomatic relations. They provide political, financial, and humanitarian support to the Palestinian cause. The Arab League, an organization of Arab states, has consistently advocated for Palestinian rights and the establishment of a Palestinian state. Palestine enjoys strong support from Arab and Muslim nations. Many of these countries recognize Palestine as a sovereign state and have established diplomatic relations. They provide political, financial, and humanitarian support to the Palestinian cause. The Arab League, an organization of Arab states, has consistently advocated for Palestinian rights and the establishment of a Palestinian state.

Palestine maintains diplomatic relations with China, Russia, and North Korea. China has expressed support for the Palestinian cause and has provided financial aid and development assistance. Russia has been supportive of the Palestinian cause, facilitating peace negotiations, and providing political support and humanitarian aid. North Korea has maintained diplomatic relations with Palestine, although the extent of their relations may be less significant compared to China and Russia.

Palestine has been engaged in peace negotiations with Israel under various frameworks, such as the Oslo Accords and the Quartet on the Middle East. The goal of these negotiations is to resolve the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, establish a two-state solution, and determine the final status issues, including borders, Jerusalem, and refugees. Beyond its status as a non-member observer state at the UNGA, Palestine has joined or sought membership in organizations such as UNESCO, the International Criminal Court (ICC), and others.

Foreign relations

Palestine's relations with Arab countries, including Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Egypt, Libya, Syria, Lebanon, Qatar, Kuwait, and Jordan, have varied, with some countries offering political, diplomatic, and financial support for the Palestinian cause, while others face internal conflicts or have differing priorities that affect their engagement in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.

Law and order

The Palestinian Authority has established various security forces to maintain law and order. These forces include the Palestinian National Security Forces, Palestinian Civil Police, Preventive Security Service, General Intelligence Service, and Presidential Guard. They are responsible for enforcing laws, combating crime, and ensuring public safety within the areas under Palestinian Authority control.

The Palestinian Authority has its own criminal justice system, which includes law enforcement, judiciary, and correctional institutions. The Palestinian Civil Police are responsible for investigating crimes, making arrests, and gathering evidence. The Palestinian judiciary operates through courts at different levels, including Magistrate Courts, District Courts, and the High Court of Justice. These courts handle criminal cases and administer justice based on Palestinian laws and legal procedures.

In areas where Israel maintains security control, such as Area C in the West Bank, the Israeli Defense Forces (IDF) and Israeli police are responsible for law enforcement and maintaining order. The coordination and cooperation between Palestinian security forces and Israeli authorities in these areas are essential for addressing security concerns and preventing crime.

Military

Main article: Military of Palestine

The military of Palestine consists of several security forces and paramilitary organizations. The Palestinian Security Forces (PSF) are the official security forces of the Palestinian Authority (PA). They include the Palestinian National Security Forces, Palestinian Civil Police, Preventive Security Service, General Intelligence Service, and Presidential Guard. The PSF is primarily responsible for maintaining internal security, law enforcement, and counterterrorism operations in areas under Palestinian Authority control.

The Palestinian Liberation Army (PLA) is the standing army of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). It was established during the early years of the Palestinian national movement but has largely been inactive since the Oslo Accords. The PLA's role was intended to be a conventional military force but has shifted to a more symbolic and political role. There are various armed factions within Palestine, including Hamas and Islamic Jihad in the Gaza Strip and other smaller groups. These factions have their own armed wings and maintain paramilitary capabilities. They primarily focus on resistance activities against Israeli occupation and have engaged in armed conflicts with Israel in the past.

The military capabilities of Palestine are significantly limited compared to the Israeli Defense Forces (IDF). The Oslo Accords and subsequent agreements have placed restrictions on the size and armament of Palestinian security forces. The PA's security forces primarily focus on internal security rather than conventional military operations.

Geography

Palestine, as a country, refers to the region encompassing the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and the Gaza Strip. The West Bank is located on the western side of the Jordan River and is characterized by a diverse landscape. It consists of fertile valleys, such as the Jezreel Valley and the Jordan River Valley, as well as mountainous areas, including the Samarian and Judean mountain ranges. The central highlands dominate the region, with peaks reaching over 1,000 meters (3,300 feet). The Dead Sea, the lowest point on Earth, lies in the eastern part of the West Bank.

View of Eizariya, a Jerusalem neighborhood, with Judean Desert in background

East Jerusalem, a part of the West Bank, is a significant component of the Palestinian territories. It is located on a plateau in the central highlands and is surrounded by valleys. The Old City of Jerusalem, with its historical and religious sites, is centrally located within East Jerusalem. The Gaza Strip is a small coastal enclave located on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It is bordered by Israel to the north, east, and south, while Egypt forms its southwestern border. The terrain is generally flat, with sandy beaches along the coast. The population is concentrated in urban areas, with Gaza City being the largest city and administrative center.

The Samarian Hills, also known as the Samarian Mountains, are a mountain range located in the central part of the West Bank. They extend north to south, running parallel to the Jordan River. The highest peak in this range is Mount Gerizim, standing at approximately 881 meters (2,890 feet) above sea level. The Judean Hills, or Judean Mountains, are another prominent mountain range located in the central and southern parts of the West Bank. They stretch from the Jerusalem area southwards towards Hebron. The highest point in this range is Mount Hebron, reaching approximately 1,020 meters (3,346 feet) above sea level. The Mount of Olives is a significant hill located to the east of Jerusalem's Old City. It is named after the olive groves that once covered its slopes. This hill has religious and historical significance, with several important religious sites located on its slopes, including the Church of All Nations and the Chapel of the Ascension. While Mount Carmel is mainly located in present-day Israel, a portion of this mountain range extends into northern parts of the West Bank. Mount Carmel is a coastal range stretching along the Mediterranean coast. It is known for its natural beauty and diverse ecosystems.

Palestine is home to several lakes and rivers that play a significant role in the region's geography and ecosystems. The Jordan River is a prominent waterway that forms part of Palestine's eastern border. It originates from the north, near the Lebanese border, and flows southward, passing through the Sea of Galilee (Lake Tiberias). The river then continues south, forming a natural boundary between Jordan and the West Bank, before eventually reaching the Dead Sea, the lowest point on Earth. The Jordan River and its associated lakes provide important water resources, support agriculture, and offer recreational opportunities. Additionally, there are smaller lakes within Palestine, such as Lake Hula in the northern part of the country, which serves as a vital wetland habitat for migratory birds and other wildlife. While the region faces water scarcity challenges, these lakes and rivers remain crucial in sustaining both human and natural systems in Palestine.

Climate

The West Bank generally has a Mediterranean climate with hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters. Summers, from June to September, are hot and dry, with temperatures often exceeding 30°C (86°F) and sometimes reaching the mid-40s°C (over 100°F). Winters, from December to February, are cooler and wetter, with temperatures averaging around 10-15°C (50-59°F). Snowfall is rare but can occur in higher elevations, particularly in the mountainous areas.

Both the West Bank and the Gaza Strip receive most of their rainfall during the winter months, with precipitation decreasing significantly during the summer. Annual rainfall varies, with the West Bank generally receiving higher amounts than the Gaza Strip. The Gaza Strip also experiences a Mediterranean climate, but with some variations due to its coastal location. Summers are hot and humid, with temperatures averaging around 30-35°C (86-95°F) and occasionally reaching higher. Winters are milder compared to the West Bank, with temperatures ranging between 15-20°C (59-68°F). Rainfall is generally lower in the Gaza Strip compared to the West Bank.

Wildlife and Protected areas

Palestine does not have officially recognized national parks or protected areas. However, there are areas within the West Bank that are considered to have ecological and cultural significance and are being managed with conservation efforts. These areas are often referred to as nature reserves or protected zones. Located near Jericho in the West Bank, Wadi Qelt is a desert valley with unique flora and fauna. The reserve is known for its rugged landscapes, natural springs, and historical sites such as the St. George Monastery. Efforts have been made to protect the biodiversity and natural beauty of the area.

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Saddam Hussein

Saddam Hussein
صدام حسين
Saddam in August 1998
5th President of Iraq
In office 16 July 1979 – 9 April 2003
Prime Minister	Himself (1979–1991) Sa'dun Hammadi (1991) Mohammed Hamza Zubeidi (1991–1993) Ahmad Husayn Khudayir as-Samarrai (1993–1994) Himself (1994–2003)
Vice President	Taha Muhie-eldin Marouf (1974–2003) Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri (1979–2003) Taha Yassin Ramadan (1991–2003)
Preceded by	Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr
Succeeded by	Jay Garner (as Director of the Office for Reconstruction and Humanitarian Assistance of Iraq) Jalal Talabani (2005)
Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council
In office 16 July 1979 – 9 April 2003
Preceded by	Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr
Succeeded by	Office abolished
Prime Minister of Iraq
In office 29 May 1994 – 9 April 2003
President	Himself
Preceded by	Ahmad Husayn Khudayir as-Samarrai
Succeeded by	Mohammad Bahr al-Ulloum (as Acting President of the Governing Council of Iraq)
In office 16 July 1979 – 23 March 1991
President	Himself
Preceded by	Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr
Succeeded by	Sa'dun Hammadi
Secretary General of the National Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party
In office January 1992 – 30 December 2006
Preceded by	Michel Aflaq
Succeeded by	Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri
Regional Secretary of the Regional Command of the Iraqi Regional Branch
In office 16 July 1979 – 30 December 2006
National Secretary	Michel Aflaq (until 1989) Himself (from 1989)
Preceded by	Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr
Succeeded by	Izzat Ibrahim ad-Douri
In office February 1964 – October 1966
Preceded by	Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr
Succeeded by	Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr
Vice President of Iraq
In office 17 July 1968 – 16 July 1979
President	Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr
Preceded by	Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr
Succeeded by	Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri
Member of the Regional Command of the Iraqi Regional Branch
In office February 1964 – 9 April 2003
Personal details
Born	(1937-04-28)28 April 1937 Al-Awja, Saladin Governorate, Kingdom of Iraq
Died	30 December 2006(2006-12-30) (aged 69) Camp Justice, Kadhimiya, Baghdad, Iraq
Cause of death	Execution by hanging
Resting place	Al-Awja
Political party	Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party (1957–1966) Iraq-based Ba'ath Party (1966–2006) National Progressive Front (1974–2003)
Spouses	Sajida Talfah ​ (m. 1963)​ Samira Shahbandar ​ (m. 1986)​
Children	Uday (deceased) Qusay (deceased) Raghad Rana Hala
Signature
Military service
Allegiance	Iraq
Branch/service	Iraqi Armed Forces
Rank	Marshal
Battles/wars	Iraqi–Kurdish conflict Iran–Iraq War Gulf War 1991 Iraqi uprisings Iraqi no-fly zones conflict Iraq War

Saddam Hussein (born as Saddam Hussein Abdul Majid; 28 April 1937 – 31 December 2006 ) was an Iraqi politician and revolutionary leader, who served as vice president of Iraq from 1968 to 1979, prime minister and president of Iraq, from 1979 until his capture and overthrew in 2003. As a prime minister he served in two terms, first term from 1979 to 1991 and the second term from 1994 to 2003.

Saddam was born near the city of Tikrit. Both Saddam's father and brother died before his birth. His mother was about to commit suicide, when Saddam was in her womb, causing abortion. Luckily his mother was saved a neighboring Jewish family. Saddam was humiliated by his stepfather. Following, he lived with his uncle, who was a fatherly figure to him. Saddam completed his studied law from Cairo Law School.

Iraq under Saddam Hussein was a powerful and influential country in the Middle East. Saddam Hussein came to power in 1979 and ruled Iraq with an iron fist, consolidating power and maintaining control through a combination of military strength, repression, and propaganda. His regime was known for its aggressive foreign policy, including the invasion of Iran in 1980 and the invasion of Kuwait in 1990. Iraq also had a significant military capability, including a large army and advanced weaponry. However, the country was also subject to international sanctions and diplomatic isolation due to its aggressive actions and human rights abuses.

Saddam is viewed negatively in many Western nations, contrary to his support from

He is viewed negatively by many Western countries, as a dictatorial and authoritarianism. Due to his clashes with Kurds, Shiites and Turkmens. While the Arab and Muslim world regards him as a great leader, as he was known for his contributions in Pan-Arabism, Ba'athism and Palestinian cause. Iraq was stable under Saddam Hussein regime, in comparison to today's situation in the country after the Iraq War.

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Saddam Hussein was an Iraqi political leader and revolutionary, who served as first as Vice President of Iraq from 1968 to 1979 and as a prime minister and president of Iraq from 1979 until his capture in 2003. He served as leader of the Ba'athist party of Iraq from 1979 to until his execution in 2006.

Saddam Hussein rose to power within the Ba'ath Party and assumed the presidency of Iraq in 1979. He quickly consolidated his authority through a combination of political maneuvering, purges, and the establishment of a pervasive security apparatus. His regime was marked by absolute control over the country, with Saddam dominating politics, the military, and the economy. One of the defining aspects of Saddam's rule was his pursuit of regional dominance and territorial expansion. In 1980, he initiated the Iran-Iraq War, which lasted for eight years and resulted in immense human suffering and economic devastation. In 1990, Saddam's invasion of Kuwait triggered the Gulf War, leading to a multinational military intervention that pushed Iraqi forces out of Kuwait.

Saddam Hussein's regime was notorious for its widespread human rights abuses and political repression. Dissent was ruthlessly suppressed, and the regime engaged in arbitrary arrests, torture, and executions to maintain control. The notorious Anfal campaign against the Kurdish population in the late 1980s resulted in the deaths of thousands of civilians and the use of chemical weapons.

Saddam's reign came to an end in 2003 when a U.S.-led coalition invaded Iraq and toppled his regime. Following his capture in December 2003, Saddam faced trial for crimes against humanity. In 2006, he was found guilty and executed by hanging. His execution marked the end of an era in Iraqi history, but the challenges and consequences of his rule continued to shape the country's future.

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Saddam Hussein (born as Saddam Hussein Abdul Majid al Tikriti, 28 April 1937 – 30 December 2006) was an Iraqi political leader and revolutionary. As a member of Ba'ath party, Saddam served as Vice President of Iraq from 1968 to 1979, twice as a prime minister and as country's president from 1979 to until his overthrew in 2003 by the U.S coalition forces.

Saddam was born near the city of Tikrit. Both Saddam's father and brother died before his birth. His mother was about to abort Saddam and commit sucide. Luckily his mother was saved a neighboring Jewish family. Saddam was humiliated by his stepfather. Following, he lived with his uncle, who was a fatherly figure to him. Saddam completed his studied law from Cairo Law School.

In 1968, after overthrew of Abdul-Karim Qasim led by Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr, Saddam became Vice President of Iraq. In 1979, he succeeded Al-Bakr as president of Iraq. Throughout his leadership, Iraq participated in many military conflicts. In 1980, Saddam ordered invasion of Iran initiating Iran–Iraq War, which ended in 1988 after a ceasefire. A geocidal campaign was led government of Saddam, which targeted Kurdish population of Iraq. He led Dujail Massacre, which killed some 140 Shia rebels. In 1990, Saddam led invasion of Kuwait, which resulted in Gulf War. The war ended in 1991, after U.S coalition drove Iraqi forces out of Kuwait. In 2003, U.S coalition invaded Iraqi, overthrew his government and captured Saddam. In 2006, he was hanged for crimes against humanity — involvement in the Dujail massacre.

Saddam is often viewed negatively among Western countries for his authoritarian and totalitarian government, which violated human rights. Conversely, he is well regarded among Arab and Muslim world, specially his support for Palestinian cause. During Saddam's leadership, Iraq was an educational and medical powerhouse in the Middle East, as the government have provided free healthcare and education. Kurdish people of Iraq were given autonomy by Saddam. Under Saddam regime, Jews and Christians granted protection.

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Early Life

Saddam in 1939, when he was two year old

Saddam Hussein was born in al-Awja, a village near Tikrit, to Hussein Abd Al-Majid and Subha Tulfah Al-Mussallat. His family belonged to the Albu Nasir tribe, which had migrated from Yemen and settled in Tikrit. Saddam's father and brother died before his birth, leading to his mother's depression and unsuccessful attempts to abort her pregnancy. His mother was saved by a neighboring Jewish family. Saddam was taken in by an uncle and later moved to Baghdad to live with his uncle Khairallah Talfah, who became a fatherly figure to him.

Under his uncle's guidance, Saddam attended a nationalistic high school in Baghdad and briefly studied law at an Iraqi university. In 1957, at the age of 20, he joined the pan-Arab Ba'ath Party, which had a following in Syria and Iraq. Saddam's family connections played a role in his decision to join the party. The revolutionary sentiment was prevalent during that era in Iraq, and Saddam was influenced by the pan-Arab nationalism of leaders like Gamal Abdel Nasser in Egypt.

In 1958, a year after Saddam's party affiliation, a revolution led by General Abd al-Karim Qasim overthrew King Faisal II of Iraq in the 14 July Revolution.

Revolutionary activity

Overthrew of Qassim

Saddam Hussein and the Ba'ath Party student cell, Cairo, in the period 1959-63

Saddam Hussein played a significant role in the overthrow of Iraqi Prime Minister Abd al-Karim Qasim in 1963. At that time, Saddam was a prominent member of the Ba'ath Party, which opposed Qasim's regime. The Ba'ath Party, including Saddam Hussein, collaborated with other factions, such as the Nationalist Officers' Movement and the Iraqi Communist Party, to orchestrate a coup against Qasim. On February 8, 1963, a military coup led by the Ba'ath Party and its allies successfully overthrew Qasim's government. Saddam, along with other Ba'ath Party members, participated in the coup and played a role in the subsequent consolidation of power.

Following the coup, the Ba'ath Party formed a new government, and Saddam Hussein emerged as a prominent figure within the party and the Iraqi leadership. In coordination with other factions, including the Nationalist Officers' Movement and the Iraqi Communist Party, the Ba'ath Party planned and executed a coup against Qasim. On February 8, 1963, armed forces loyal to the Ba'ath Party and its allies launched a successful coup, resulting in the overthrow and subsequent execution of Qasim. During the coup, Saddam Hussein played a crucial role in the violence and suppression of Qasim's loyalists. He was involved in the planning and execution of operations targeting key government installations, military bases, and loyalist forces. Saddam's role in the coup earned him recognition and elevated his position within the Ba'ath Party and the new government that was formed.

However, the coalition government that emerged after the coup was short-lived. Internal rivalries and power struggles plagued the coalition, leading to the ousting of the Ba'ath Party from power later in 1963. Saddam Hussein was imprisoned following a counter-coup led by nationalist officers, including Colonel Abdul Salam Arif. Despite the setbacks, Saddam's imprisonment was relatively short-lived. In 1964, he managed to escape and went into hiding. He later returned to the political scene and played a crucial role in the Ba'ath Party's successful comeback in the coup of July 1968.

Rise to Power

The Ba'ath Party initially had representation in Qasim's cabinet, but Qasim, cautious about joining Nasser's union between Egypt and Syria, aligned with other groups in Iraq and adopted a policy of "Iraq First." This policy angered pan-Arab organizations, including the Ba'ath Party, which plotted to assassinate Qasim and seize power. Saddam Hussein was recruited to the assassination conspiracy but prematurely began shooting during the ambush, disorganizing the operation. Although Qasim was injured, he survived.

There are differing accounts regarding the involvement of the United States and Egyptian intelligence in the assassination attempt. Some sources suggest a collaboration between the CIA and Egyptian intelligence, while others argue that the U.S. adhered to a nonintervention policy. Available declassified documents indicate that the U.S. was aware of plots against Qasim and was considering various actions, but the extent of collaboration remains a topic of debate.

Hussein in 1975

The failed assassination attempt on Qasim brought widespread exposure to Saddam Hussein and the Ba'ath Party in Iraq, elevating their public image. Saddam's biography and Iraqi television accounts emphasized his familiarity with guns from a young age, his bravery during the operation, and his daring escape. These stories became part of Saddam's public persona during his presidency. Michel Aflaq, the leader of the Ba'athist movement, expelled some leading Iraqi Ba'athist members, including Fuad al-Rikabi, for initiating the attempt on Qasim's life. However, Aflaq secured positions for his own supporters in the Iraqi Ba'ath leadership, one of whom was Saddam. The assassins, including Saddam, eventually escaped to Cairo, Egypt, where they found refuge under President Nasser's protection throughout Qasim's remaining tenure.

After initially fleeing to Syria, Saddam moved to Egypt in February 1960. He continued to live in Egypt until 1963, completing his high school education and briefly pursuing a law degree at Cairo Law School. It is believed that Saddam may have visited the U.S. embassy in Cairo during his exile, and there is evidence suggesting his frequent contact with U.S. officials and intelligence agents. According to a former high-ranking U.S. official, Iraqi Ba'athists, including Saddam, had established contact with American authorities in the late 1950s and early 1960s.

Army officers with ties to the Ba'ath Party carried out the February 1963 Ramadan Revolution coup, overthrowing Qasim. The involvement of the CIA in supporting the coup has long been suspected, although relevant contemporary documents remain classified. The Ba'athist leaders appointed to the cabinet were later dismissed and arrested in the November 1963 Iraqi coup. Saddam, who was in Egypt at the time, played no direct role in these events but returned to Iraq afterward and became an organizer within the Ba'ath Party's civilian wing. He was involved in planning to assassinate President Arif but was eventually arrested in 1964, serving about two years in prison before escaping. In 1966, Saddam was appointed Deputy Secretary of the Regional Command and revitalized the party. He also challenged Syrian domination of the Ba'ath Party, leading to its split into two factions. Saddam established a Ba'athist security service under his exclusive control.

In July 1968, Saddam participated in a bloodless coup that ousted Abdul Rahman Arif, led by Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr. While Saddam's direct role in the coup was not significant, he orchestrated the purge of non-Ba'athist factions, including Prime Minister Abd ar-Razzaq an-Naif. Saddam personally escorted Naif out of Iraq at gunpoint. Al-Bakr became president, with Saddam as his deputy and deputy chairman of the Ba'athist Revolutionary Command Council. Saddam's behind-the-scenes political influence grew, and by 1969, he had become the driving force behind the party, despite al-Bakr's seniority and prestige.

Vice Presidency (1968–1979)

Yom Kippur War

Comrade Saddam Hussein, Vice-secretary of Arab Socialist Ba'th Party in Iraq

During the Yom Kippur War, also known as the October War, which took place in 1973, Saddam Hussein held the position of Vice Chairman of Iraq's ruling Revolutionary Command Council (RCC). At that time, Iraq was governed by the Arab Ba'ath Socialist Party, led by President Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr.

Saddam Hussein played a significant role in supporting Egypt and Syria, who were the main Arab belligerents in the war against Israel. He provided both political and military assistance to these countries during the conflict. Iraq provided financial assistance to support the war efforts of Egypt and Syria. The exact amount of financial aid is not widely documented, but it aimed to assist with the procurement of military equipment and other necessities for the Arab armies.

Politically, Saddam Hussein actively supported the Arab cause and worked to rally Arab nations against Israel. He condemned Israel's occupation of Palestinian territories and expressed solidarity with the Arab states involved in the war. On the military front, Iraq sent a contingent of troops and military equipment to support Syria. The Iraqi forces fought alongside Syrian forces in the Golan Heights against Israeli forces. Saddam Hussein's decision to send troops was driven by his desire to position Iraq as a leading Arab nation and bolster his own standing within the Arab world.

Iraq participated in the 1973 oil embargo, also known as the Arab oil embargo. The embargo was a response by several Arab oil-producing countries to the United States' support for Israel during the Yom Kippur War, which was fought between Israel and a coalition of Arab states led by Egypt and Syria.

The Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC), which included Iraq, decided to impose an oil embargo on countries that supported Israel. The embargo aimed to exert economic and political pressure on those countries by reducing or completely stopping the supply of oil. Iraq, along with other OAPEC members such as Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and the United Arab Emirates, implemented the oil embargo. As a major oil producer, Iraq's participation in the embargo had a significant impact on global oil markets. The reduced oil supply resulted in a sharp increase in oil prices and created economic challenges for countries heavily dependent on oil imports.

Saddam Hussein's rise to power and his subsequent influence within the Ba'ath Party and Iraq came in the years following the 1973 oil embargo. It was during the late 1970s and early 1980s that Saddam consolidated his control over the Ba'ath Party and assumed key positions of power within the Iraqi government, eventually becoming the de facto leader of Iraq. The 1973 oil crises changed the landscape of oil industry in the Arab world and the Middle East.

Kurdish Autonomy

Main article: Iraqi–Kurdish Autonomy Agreement of 1970

Saddam Hussein and Mostafa Barzani meeting on 10 March 1970

The Kurdish Agreement of 1970, also known as the March Manifesto, was an important political agreement reached between the Iraqi government and Kurdish rebel groups led by Mustafa Barzani. The agreement aimed to address the longstanding grievances of the Kurdish population in Iraq, particularly regarding autonomy and political representation.

During the negotiations and implementation of the Kurdish Agreement, Saddam Hussein was a key figure in the Iraqi government. Saddam Hussein played a significant role in the negotiations between the Iraqi government and the Kurdish rebel groups. He represented the government's interests and worked towards finding a resolution to the Kurdish insurgency that had been ongoing since the 1960s.

The Kurdish Agreement granted a degree of autonomy to the Kurdish region in northern Iraq, known as Iraqi Kurdistan. It included provisions for the recognition of Kurdish language and culture, the incorporation of Kurdish political representation within the Iraqi government, and the establishment of a Kurdish regional administration.

Despite the initial optimism surrounding the Kurdish Agreement, its implementation faced significant challenges. Disputes arose over issues such as the distribution of power, revenue sharing, and the demarcation of the autonomous Kurdish region. These challenges strained the relationship between the Iraqi government and Kurdish authorities and eventually led to the collapse of the agreement in 1974. The breakdown of the Kurdish Agreement resulted in a renewed armed conflict between the Iraqi government and Kurdish rebel groups, including the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) led by Mustafa Barzani. The conflict continued until a ceasefire was established in 1975, but tensions between the Iraqi government and Kurdish groups persisted for many years.

Border Disputes with Iran and peace agreement

Main articles: Shatt al-Arab dispute and Algiers Agreement (1975)

Saddam Hussein played a role in shaping Iraq's response to the territorial disputes and tensions with Iran. He was involved in the decision-making process and had influence over the military strategy employed by Iraq during the conflict. The Shatt al-Arab conflict had its roots in long-standing disputes over the border demarcation and control of the strategic waterway. Iraq sought to assert its sovereignty over the entire waterway, which it considered to be its territorial right, while Iran had its own claims and interests in the region.

Saddam Hussein and Mohammed Reza Shah Pahlavi during the Algiers agreement 1975

Saddam Hussein's involvement in the conflict helped shape Iraq's military actions and negotiations with Iran. Ultimately, the conflict was resolved through the signing of the Algiers Agreement in 1975, which divided the Shatt al-Arab waterway between the two countries.

The 1975 Algiers Agreement, also known as the Algiers Accord, was a treaty signed between Iraq and Iran to resolve longstanding border disputes and tensions between the two countries. Saddam Hussein, who was the President of Iraq at the time, played a central role in negotiating and signing the agreement. The border disputes between Iraq and Iran had been a source of tension for many years, primarily centered around the Shatt al-Arab waterway, which serves as the maritime boundary between the two countries. The conflict escalated into a full-scale war in 1974, with both sides engaging in military operations.

In March 1975, the Algiers Agreement was brokered by Algerian President Houari Boumediene, with the participation of other Arab leaders as mediators. Saddam Hussein and Iranian Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi met in Algiers, the capital of Algeria, to negotiate a resolution. The agreement stipulated that both Iraq and Iran would respect each other's sovereignty, territorial integrity, and the inviolability of their borders. The Shatt al-Arab waterway was to be divided equally between the two countries, with the border running along the thalweg, the deepest navigable channel of the river.

Additionally, the Algiers Agreement included provisions for joint cooperation in economic, political, and security matters. It aimed to establish a more stable relationship between Iraq and Iran, ending the armed conflict and promoting regional peace. However, the Algiers Agreement did not entirely resolve the underlying issues between the two countries. Tensions continued to simmer, and the agreement faced challenges and violations from both sides. Eventually, the agreement broke down completely, leading to the outbreak of the Iran-Iraq War in 1980, which lasted for eight years.

Kurdish War (1974—1975)

Main article: Iraqi-Kurdish War

After the collapse of the Kurdish Agreement in 1974, a new phase of armed conflict between the Iraqi government and Kurdish rebel groups, primarily the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) led by Mustafa Barzani, ensued. As part of Saddam Hussein's strategy to weaken the Kurdish rebels, the Iraqi government forcibly displaced Kurdish populations from their homes and destroyed villages and towns suspected of supporting the Kurdish resistance. These actions aimed to undermine the Kurdish rebels' logistical and popular support base.

The Iraqi government launched a large-scale military offensive against the Kurdish rebels in northern Iraq. Saddam Hussein played a significant role in planning and overseeing the military campaign as Vice Chairman.

One notable event during this phase of the conflict was the siege of Mount Sinjar, where Kurdish rebels, including fighters from the KDP, took refuge. The Iraqi government, under Saddam Hussein's leadership, conducted a military operation to crush the Kurdish resistance and dislodge the rebels from their mountain stronghold. The intense fighting between the Iraqi government forces and Kurdish rebels eventually led to a ceasefire in March 1975. Following the ceasefire, political negotiations between the Iraqi government and Kurdish representatives resumed, leading to the signing of the Algiers Agreement in 1975.

Presidency (1979–2003)

Iraq–Iran War

Willy Brandt, Sadoun al-Zubaydi and Saddam Hussein

In 1979, Iran's Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was overthrown in the Islamic Revolution led by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. This led to the establishment of an Islamic republic and the spread of revolutionary Shi'ite Islam, which worried Saddam Hussein in Iraq.

Saddam Hussein in 1980

Saddam and Khomeini had a longstanding rivalry, and Khomeini's presence in Iraq fueled tensions. When Khomeini began encouraging Iraqi Shi'ites to overthrow Saddam, Saddam expelled him to France. However, after Khomeini gained power in Iran, skirmishes over the Shatt al-Arab waterway led to increased tensions between Iraq and Iran. Despite publicly advocating for peaceful relations, Saddam privately revealed his intention to invade and occupy a significant part of Iran. He also sought support from the US and Western nations to topple the Islamic government in Iran.

Carlos Cardoen meets Saddam

In 1980, Iraq invaded Iran, starting with an attack on Tehran's Mehrabad Airport and the seizure of Khuzestan, an oil-rich region declared as a new province of Iraq. Supported by Arab states, the US, and Europe, Saddam Hussein positioned himself as the defender of the Arab world against revolutionary Iran. Despite international law violations and the use of chemical warfare, Iraq received economic and military support. Initially, Iraq made gains but faced losses from Iran's human wave attacks. In 1982, Iraq found itself on the defensive and sought ways to end the war. Amid discussions, Saddam considered stepping down temporarily, but later sacked and arrested Health Minister Dr. Riyadh Ibrahim, who had suggested the idea. Gruesomely, pieces of Ibrahim's dismembered body were delivered to his wife.

During the Iraq-Iran war, Iraq faced a prolonged and destructive war of attrition. They used chemical weapons against Iranian and Kurdish forces, utilizing materials and technology supplied by Western companies. The US provided satellite photos and removed Iraq from the list of State Sponsors of Terrorism, aiming to support Iraq's war efforts. The Soviet Union, France, and China were major arms suppliers to Iraq. Saddam sought financial and political support from other Arab governments due to damage to Iraq's oil industry.

The war persisted despite calls for a ceasefire by the UN Security Council, and it finally ended on August 20, 1988.

The eight-year war between Iraq and Iran ended in a stalemate, with estimates of casualties ranging from 1 to 2 million. Both sides suffered significant losses, but Iran's were greater. The war left the southern oil-rich region in ruins and the borders largely unchanged. Saddam Hussein borrowed billions of dollars from Arab states and other sources to fund the war, but this strategy backfired, as it boosted Islamic radicalism and created tensions within Iraq. After the war, Saddam sought funds for postwar reconstruction.

Dujail Massacre

Main article: Dujail Massacre

The Dujail massacre refers to a tragic event that occurred in the town of Dujail, Iraq, in July 1982 during Saddam Hussein's regime. It followed an assassination attempt on Saddam's life by members of the Shiite Dawa Party. In retaliation, Saddam's security forces launched a brutal crackdown on the town and its inhabitants. After the failed assassination attempt, approximately 148 individuals, including men, women, and children, were arrested in Dujail. They were subjected to torture and inhumane treatment while in custody. Subsequently, a show trial was conducted, resulting in death sentences and long prison terms for the accused.

After the massacre, the town of Dujail was subjected to a period of intense repression and fear. The remaining residents lived under constant surveillance and were hesitant to voice any dissent or opposition to the regime. The town's infrastructure and economy also suffered as a result of the violence, leading to a decline in living conditions.

The families of those who were arrested, tortured, and executed faced immense trauma and loss. Many lost loved ones and were left grieving, while others had family members unjustly imprisoned for long periods. The psychological and emotional scars of the massacre persisted among the survivors and their families for years to come. The Dujail massacre gained international attention as an emblematic example of the brutal tactics employed by Saddam Hussein's regime to suppress dissent and maintain control. It became one of the charges brought against Saddam during his trial in 2005, ultimately leading to his conviction and subsequent execution in 2006.

Al Anfal Campaign

Main article: Al Anfal Campaign

Saddam Hussein and Massoud Rajavi in 1987

The Al-Anfal campaign was a military operation conducted by the Iraqi government under Saddam Hussein's regime against the Kurdish population in northern Iraq during the late 1980s. The campaign's primary objective was to suppress Kurdish resistance and eliminate any potential support for antigovernmental forces. The Al-Anfal campaign, which lasted from 1986 to 1989, involved a series of coordinated attacks and offensives by the Iraqi military and security forces. The campaign was characterized by widespread human rights abuses and atrocities, including mass killings, forced displacements, and the use of chemical weapons.

The campaign derived its name from the Arabic word "Anfal," which means "spoils of war" and references a chapter in the Quran. It was intended to crush Kurdish resistance and eliminate any perceived support for antigovernmental forces, particularly the Kurdish political and guerrilla group known as the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK). During the campaign, numerous Kurdish villages and towns were targeted and subjected to intense military operations. The Iraqi forces employed various brutal tactics, such as mass executions, arbitrary arrests, torture, and the destruction of infrastructure. Chemical weapons, including mustard gas and nerve agents, were also deployed in some areas, resulting in the deaths of thousands of civilians and causing long-term health consequences for survivors.

Chemical attacks were a particularly devastating aspect of the campaign. On March 16, 1988, the town of Halabja in Iraq was attacked with mustard gas and nerve agents, resulting in the deaths of 5,000 civilians and severe injuries to 10,000 others. This attack was part of the al-Anfal Campaign, aimed at regaining control over Kurdish areas and defeating rebel forces. Claims that Iran was responsible for the attack have been debunked. Iraqi Air Force dropped a mixture of chemical agents, including mustard gas and nerve agents, resulting in the deaths of an estimated 5,000 Kurdish civilians and causing long-term health effects for survivors. The international community widely condemned the atrocities committed during the Al-Anfal campaign. It was recognized as genocide by several countries and international organizations, including the United Nations.

The Al-Anfal campaign resulted in the deaths of an estimated 50,000 to 100,000 Kurds, with many more displaced from their homes. The campaign was widely condemned by the international community for its grave violations of human rights and was recognized as genocide by several countries and international organizations. In 2005, the Iraqi National Assembly passed a law recognizing the Anfal campaign as genocide and designating April 14th as an official day of remembrance for the victims. The government has also established the Martyrs Foundation, which provides financial assistance and support to the survivors and families affected by the campaign.

Arab–Israeli conflict and Palestinian cause

Saddam in 1987

Saddam Hussein was a strong opponent of Israel and supported the Palestinian cause. He was well known for his pro-Palestinian and anti-Israel stance. It is subjected that, Israel's residency of Jews made him anti-Semitic. However, he clearly said that, he is against Zionism and not Jewish people. Saddam openly said about burning half of Israel. But his official stance was, withdrawal of Israel from the Palestinian territories, according to 1967 borders and acceptance of a future state of Palestine by the Palestinians.

In 1968, the Ba'athist revolution, which made Saddam vice president happened after one year of the Six Day War. In 1973, Iraq participated in Yom Kippur War, with Arab states in support of the Palestinian cause. Aftermath of the war, Iraq along with other countries such as Saudi Arabia and Libya, announced oil embargo, which initiated the 1973 oil crisis. Iraq was constructing a nuclear reactor at Tuwaitha Nuclear Research Center in Osirak. That time, Israel under leadership of Menachem Begin viewed Iraq as a security threat. In 1981, Israeli forces destroyed the Osirak Nuclear Reactor in an airstrike and named it as Operation Opera by Menachem Begin.

He told Syria and Lebanon: “Give me your borders for 1 week and I will liberate Palestine".

Tensions with Kuwait

The end of the war with Iran heightened tensions between Iraq and Kuwait. Saddam demanded that Kuwait waive Iraq's $30 billion war debt, but they refused. Disputes over oil production and prices further strained relations, as Kuwait refused to cut production, keeping prices low while Iraq needed high prices to repay its debt. Saddam claimed that Kuwait was historically part of Iraq, fueling nationalist sentiments. The significant oil reserves in both countries added to the tensions. Saddam deployed troops to the Iraq-Kuwait border.

As tensions escalated between Iraq and Kuwait, Saddam Hussein received conflicting information about how the US would respond to a potential invasion. The US had previously cultivated a relationship with Iraq, providing significant assistance, including financial aid. In April 1990, Saddam threatened to use chemical weapons against Israel if it took action against Iraq. He also criticized US support for Israel and warned against policies that undermined Arab interests. In response, the US deployed warplanes and combat ships to the Persian Gulf.

During an emergency meeting on July 25, 1990, between the US ambassador to Iraq, April Glaspie, and Saddam Hussein, tensions were high. Saddam criticized American policy towards Kuwait and the UAE, expressing concerns about their disregard for Iraq's rights. He also warned that Iraq could cause harm if pressured. Glaspie, in response, acknowledged Iraq's need for funds and expressed a lack of opinion on Arab-Arab conflicts. However, she expressed concern about Iraq's deployment of troops and perceived aggression towards Kuwait. Saddam mentioned attempting negotiations with Kuwait but emphasized that Iraq would not accept defeat.

US officials tried to maintain a conciliatory approach with Iraq, expressing a desire to avoid the use of force but refraining from taking a position on the Iraq-Kuwait boundary dispute. However, Saddam Hussein's troops invaded Kuwait after failed negotiations. As tensions escalated, the Soviet Union, led by Mikhail Gorbachev, strengthened its military relationship with Saddam, providing military advisers, arms, and aid.

Gulf War

Main article: Gulf War

Saddam Hussein and Colonel Alaa Hussein Ali of provisional government

On August 2, 1990, Saddam invaded Kuwait, sparking an international crisis. He initially claimed assistance to "Kuwaiti revolutionaries". On August 4, an Iraqi-backed "Provisional Government of Free Kuwait" was proclaimed, but lacked legitimacy and support. This led to an announcement of a "merger" between the two countries on August 8.

Kuwait formally became the 19th Governorate of Iraq on August 28, following the invasion. Saddam's actions occurred just two years after the 1988 Iraq and Iran truce. He overran Kuwait, confronting his Gulf neighbors in the name of Arab nationalism and Islam. When asked why he invaded Kuwait, Saddam first claimed it was Iraq's rightful 19th province. Later, he stated, "When I get something into my head I act. That's just the way I am". Saddam had the means to pursue military aggression due to the funds poured into Iraq by Kuwait and the Gulf states. He also had access to weapons and technology provided by the Soviet Union, Germany, and France.

In addition to economic disputes, an insulting exchange between the Kuwaiti emir and the Iraqi foreign minister played a decisive role in triggering the invasion. Saddam claimed the emir stated his intention to ruin Iraq financially, turning "every Iraqi woman into a $10 prostitute." Before the invasion, Saddam shipped 100 new Mercedes 200 Series cars to top editors in Egypt and Jordan. He reportedly offered Egypt's Hosni Mubarak 50 million dollars in cash, ostensibly for grain, just two days before the attacks. US President George H. W. Bush responded cautiously initially, considering Kuwait's previous hostility towards Israel and its friendly relations with the Soviets. However, concerns about stability in the region, the world economy, and British interests influenced his stance. Cooperation between the US and the Soviet Union led to the passage of UN resolutions setting a deadline for Iraq to leave Kuwait. The fear of Iraqi retaliation against Saudi Arabia, a key US ally, prompted a deployment of troops along the Saudi border with Kuwait and Iraq. During the invasion, Saddam's officers looted Kuwait, even taking the marble from its palaces for Saddam's personal use.

Saddam Hussein ignored the Security Council deadline, leading to a US-led coalition launching missile and aerial attacks on Iraq starting on January 16, 1991. Israel refrained from retaliating to maintain the coalition. The coalition's ground forces, primarily US and British divisions, expelled Saddam's army from Kuwait in February 1991 and occupied southern Iraq. On March 6, 1991, President Bush announced the vision of a "new world order" where diverse nations unite for peace, security, freedom, and the rule of law. The Iraqi army was unable to match the coalition's superior forces and air support. Thousands of Iraqis were taken prisoner, and casualties exceeded 85,000. As part of the cease-fire agreement, Iraq agreed to dismantle chemical and biological weapons and allow UN inspections. Trade sanctions remained until Iraq fully complied. Saddam publicly claimed victory at the end of the war.

Kurdish uprisings

Main articles: Kurdish uprising and Kurdish Civil War

Economic decline

The United Nations, supported by opponents of Iraqi invasion, imposed sanctions on Iraq. The

Operation Desert Fox

Main article: Operation Desert Fox

Improvement in Iraq

In 2000, Saddam held secret talks with Israeli government, discussing to end the conflict and status of Jerusalem.

Ned

Israeli — Palestinian conflict

See also: Iraq–Israel relations

Saddam took vice presidency in 1968, a year after the Six-Day War of 1967. In 1973, Iraq participated with other Arab countries for support of Palestine in the Yom Kippur War. During the 1980s, Israel posed Iraq as a security threat. Then government of Israel, led by Menachem Begin, successfully executed Operation Opera in 1981, where an airstrike by the Israeli military and successfully destroyed Osirak Nuclear Reactor. To avenge this operation, Saddam with Yasser Arafat and Hosni Mubarak, planned to kidnap Begin. In 1991, Saddam launched scud missiles to Israel, targeting Tel Aviv, Ramat Gan and Haifa. This movement of Saddam received huge support from Palestinians and rest of Muslim world. Saddam agreed to pay US$74 million as a compensation to Israel. The amount was borrowed from Oil-for-Food Program. He told Syria and Lebanon: “Give me your borders for 1 week and I will liberate Palestine.” Other than being hostile with Israel, Saddam also openly talked about making peace between Israel and Palestine and rest of the Arab world. In 1982, Saddam said to a U.S Congressman:

Existence of an independent Palestinian state accepted by the Palestinians, and it is also necessary to have a state of security for the Israelis. No single Arab official includes in his policy now the so-called destruction of Israel or wiping it out of existence, but there is not one Arab who believes in coexistence with an aggressive and expansionist entity.

— Saddam Hussein

During the period of negotiations and threats following the invasion, Saddam Hussein focused attention on the Palestinian problem by promising to withdraw his forces from Kuwait if Israel would relinquish the occupied territories of the West Bank, the Golan Heights, and the Gaza Strip. Saddam's proposal created divisions within the Arab world, with US- and Western-supported Arab states opposing the Palestinians. The allies ultimately rejected any linkage between the Kuwait crisis and the Palestinian issues.

Others

Relations with other groups

Different perspectives exist regarding Saddam Hussein's relationships with various groups in Iraq, including the Kurds, Turkmens, and Shiites. Some argue that Saddam Hussein's actions were targeted towards separatist movements within these communities rather than a blanket hatred towards all Kurds or Turkmens.

Saddam Hussein and Mostafa Barzani meeting in 1970

There is evidence to suggest that Iraq's Kurds were granted limited autonomy under Saddam Hussein's regime, particularly during certain periods. T. Y. Ramadan, an important Kurdish politician in Iraq at the time, has expressed that Saddam Hussein provided Kurds with autonomy. On 11 March 1970, Iraqi Kurdish Autonomy Agreement was signed between Saddam Hussein and Kurdish leader Mustafa Barzani. This agreement granted autonomy to Kurdish peoples of Iraq over Iraqi Kurdistan region. Owing to Kurdish uprisings of 1991, Kurdistan was granted autonomy, to self govern the Kurd populated areas of Iraq.

I am a Iraqi Turkmen. my family never faced problems with the state for being non-Arab.

Tariq Aziz

Similarly, it is acknowledged that not all Turkmens supported separatist movements, and Saddam Hussein's actions were aimed at those specific groups rather than the entire Turkmen population. The same can be said for Kurdish nationalists, as not all Kurds were involved in separatist activities. Tariq Aziz, a Chaldean, held significant positions in Saddam Hussein's government and was considered a close advisor.

Regarding Shiites, there are differing views on Saddam Hussein's stance towards them. Some argue that he primarily targeted the Dawa Party, which was supported by Iran and sought to introduce the Islamic Revolution in Iraq. The perception of Saddam Hussein's attitude towards the Shiite population as a whole is a subject of debate. Around 55% of Iraqi solider were Shi'ites.

They are not Zionists who tour certain Arab countries to sabotage their political, economic, social and even health security.

Cabinet Minister of Iraq (1998)

Iraq under Saddam Hussein was known for religious tolerance, as different religious minorities coexisted peacefully. During his tenure, more than 1.2 million Christians lived in Iraq, highlighting the country's diverse religious landscape. During Saddam Hussein's rule, the Jewish community in Iraq was treated fairly. They were among the various religious minority groups in the country and had the freedom to practice their religion. The government of Iraq even provided assistance in restoring the Baghdad Synagogue around ten years ago, before his downfall. An incident occurred on 4th October 1998, when a Palestinian man opened fire, which killed four peoples, including both Jews and Muslims. Following the arrest of Palestinian individual, the Iraqi government pledged to ensure prompt justice. As a precautionary measure, police guards were stationed at the synagogue, and the Iraqi Cabinet released a statement denouncing the shooting incident. The Cabinet emphasized that the Jewish community in Iraq are Iraqis, being Iraqi nationals, should not be associated with Zionist activities aimed at disrupting the political, economic, social, and health security of Arab countries. According to Israeli author Sami Michael, while speaking to Al Jazeera Media Network, the government was constructing a new road in Baghdad, whose route passes through an old Jewish cemetery. Saddam Hussein paid to Jewish community of Baghdad to relocate the cemetery, which is now in Israel. Michael said that: "If Saddam was president of Iraq in 1949, 1950, 1951 or 1952, then Jews won't faced persecution in Iraq. Jewish places such as Ezekiel's Tomb were protected during Saddam's regime, by Ba'athist security officers..

Governance of Saddam

Foreign Affairs

During Saddam regime, Iraq was a strong ally of India in the Middle East. In 1974, Saddam made an international trip to Delhi, capital of India. Iraq supported India's right to nuclear tests in 1998. In 2002, Saddam openly expressed his support for Indian stance of Kashmir conflict. Saddam developed strong relationship between Vietnam and Iraq. He provided assistance to Vietnam and erased all debts.

Leadership

Main article: Ba'athist Iraq

Foreign Affairs

Arab Cooperation Council meeting on 25 September 1989, with King Hussein, Hosni Mubarak and Ali Abdullah Saleh

Saddam Hussein was widely known for his commitment to the Palestinian cause and his anti-Israel stance. However, the official position of Ba'athist Iraq on the conflict was that the future of Iraq's relation with Israel would be determined by the solution accepted by the Palestinians and withdrawal of Israel from the Palestinian territories of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip and the Golan Heights of Syria.

Saddam Hussein sought to position Iraq as a regional power and often engaged in power struggles with neighboring Arab countries. He portrayed himself as a leader of Arab nationalism and criticized Arab states that opposed his policies. However, his actions, especially the invasion of Kuwait, strained Iraq's relations with many Arab nations. During the 1990s, Saddam Hussein's regime faced scrutiny and accusations of developing and possessing weapons of mass destruction. These allegations led to UN inspections and the imposition of sanctions until Iraq complied with disarmament requirements. Ultimately, the claims of WMDs were not substantiated, and the issue played a significant role in the lead-up to the 2003 invasion of Iraq.

Saddam Hussein's foreign policy choices, including his confrontations with neighboring countries and the international community, led to Iraq's isolation diplomatically and economically. The country faced numerous sanctions, trade restrictions, and a deteriorating relationship with Western powers.

Communal harmony

Iraq under Saddam Hussein was known for religious tolerance, as different religious minorities coexisted peacefully. There were various religious minority groups in the country, granted protection and had the freedom to practice their religion. During his tenure, more than 1.2 million Christians lived in Iraq, highlighting the country's diverse religious landscape. Tariq Aziz, who hold various political positions in the Ba'athist government as a Chaldean and was a close advisor to Saddam Hussein.

During Saddam Hussein's rule, the Jewish community in Iraq was treated fairly. The government of Iraq even provided assistance in restoring the Baghdad Synagogue around ten years ago, before his downfall. An incident occurred on 4th October 1998, when a Palestinian man opened fire, which killed four peoples, including two Jews. Following the arrest of Palestinian individual, the Iraqi government pledged to ensure prompt justice. As a precautionary measure, police guards were stationed at the synagogue, and the Iraqi Cabinet released a statement denouncing the shooting incident. The Cabinet emphasized that the Jewish community in Iraq are Iraqis, being Iraqi nationals, should not be associated with Zionist activities aimed at disrupting the political, economic, social, and health security of Arab countries. Jewish places such as Ezekiel's Tomb were protected during Saddam's regime, by Ba'athist security officers.

Military

Before the Gulf War, Iraq had a strong military in the Middle East and the Arab world.

Economic reforms and employment

Nationalization of oil was implemented, which aimed to achieve economic independence. By the late 1970s, Iraq experienced significant economic growth, with a budget reserve surpassing US$35 billion and the value of 1 Iraqi dinar reaching more than 3 dollars, making it one of the most notable economic expansions in the region. The government provided subsidies on basic necessities such as food, fuel, and housing, which helped ensure access to essential commodities for the population. The government implemented a public distribution system (ration card system) that provided basic food items to the population at subsidized prices. Ssddam Hussein's regime aimed to diversify the Iraqi economy beyond oil. The government invested in various industries, including petrochemicals, fertilizer production, and textile manufacturing, to reduce dependence on oil revenues and promote economic self-sufficiency.

Saddam Hussein also took steps to promote women's rights within Iraq. By the late 1970s, women in Iraq held significant roles in society, representing 46 percent of all teachers, 29 percent of all doctors, 46 percent of all dentists, and 70 percent of all pharmacists. These advancements signaled progress in women's participation in various professional fields.

Development of Iraq

Saddam Hussein, who served as the President of Iraq for 24 years and as Vice President for 11 years, implemented several initiatives during his tenure that were viewed as beneficial for the country. These efforts included the nationalization of oil, which aimed to achieve economic independence.

Baghdad before the U.S invasion

One notable achievement was the provision of free education to all Iraqi citizens. This policy contributed to a significant decrease in the illiteracy rate, reaching some of the lowest levels in the country's history. UNESCO even recognized Saddam Hussein's efforts in the 1980s, honoring him for this educational milestone.

Infrastructure development was another area of focus during Saddam Hussein's rule. Considerable investments were made in constructing roads, bridges, canals, universities, hospitals, and more than 5,500 schools across Iraq. These infrastructure projects aimed to enhance the country's overall development and improve the quality of life for its citizens. The establishment of a strong military was prioritized to maintain stability, enforce law and order, and safeguard the country from terrorist groups. This emphasis on national security contributed to Iraq's relative stability during Saddam Hussein's rule.

Furthermore, Iraq developed a comprehensive and free healthcare system during the 1970s, which was considered one of the most robust systems in the Middle East. This initiative aimed to provide accessible healthcare services to all Iraqi citizens

Iraq War: 2003 invasion of Iraq

Main articles: 2003 invasion of Iraq and Iraq War

Statue of Saddam Hussein being toppled in Firdos Square after the US invasion of Iraq

Protests against U.S coalition forces near Palestine Hotel in Baghdad

The primary motivation behind the decision to remove Saddam Hussein from power was based on several factors, including concerns over Iraq's alleged possession of weapons of mass destruction (WMDs), its links to international terrorism, and the desire to promote democracy in the region. In the aftermath of the September 11, 2001 attacks in the United States, the Bush administration adopted a policy of preemptive action against perceived threats to national security. Iraq, under Saddam Hussein's regime, was seen as a potential threat due to its history of aggression, its defiance of United Nations resolutions, and its alleged pursuit of WMDs.

The planning for the overthrow of Saddam Hussein involved military, political, and diplomatic strategies. The United States-led coalition built a broad-based international alliance, including countries like the United Kingdom, Australia, and Poland, in support of the invasion. Efforts were made to garner international support and authorization through the United Nations Security Council, although a consensus could not be reached. In terms of military planning, the coalition forces developed a strategy to swiftly defeat the Iraqi military and capture key strategic locations, including Baghdad.

The plan emphasized overwhelming force, utilizing advanced technology, and exploiting perceived weaknesses in the Iraqi military. Prior to the invasion, covert operations were conducted to gather intelligence, locate high-value targets, and establish relationships with opposition groups within Iraq. These efforts aimed to gather information about the regime, identify potential allies, and assess the internal dynamics of Iraq.

Overthrew of Saddam

Main article: Overthrow of Saddam Hussein

The invasion of Iraq, codenamed Operation Iraqi Freedom, began on March 20, 2003, with a massive aerial bombardment followed by ground operations. The invasion, known as Operation Iraqi Freedom, aimed to remove Saddam Hussein from power due to allegations of possessing weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) and supporting international terrorism.

The invasion began on March 20, 2003, with a massive aerial bombardment and ground operations. The coalition forces, primarily led by the United States and supported by other countries such as the United Kingdom, quickly advanced through Iraq. They encountered varying levels of resistance from Saddam's military forces. As the coalition forces approached Baghdad, they faced sporadic resistance but also witnessed significant surrenders and defections within the Iraqi military. This, coupled with the shock and awe tactics employed by the coalition, weakened the regime's ability to mount a strong defense.

On April 9, 2003, after only three weeks of intense fighting, Baghdad fell to the coalition forces and marked a significant turning point in the conflict, as it signaled the collapse of Saddam's regime. The statue of Saddam Hussein in Firdos Square was toppled by Iraqis, symbolizing the end of his rule. Following the fall of Baghdad, the coalition forces moved swiftly to establish control and restore order. The Iraqi government institutions were disbanded, and efforts were made to rebuild and stabilize the country. However, the aftermath of the fall of Saddam Hussein saw the emergence of a power vacuum, sectarian tensions, and an insurgency that posed significant challenges to the coalition forces..

Capture and Interrogation

After months of searching, on December 13, 2003, Saddam Hussein was found by U.S. forces near his hometown of Tikrit. Acting on intelligence, a raid was conducted, leading to his capture in an underground hideout known as a "spider hole." His arrest marked a significant milestone for the U.S.-led Coalition.

Trial and Execution

After trial, Saddam was sentenced to death, for his crimes against humanity, by involving in Dujail Massacre, killing of more than 140 Shias.

Philanthropy

The year Saddam took power in Iraq, he sent $250,000 to the Chaldean Christians (a sect of Christianity with roots in modern-day Iraq) in Detroit. Saddam was then presented the key to the city of Detroit, courtesy of then-Mayor Coleman Young. Hussein then gave the church another $200,000. Despite the hostile relationships between the two countries, Saddam donated 8.94 million USD to the American poor in 2001. The day before President George W. Bush took office, Saddam Hussein sought to send $94 million to the United States.

Legacy

According to various perspectives, Saddam Hussein, the former dictator of Iraq, evoked different sentiments among different groups of people. Many Arabs saw him as a leader who stood up against Western imperialism, the Israeli occupation of Palestine, and foreign intervention in the region. However, for the majority of Iraqis, Saddam was seen as a tyrant whose 25-year reign from 1979 to 2003 was characterized by brutal authoritarianism, repression, and injustices, particularly against the country's Shia and Kurdish communities.

Iraqi President Saddam Hussein in military uniform, the official field marshal

A large number of development projects in Iraq were launched, which includes leadership of Saddam Hussein. An expansion of Baghdad International Airport was laid by Saddam, which was named after him.

“Iraq under Saddam had global influence, a developed economy, strong dinar [local currency], welfare, housing, health, education, bridges, roads, dams, airports, self-sufficiency and a respected passport,”

Cabinet Minister of Iraq (1998)

The memory of Saddam Hussein remains divisive and polarizing, even two decades after the 2003 United States-led invasion of Iraq, which aimed to free the Iraqi people from his oppressive rule, according to former US President George W. Bush. However, for many, the invasion resulted in economic and political chaos that inadvertently enhanced Saddam's legacy and elevated his standing. Before Saddam's rise to power in 1979, the Baath regime he was affiliated with advocated for anti-imperialism and anti-colonialism. It called for Arab unity, implemented nationalization policies in the early 1970s to gain control over foreign-held shares in Iraqi oil, and pursued diversified economic development, improvements in education, infrastructure, and social services.

Under Saddam's leadership, Iraq's Baath party formed the Arab Liberation Front and joined the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in support of the Palestinian cause. The party believed that the Israeli-Palestinian conflict was not solely a Palestinian issue but an Arab one that Iraq should fight for. Saddam's portrayal as a defender of Arab interests, particularly the Palestinian cause, garnered support from many Arabs. A defining moment in Saddam's image came during the early hours of January 18, 1991, when he launched Scud missiles towards Israel in response to the US-led assault on Baghdad following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait. This act resonated with many Arabs who saw Saddam as standing up for them when other Arab leaders did not. Saddam also provided refuge to thousands of Palestinians in Iraq, granting them equal rights as Iraqi citizens. This was in contrast to the conditions faced by Palestinian refugees in other Arab countries, who often lived in refugee camps with limited access to employment, healthcare, and education. Palestinians in Saddam's Iraq enjoyed special status, including eligibility for state jobs, free education, and state housing.

For some individuals, particularly those growing up in the 1980s and 1990s, Saddam's powerful speeches in defense of Palestinian and Arab rights served as an outlet for frustrations towards what they perceived as the impotence of Arab leaders against Western interventions. They viewed Saddam as a voice for their shared cause, placing less emphasis on his governance of Iraq.

Due to his strong influence, his name was top choice to Muslim parents for naming their child, specially in India. Saddam Hussein was an admirer of Indian politician Indira Gandhi, with whom, he met, during an international trip to Indian capital New Delhi in 1974.

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Bank

Bank of Palestine becomes the first bank in the Middle East to sign up to Citi’s Sustainable Deposit Solution.

Jerusalem

Jerusalem, also known as Al–Quds or Yerusalem, is an ancient city, nestled on the mountainous range of Judea. It is for being significant to world’s three major Abrahamic religions – Christianity, Islam and Judaism. The population in the city limits is around 9 thousand, while its metropolitan area is home to more than 1.5 million peoples. Jerusalem is divided into East and West, as a part of Palestinian territory (West Bank) and Israel’s Jerusalem District.

Both Israelis and Palestinians claim Jerusalem as their capital, which created disputes over the city’s status. Today’s Jerusalem is politically divided between Israel and Palestine. After the 1948 war, West Jerusalem went in hands of Israel and Eastern sector gone to Jordan. After 1967 war, Israel occupied East Jerusalem and passed Jerusalem Law in 1980, declaring unified Jerusalem as its undivided capital. Signed in 1993, based on Oslo Accords, some areas in and around Jerusalem were designated as Palestinian enclaves, where Palestinian government controls. Nevertheless, Israel have established its administrative center in Jerusalem and Palestine foresees it as a seat of government. Overall, Jerusalem is subjected to in future negotiations, where a satisfying accord can define the city’s status between Israel and Palestine

Status of Jerusalem

Jerusalem as capital of Palestine

Palestinian control over Jerusalem

According to the Oslo Accords, Jerusalem was subject to future negotiations, and the Palestinian Authority's operations in Jerusalem were restricted. Under the Oslo Accords, many neighborhoods of the city were designated as either Area A or Area B, where the Palestinian Authority had varying degrees of control. The neighborhoods where the Palestinian Authority exercises complete or partial administration include Sur Baher, Kafr 'Aqab, 'Arab al-Jahalin, Al-Ram, Beit Hanina, Bethany, Al-Walaja, Jabel Mukaber (Ash-Sheikh Sa'd), Dahiyat al-Barid, and Umm Tuba. Additionally, towns and villages in the Jerusalem Governorate are also classified as Palestinian enclaves.

Palestinian institutions

Despite international recognition of East Jerusalem as Palestinian territory, the Palestinian government maintains its temporary administrative center in Ramallah, which is just 10km from Jerusalem. Palestinian Authority has designated the East Jerusalem metropolitan area, which also includes Bethlehem and Ramallah.

The Palestinian Authority maintains a regional office and an electoral office in Dahiyat al-Barid. The offices of Jerusalem Affairs are located in Abu Dis, which is also the location of the Palestinian Ministry of Interior. In 2000, a parliament building was constructed in Abu Dis to house the Palestinian Legislative Council. However, the intifada and the erection of a barrier made Abu Dis unsuitable as a capital. Foreign consulates of the United Kingdom, Italy, France, Greece, Turkey, Sweden, Spain, and Belgium are located in Jerusalem, serving Palestine rather than Israel. The British Consulate General is located in Sheikh Jarrah, which is currently controlled by Israel. The Consulate General of France declares itself independent from Israel and serves only Palestinians.

Economy of Jerusalem (!)

Throughout the years, there have been indications of economic growth in the city; however, it is worth noting that since 1967, East Jerusalem has faced developmental disparities compared to West Jerusalem. This discrepancy is evident in various statistics. Despite these challenges, it is interesting to observe that the percentage of households with employed individuals is higher among Arab households (76.1%) compared to Jewish households (66.8%). These figures highlight a notable trend in the labor force dynamics within the city.

Poverty continues to be a significant issue in the city, with a substantial portion of families in Jerusalem living below the poverty line. In 2011, approximately 37% of families were classified as living in poverty. The situation is particularly challenging for the Arab population, as reported by the Association for Civil Rights in Israel (ACRI). According to their findings, the percentage of Arabs living in poverty in Jerusalem increased from 64% in 2006 to 78% in 2012. The ACRI attributes this rise to various factors such as limited employment opportunities, inadequate infrastructure, and a deteriorating educational system. Another perspective, put forth by Ir Amim, points to the legal status of Palestinians in Jerusalem as a contributing factor to their poverty.

With the increase in the literacy rate among Palestinians, several successful initiatives, projects, and reforms have been introduced to improve the Palestinian economy in Jerusalem. The Palestine Investment Fund, the investment arm of the Palestinian government, has launched and approved numerous projects in the real estate, tourism, hospitality, and retail sectors in Jerusalem. Notably, the construction of a large shopping mall called Baladi Mall is underway in Beit Hanina. Amaar Group has also launched three projects in Jerusalem: the Golden Gate Hotel, Jerusalem Commercial Center, and Beit Hanina Hills. In 2022, prominent Palestinian industrialist Bashar Masri initiated a significant residential project called "Lana," located in Beit Hanina. Jerusalem has also seen a recent tech boom, with the city developing as a high-tech hub for Palestinian entrepreneurs, second only to Ramallah. In 2023, Jerusalem Municipality inaugurated a technology park named EasTech in Sheikh Jarrah, aimed at employing Palestinians. This project received investments from companies such as AT&T, HP, Intel, Intuit, Natural Intelligence, and Unity.

Palestinian companies such as Paltel Group, Jawwal, Bank of Palestine, Palestine Investment Fund and Arab Palestinian Investment Company

Industrial zones, managed by Palestinian Authority around Jerusalem are Bir Nabala, Al-Judeira, Abu Dis and Bethany. A large number of factories located in these areas, engaged in manufacture of marbles, processed foods, cigarettes, concrete, chemical products, and auto components. Sioniora Food operates its Palestinian headquarter and large factory in Eizariya.

Economy of Jerusalem

Historically, Jerusalem have been known for its religious sites, thus tourism is the most important source of economy for the city. During Ayyub and Ottoman rule, heavy investments were made in the city's development. After the 1948 war, both West Jerusalem and East Jerusalem experienced economic development.

Jewish sector of Jerusalem is prosperous and developed in comparison to Arabian sector. Due to which, many Palestinian companies have move their manufacturing facilities to suburban areas of Jerusalem such as Eizariya and Bir Nabala. Israel's tech boom have contributed greatly in economic development of modern Jerusalem. Three largest industrial parks in Jerusalem — Har Hotzvim, Jerusalem Technology Park and Atarot Industrial Park house several multinational companies' facilities, which includes Intel, Cisco Systems, Teva Pharmaceutical Industries, Mellanox Technologies, IBM, Mobileye, Johnson & Johnson, Medtronic and Mercedes-Benz etc.

Due to political disputes and occupation of East Jerusalem, Palestinian neighborhoods lag behind in development, comparable to West Jerusalem. Nevertheless, the households with employed persons is higher in Arab sector than the Jewish sector. Since occupation of most of the neighborhoods in East Jerusalem, where Palestinian companies located pay taxes to the government of Israel. Only 30% of Palestinians receive building permits. Most of the construction projects of Palestinians, often faces obstacles by Israeli authorities.

Three industrial areas managed by the Palestinian Authority are located around Jerusalem — Abu Dis, Bir Nabala and Bethany, which houses several factories, manufacturing food products, leathers, textiles, apparels and auto parts (like tires and brakes). Palestinian companies such as the Palestine Investment Fund, Siniora Food, Sinokrot Holding, Masar International, Jerusalem District Electricity Company, Bank of Palestine and APIC have operations in the city. Bank of Palestine have a branch in Dahiyat al Barid, which serves to Palestinian Jerusalemites.

With the increase in the literacy rate among Palestinians, several successful initiatives, projects, and reforms have been introduced to improve the Palestinian economy in Jerusalem. The Palestine Investment Fund, the investment arm of the Palestinian government, has launched and approved numerous projects in real estate, tourism, hospitality, and retail sectors in Jerusalem. Notably, the construction of a large shopping mall called Baladi Mall is underway in Beit Hanina. Amaar Group has also launched three projects in Jerusalem: the Golden Gate Hotel, Jerusalem Commercial Center, and Beit Hanina Hills. In 2022, prominent Palestinian industrialist Bashar Masri initiated a significant residential project called "Lana" located in Beit Hanina. Jerusalem has also seen a recent tech boom, with the city developing as a high-tech hub for Palestinian entrepreneurs, second only to Ramallah. In 2023, the Jerusalem Municipality inaugurated a technology park named EasTech in Sheikh Jarrah, aimed at employing Palestinians. This project received investments from companies such as AT&T, HP, Intel, Intuit, Natural Intelligence, and Unity.

As a part of Silicon Wadi project, Jerusalem Municipality and the Jerusalem Foundation opened EasTech, a high tech complex in Sheikh Jarrah, where many Palestinian programmers are employed. The project was invested by AT&T, HP, Intel, Intuit, Natural Intelligence and Unity.

History(!)

Most educational institutions were funded by trusts, with one of the largest being the "Salahiyyah" (named after its founder, Salah-eddin, in the 12th century). However, these centers of learning, along with other government and community institutes and activities, experienced a decline during the 19th century.

History())

Foundation and Establishment

The idea to establish "Al Aqsa" university in Jerusalem was proposed in 1931 but remained a concept. The occupation of West Jerusalem and the Palestinian Diaspora hindered its realization. In the 1950s, the idea was revived, but Jordan focused on establishing a university in Amman instead. The Israeli occupation of East Jerusalem further delayed the establishment of an Arab university. In the early 1970s, discussions resumed to establish a Palestinian university, resulting in the transformation of existing institutions into universities in the West Bank. Jerusalem was overlooked once again.

In the late 1970s, independent colleges were established in Jerusalem and its surroundings. The College of Daawa and Religious Principles, College of Medical Professions, and College of Science and Technology were founded in 1978 and 1979. In 1982, the College of Hind Al-Husseini for Women and the Center for Islamic Archaeology were established.

In 1984, steps were taken to unify these colleges, aiming for recognition by the Union of Arab Universities. A coordinating committee was formed, allowing the colleges to maintain their separation. The Faculty of Medicine was founded in 1994. In 1995, all colleges and faculties officially amalgamated, establishing Al-Quds University. New centers and colleges were opened or merged, offering a comprehensive range of academic programs. The university emphasized engagement with society, becoming a distinct entity.

Contemporary

Over the past years, Al Quds University has experienced mounting pressure from the Israeli government, both politically and militarily. In 2013 alone, the Israeli army launched 26 separate attacks on the university campus in Abu Dis, resulting in 1,769 injuries to students and staff. Notably, one of these attacks even occurred during a visit by the U.S. Consul-General to the campus. In the early weeks of 2014, the Israeli army conducted three additional attacks on the Abu Dis campus. Staff and students frequently face summonses, arrests, and intimidation, both at the Abu Dis campus and the premises in the Old City, which have been raided and occasionally closed on multiple occasions.

Simultaneously, the university has been engaged in legal and political battles to secure its existence. Since 17 years, it has faced the threat of closure by the Israeli authorities. Despite being fully accredited and licensed by relevant Palestinian bodies, and internationally recognized, the Israeli authorities in occupied East Jerusalem, insist that the university obtain Israeli accreditation or face closure and arrests of its administration. However, Israel has also prevented the university from functioning as a unified entity, forcing it to split into two separate institutions. Al Quds University's attempts to meet Israeli requirements have been unsuccessful thus far.

History(!!)

Early proposal

The idea of revitalizing Jerusalem's role as an educational hub was proposed at an All-Islamic conference held in Jerusalem in 1931. The conference called for the establishment of a university named "Al Aqsa" in honor of the Islamic shrine in Al-Quds. Nevertheless, this university remained a mere concept, with only the Arab College being founded at the end of the British Mandate period in Palestine. The sense of pride in this achievement, however, was quickly overshadowed by the dismantling of Palestine, the occupation of West Jerusalem, and the Palestinian Diaspora. The idea of creating Al-Quds University, on the remaining land of Jerusalem, was revived again in the 1950s. By that time, the West Bank had been annexed to Jordan, with Amman as its capital. Jordan's efforts naturally focused on establishing a university in Amman instead. Meanwhile, the Israeli occupation of East Jerusalem in 1967 had a significant and ongoing impact on the city. The establishment of an Arab university in Jerusalem was once again put on hold.

In the early 1970s, discussions resumed to establish a Palestinian university capable of accommodating the increasing number of students graduating from schools in the West Bank and Gaza. Due to the circumstances created by the 1967 occupation, these students faced difficulties in pursuing higher education in the Arab world. Although there were calls to locate a university in Jerusalem, the prevailing opinion was that establishing it outside the Israeli-occupied East Jerusalem would prevent it from falling under Israel's control. Gradually, certain well-established educational institutions in the West Bank transformed into universities, such as Birzeit and Al-Najjah, followed by other universities in Hebron and Bethlehem. Once again, Jerusalem/Al-Quds was overlooked.

Foundation and Establishment

During the late seventies, several independent colleges were established in Jerusalem and its surrounding areas to address specific educational needs. The first initiative took place in 1978 with the establishment of the College of Daawa and Religious Principles in Beit-Hanina. This was followed by the creation of the Colleges of Medical Professions and Science and Technology in Al-Bireh and Abu-Dis, respectively, in 1979. In 1982, the College of Hind Al-Husseini for Women (Faculty of Arts) and the Center for Islamic Archaeology were formed in the Sheikh Jarrah district.

The vision of a university in the capital city, Jerusalem, began to take shape in 1984 when steps were taken to unify these colleges. This step was necessary for the recognition of their degrees by the Union of Arab Universities. A coordinating committee was established, comprising representatives from the various college boards of trustees. Thus, an evolving process of "confederacy" began, allowing the colleges to maintain their legal separation. In 1994, the Faculty of Medicine was founded.

The official amalgamation of all colleges and faculties was fully realized in 1995. A "basic law" of the university was endorsed, followed by the refinement of integrated bylaws that were subsequently put into effect. This paved the way for the establishment of Al-Quds University as a unified institution. New centers and colleges were opened or merged, and a comprehensive range of academic programs and educational plans were implemented, emphasizing a positive concept of engagement with society. Finally, Al-Quds University came into existence as a distinct entity.

Later

For over three decades, Al Quds University has been an esteemed academic institution in Jerusalem. It holds a prominent position in the country and ranks as a leading institution in the Arab world, boasting the highest number of peer-reviewed publications per faculty member annually. The university encompasses various faculties and departments, including the first Palestinian schools of law and medicine. It is also home to museums dedicated to mathematics, science, and prisoners' affairs, as well as research centers focusing on nanotechnology, biotechnology, information technology, and environmental sciences. Additionally, the university houses centers for community action, legal aid clinics, an educational television station, and a media laboratory. With approximately 1,300 staff members, Al Quds University delivers educational services to around 13,000 students, including those pursuing MA degrees.

Al Quds University operates across two main campuses. The larger campus is located in Abu Dis, situated on the outskirts of Jerusalem, while a smaller "city" campus is situated within East Jerusalem, encompassing the Old City and its surroundings. The city campus, hosting around 1,000 students, accommodates numerous institutes and research centers. In recent years, the separation wall has divided the Abu Dis campus from the Jerusalem city campus, leading to legal and practical challenges. The university has faced significant obstacles in carrying out educational activities in East Jerusalem due to restricted access for both students and professors.

Over the past years, Al Quds University has experienced mounting pressure from the Israeli government, both politically and militarily. In 2013 alone, the Israeli army launched 26 separate attacks on the university campus in Abu Dis, resulting in 1,769 injuries to students and staff. Notably, one of these attacks even occurred during a visit by the U.S. Consul-General to the campus. In the early weeks of 2014, the Israeli army conducted three additional attacks on the Abu Dis campus, causing significant injuries and damage. Staff and students frequently face summonses, arrests, and intimidation, both at the Abu Dis campus and the premises in the Old City, which have been raided and occasionally closed on multiple occasions.

Simultaneously, the university has been engaged in legal and political battles to secure its existence. For the past seventeen years, it has faced the threat of closure by the Israeli authorities. Despite being fully accredited and licensed by relevant Palestinian bodies, and internationally recognized, the Israeli authorities in East Jerusalem, considered occupied territories under international law, insist that the university obtain Israeli accreditation or face closure and arrests of its administration. However, Israel has also prevented the university from functioning as a unified entity, forcing it to split into two separate institutions. Al Quds University's attempts to meet Israeli requirements have been unsuccessful thus far.

Ultimately, Al Quds University was compelled to seek accreditation for its "city" campus as a separate institution under Israeli jurisdiction. This decision was made based on an informal agreement with the Israeli Ministry and Council of Higher Education, which promised automatic recognition of all degrees held by the university's graduates. Despite significant efforts, including hiring a prominent Israeli lawyer in this field, the application has faced prolonged delays by the Israeli authorities. Additionally, the Israeli authorities reneged on their commitment to retroactively recognize the university's degrees. The university's file is now reportedly being handled by the Prime Minister's Office. Even if the Israeli authorities eventually recognize the university's city campus as a separate Israeli-regulated entity in East Jerusalem, the consequences of the forced split would remain in terms of finances, administration, and other aspects.

Israel's refusal to recognize Al Quds University degrees has significant implications. Graduates are unable to work and establish lives in Jerusalem, particularly in crucial sectors such as medicine, health professions, and education, which are regulated by Israeli authorities and face a severe shortage of professionals. For instance, it is estimated that approximately 10,000 school-age children in East Jerusalem lack access to education. Graduates from Al Quds University's Hind Husseini College for Girls, located in Sheikh Jarrah, are unable to teach in Jerusalem schools due to the non-recognition of their degrees by Israel. Similarly, the university's distinguished College of Medicine graduates are unable to practice in Jerusalem, where the main Palestinian hospital, Makassed, is located. Moreover, the university plays a central role as the primary remaining Palestinian institution in Jerusalem, contributing to essential activities in the city, including cultural initiatives through the Centre for Jerusalem Studies, social welfare programs through the Community Action Centre, and the Child Institute's work with learning disabilities and therapy. All of these activities are now under threat.

Al Quds University has exhausted its legal options. Palestinians residing in Jerusalem have the right to education and to live and work in the city. Al Quds University has the right to exist as a university in East Jerusalem. In September 1993, as Israel and the PLO signed the Oslo Accords, Shimon Peres, then Israel's Foreign Minister (now President), formally stated in the Knesset and reiterated in a letter to Minister Holst of Norway on October 11, 1993, thatAl Quds University would be recognized as a Palestinian institution in Jerusalem. However, this recognition has not been fully implemented by the Israeli authorities.

The situation of Al Quds University reflects the broader challenges faced by Palestinians in Jerusalem, including restrictions on movement, residency rights, and access to education and healthcare. The university continues to operate under difficult circumstances and strives to provide quality education and contribute to the development of Palestinian society.

History

Foundation of university

Al Quds University, which is around 40 years old, is a merger of four prominent institutions in Jerusalem. After establishment of the Hebrew University for Jewish sector by Zionist Congress, a plan for establishing a Palestinian university was released at All Islamic Conference. In 1931, the first time, the idea of an Arab university in Jerusalem was expressed. However this plan remained just as a plan. After the 1948 war, when East Jerusalem came under the control of Jordan, focus of the government was to develop Amman as the education center. Jerusalem was not exploited as an education hub for Arabs.

After the Six Day war of 1967, Israel gained control whole of East Jerusalem

Oldest among them is College of Arts in Sheikh Jarrah. It was founded by Hind al-Husseini, a Palestinian educator, who is known for rescuing the orphaned survivors of Deir Yassin massacre

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Falastin
Flag Coat of arms
Status	Disputed
Capital	East Jerusalem (disputed) Ramallah (temporary)
Muqata	Ramallah
Largest city	Gaza
Official languages	Arabic
Recognized national languages	Arabic
Recognized regional languages	Hebrew
Common languages	Arabic, Hebrew
Ethnic groups	Palestinians
Religion	Islam, Christianity
Demonym(s)	Palestinian
Non-member observer state	United Nations
Government	Democratic, Semi-presidential
• President	Mahmoud Abbas
• Prime Minister	Shtayyeh
• Leader of Gaza	Yahya Sinwar
Legislature	Palestine Legislative Council
Disputed
History
• Established	1988
Population
• 2016 estimate	5.5 million
• Census	2016
GDP (PPP)	estimate
• Total	$44 billion
• Per capita	$6,575
GDP (nominal)	estimate
• Total	$20 billion
Currency	Shekel, Jordanian Dinar
Website https://www.palgov.ps/en

Palestine is a country located in the Eastern Mediterranean region. It shares borders with Israel, Jordan, and Egypt. The population of Palestine consists primarily of Palestinians, who consider the country their homeland. Palestine encompasses the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and the Gaza Strip. It has a diverse population and is known for its rich cultural heritage and historical significance. The region has a distinct identity and is recognized as the ancestral homeland of the Palestinian people.

During its historic period, Palestine has witnessed a rich and diverse history. Situated at the crossroads of ancient civilizations, Palestine has been inhabited by various peoples, including Canaanites, Israelites, Philistines, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Arabs, Crusaders, Ottomans, and others. The region holds significant religious and cultural importance for Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Throughout history, Palestine has experienced conquests, conflicts, and cultural exchanges.

After the fall of the Ottoman Empire, Palestine underwent a complex history. With the British mandate, tensions between Jewish and Arab communities intensified. In 1947, the United Nations proposed a partition plan, leading to the establishment of Israel in 1948 and subsequent armed conflicts with neighboring Arab nations. The Oslo Accords in the 1990s led to the creation of the Palestinian Authority in parts of the West Bank and Gaza Strip. However, the Israeli-Palestinian conflict persists, with ongoing disputes over borders, settlements, and the status of Jerusalem, hindering a lasting resolution and peace in the region.

The current situation in Palestine is marked by ongoing challenges due to the conflict. It struggles with border disputes, settlements, and Jerusalem persist, impacting economic stability. The occupation of the West Bank and the blockade on Gaza have led to restricted movement and limited access to resources. Efforts have been made to promote economic development, with positive strides in sectors such as technology, tourism, and renewable energy. It achieved 17th global position in Open Data Inventory. However, sustainable progress hinges on resolving the conflict and establishing an independent Palestinian state. Gaza is largest city of Palestine. East Jerusalem is proclaimed and official capital, with temporary administrative center is in financial hub Ramallah, while Hebron is industrial hub for country.

History (III)

Main articles: History of Palestine and History of the State of Palestine

Early historical period

See also: Temple in Jerusalem and Muslim conquest of the Levant

Places around Palestine have been mentioned in religious texts such as Bible, Torah, Quran and Ginza Rabba. Early inhabitants of the region are Israelites (Bani Israel), who are considered as a part of broader Canaanites. City of David in Jerusalem is considered to be one of the earliest settlements in the region.

Cenotaph of Abraham (Ibrahim) in Cave of the Patriarchs, Hebron

Abraham settled in this region which was known as Canaan at that time. Ishmael, one of his son left for Arabia. While his another son Isaac remained with him. Jacob, son of Isaac had twelve sons. One of them, Joseph became minister of Egypt and called his remaining brothers. They flourished in every field and became a powerful community. They became twelve tribes of Israelites. Fearing by their rising power, Pharaoh oppressed and enslaved them. Levi's son Moses was chosen by God to liberate them. After successfully liberating them, his next target was attack and conquer Jerusalem and rest of Canaan. However, Israelites refused Moses. As a punishment, God ordered them to stay in a desert of Sinai Peninsula for 40 years. After 40 years, Israelites formed under Joshua and conquered it. But they could not handle the region for a longer time. For next 400 years, they could not capture this territory. Finally, under the leadership David, they successfully conquered Canaan. Solomon, son of David, built Solomon's Temple and kept Ark of the Covenant.

A Jewish man praying at the Western Wall (painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme

Solomon belonged to the tribe of Judah. His son, Rehoboam could not become sharp like him. Due to which, clashes began between these twelve tribes. This great kingdom was divided into two parts — Kingdom of Israel and Kingdom of Judah. Only tribe of Benjamin and Judah remained united, while other ten tribes formed Kingdom of Israel. Because of this clashes, God cursed them in the shape of Neo-Assyrian Empire, who conquered Kingdom of Israel, by which a large number of Israelites fled to East of Euphrates. Gradually, the religion and culture of those lost tribes changed. Only Benjamin tribe and Judah tribe remained in old religion of Israelites. Judah was powerful and used to rule, that's why it was named as Kingdom of Judah. Because of this kingdom and its people, today Judaism came as a religion and these peoples are known as Jews.

Nebuchadnezzar II, king of Babylonia attacked Judah, the Solomonic Temple was destroyed and many Jews were killed. Remaining Jews were enslaved and held in captivity in Babylon for 70 years. 70 years later, a noble Persian king, Cyrus the Great conquered Babylonia and freed Jewish people. He also funded in construction of Second Temple. Jewish rule lasted for 400 years, until the invasion of Roman Empire. In Romanian siege, once again the Jerusalem's Temple was destroyed and could not built till date. The invasion marked by massacres, riots and clashes. Jews were expelled by Roman Empire. It was the Roman Empire, who named this place as Palestine for the first time. With rapid growth of Caliphate, with an year, Roman and Persian Empire were conquered. After conquering much of Levant, Patriarch Sophronius agreed to handover Jerusalem to Caliphate, once Umar comes and meet him. Finally, after the meeting, Palestine including Jerusalem came under control of Muslims.

In 1099, Crusaders gathered troops from Europe and conquered Palestine. Thousands of Muslims and Jews were killed and massacred. They ruled for 90 years. In 1189, Salahuddin of Ayyubid dynasty invaded and took control of Palestine. Later the sovereignty went to hands of Mamluk Sultanate and later to Ottoman Empire.

Arabian — Zionist clashes

See also: Zionism, Ottoman Empire in World War I, and Palestinian nationalism

The fled Jewish community were facing hardship in Europe. They were discriminated and oppressed by Christians, for centuries long religious conflict related to Jesus. Theodor Herzl, founded concept of Zionism. It means, Jews having their own country. In beginning, Jews were against but later it started taking a political shape. As part of Aliyah, Jews starting immigrating Palestine. On other hands, Palestine was still in control of Ottoman Empire under leadership of Sultan Abdul Hamid, where Muslims were majority and Jews and Christians also used to live without conflict.

Ottoman soldiers guarding Al-Aqsa, Jerusalem

Arabs of Palestine were fed up by the rule of Ottoman Empire, because they were culturally different and wanted to liberate themselves. To accomplish this plan, they secretly met British government and agreed to support them in war against Ottoman Empire. In return they will be given and independent country. A similar proposal was made by British to Jewish community of Europe, seeking financial support in overthrowing Ottoman Empire. In return, British will support in establishing a Jewish state. In 1917, Arthur Balfour wrote a declaration, stating British government's plan of establishing a Jewish country in Palestine and assured that Muslims already living their won't be harmed.

After the fall of Ottoman Empire in World War I, British army occupied Palestine and established Mandatory Palestine in 1920. Jewish people began immigrating Palestine. They built houses, institutes and factories with support of British. Arabs felt ignored by British in regard of their independent country. In beginning they tolerate. Later they started a strike focusing on Palestinian nationalism. In 1937, Peel Commission formed which proposed division of Palestine, into two parts, one for Jewish and another for Arabs. This plan was rejected by Arabs. Their strike continued until release of While Paper in 1939. White Paper rejected Peel Commission and proposed unified Palestine as a country for both Arabs and Jews. Zionists rejected White Paper and clashed with British and Arabs. Zionist groups such as Irgun, Lehi (Stern Gang) and Haganah conducted terrorist attacks on British and Arab civilians. Notable attacks include Haifa Oil Refinery massacre, Deir Yassin massacre and King David Hotel bombing. Menachem Begin and Yitzhak Shamir were few big names behind these attacks.

Palestinian rescue efforts during Nazi Holocaust

See also: Relations between Nazi Germany and the Arab world and Arab and Muslim rescue efforts during the Holocaust

In beginning of World War II, Hitler led Nazi Government planned and started exterminating European Jews. Then mufti of Jerusalem, Amin al-Husseini supported Hitler. On other hands, a large number of Palestinians opposed Husseini. Around 12,000 Palestinians were trained by British Army to fought Nazis. In rescue efforts, many Palestinians welcomed Jews and provided no-objection in giving refugee to Holocaust survivors. Also, remaining European Jews had no other option than migrating Palestine. After World War II, British decided to leave Palestine. By 1947, British began living Palestine and handed over the responsibility of solving clashes to the United Nations. Zionists and Palestinians came face-to-face in clashes. UN prepared a partition plan for Israel and Palestine. This plan received 72% of votes in favor. While the Arab League and countries like India and Pakistan rejected this plan. On 14th May 1948, David Ben Gurion declared independence of Israel and became first prime minister.

Wars and conflicts

See also: 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Suez Crisis, and Six-Day War of 1967

Yasser Arafat, Mahmoud Darwish and George Habash at Syria in 1980

Prior to Israel's establishment, neighboring Arab countries attacked Israel and declared first Arab—Israeli war in 1948. Shockingly, alone Israel defeated all Arab countries. Israel also occupied few parts of areas allotted to Palestinians as per UN plan. After this war, West Bank and East Jerusalem went in control of Jordan and Gaza Strip under control of Egypt. In 1956, a war between Egypt and a coalition of Britain, France and Israel takes place. Many Palestinians were killed in Rafah massacre and Khan Yunis massacre, as a part of Suez Crisis. In 1964, Yasser Arafat formed Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) with mission to combat the Zionist entity and bring back Palestine. Due to some kinds of misunderstandings, an unexpected war again took place between Israel and Arab coalition and PLO also participates in the war. The war ended with Israeli victory. As a result, Israel occupied whole Palestinian territories of West Bank and Gaza Strip, Sinai Peninsula of Egypt and Golan Heights of Syria.

Shah Faisal, then Saudi King visited Al-Aqsa Mosque, Jerusalem (c.1980)

Yom Kippur War of 1973 was the last major war between Israel and Arab coalition. Once again, Arab coalition lost the war. Israel also had support of Western countries. Following end of war, then Saudi Arabian King, Shah Faisal setup an oil embargo to countries that supported Israel. It led to an oil crisis. Which caused his assassination. In midst of conflict, Palestinians wanted their own country. PLO, initially by taking arms, hijacked planes and ships and raised voice for country. PLO was declared as a terrorist group by Israel, the United States and few countries. However, some countries like India and Japan considered it only as a revolutionary group. In 1974, PLO officially get recognition in UN as a representative of Palestinians.

A peace treaty between Israel during Menachem Begin ministry and Egypt led by Anwar Sadat successfully held. In return, Sinai Peninsula was returned to Egypt. However, following this move Sadat was killed in an attack by Egyptian extremist. Muslim Brotherhood, an Islamic charitable organization in Gaza was funded by Israel, since they used to preach messages on non-violence and peace. In 1987, an incident in Gaza led broke out of First Intifada. In midst of the intifada, Yasser Arafat declared establishment of Palestine and claiming East Jerusalem as its capital.

Contemporary

After declaration of independence, intifada continued, with mass loses for both Palestinians and Israelis. In beginning of Gulf War, after invading Kuwait, Saddam sent a peace offer to Israel and the United States, to withdraw from Palestinian territories. In exchange, he will withdraw from Kuwait and will come forward for peace talks. At the time of Gulf War, where then Iraqi president Saddam Hussein, for Palestinian cause, fire scud missiles in Israel in 1991. Saddam received applause by the Palestinians. Later he agreed to pay compensation for this attack.

Middle East peace process meeting was held in Alexandria, Egypt in 2001

During the period of the intifada, secret meetings took place between Israel and the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO). In 1993, Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat, in the presence of then-U.S. President Bill Clinton, engaged in face-to-face negotiations. This significant negotiation, known as the Oslo Accords, was held in Oslo, Norway. Arafat acknowledged Israel's right to exist and conveyed his acceptance in a letter addressed to Rabin and Clinton, officially recognizing Israel. In response, Rabin wrote a letter to Arafat, acknowledging the official recognition of the PLO and clarifying that it should not be categorized as a terrorist group. As per the Oslo Accords, a Palestinian government was established. The agreement allocated a limited amount of land to the PLO, which faced opposition among Palestinians, despite their acceptance. Hamas, in opposition to the agreement, carried out terrorist attacks targeting Israeli civilians in cities like Tel Aviv and Haifa. Simultaneously, a number of Jewish extremists also opposed the peace efforts. One such tragic incident was the massacre perpetrated by Baruch Goldstein at the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron, resulting in the loss of approximately 29 Palestinian lives. In 1995, Yigal Amir, an Israeli extremist, assassinated Rabin, which dealt a devastating blow to the peace talks.

In 2000, a peace talk held at Camp David between Yasser Arafat and Ehud Barak failed, while simultaneously, Ariel Sharon, the then opposition leader, made a controversial visit to Temple Mount. These two events served as triggers for the second intifada, which commenced in September 2000. The intifada wreaked havoc on Palestine's previously stable economy and caused extensive destruction to its infrastructure. All three of Palestine's airports, located in Gaza, Jerusalem, and Rafah, ceased operations, with two of them being later destroyed. Gaza Airport's control tower and radar tower were targeted and destroyed in an Israeli airstrike. Only Gush Katif Airport remained operational until 2004. The seaport project site in Gaza was also destroyed in an Israeli airstrike. Citing security concerns, Israel initiated the construction of barriers between Palestinian enclaves and Israeli settlements in 2002. In 2004, Ahmed Yassin, the co-founder of Hamas, was assassinated. The same year, Yasser Arafat passed away, and Mahmoud Abbas assumed the presidency. Following Israel's withdrawal from Gaza and the signing of the Sharm El Sheikh Memorandum, the second intifada came to an end.

In 2006, Hamas emerged victorious in the elections, triggering clashes with Fatah and resulting in political violence in Gaza. Following intense confrontations, Hamas took control of Gaza, while Fatah assumed control of the West Bank. As a response to security concerns, both Egypt and Israel implemented blockades on Gaza, exacerbating its already struggling economy. Since then, Israel and Gaza have been locked in a conflict, which forms a significant aspect of the broader Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Numerous peace proposals have been put forth to the Palestinian Authority and the Israeli government.

Since 2010, Palestine has witnessed a notable improvement in its economy, particularly in the West Bank and even in the Gaza Strip, where economic recovery has been gradual. Recently, new shopping malls, luxury hotels, and technology parks have been established in various cities across the Palestinian territories.

A modern day city scene across East Jerusalem, with view of Temple Mount and Al Aqsa

History (IV)

Early history:

Palestine lies in a region, known as Holy Land to Abrahamic religions of Christianity, Islam and Judaism, as well as in Samaritanism, Mandaeism and Druze. Much of early and medieval history of the country centers around Jerusalem, core of Palestine. Jerusalem is pivotal for Palestinian history.

Israelites () are considered as one of the earliest inhabitants of the region. Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron, is burial place for Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, along with Sarah, Leah and Rebecca. Abraham had two sons, Ishmael and Isaac. Isaac is known as "Father of Israelites" and Ishmael is known as "Father of Arabs". David conquered Canaan. His son, Solomon built a temple, known as Solomon's Temple. Ark of the Covenant kept in temple, was monumental to Israelites. Since Solomon belonged to tribe of Judah, Judah became a aristocratic tribe of Israel. This kingdom was divided into, Kingdom of Israel and Kingdom of Judah. Only the tribe of Benjamin and Judah remained in Judah kingdom. Neo-Assyrian Empire conquered Kingdom of Israel. Israelites of this kingdom, expelled and fled to east of Euphrates and different parts of the world. Gradually, religion and culture of those 10 tribes changed. Only Judah remained on their old region, which is today known as Judaism and its adherents are Jews.

Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylonian empire, invaded Kingdom of Judah, where many Jews were killed and remaining where enslaved and held captivity in Babylon for 70 years. In siege of Jerusalem, Solomon's Temple was destroyed. 70 years later, Cyrus the Great, a noble king of Persian Empire, attacked Babylonian Empire. He liberated Jews and funded in construction of Second Temple. 400 years later, Kingdom of Israel was attacked by Roman Empire. Once again, the temple was destroyed, during siege. Roman Empire expelled Jews for 600 years. It was the Romans, who named the region Palestine. Romanian rule marked beginning of Christian influence in the region. Jerusalem was dominated by clergy

After 600 years, Palestine came under Islamic influence. In conquest of the Levant, much of Persian and Roman Empire came under Muslim rule. After which, Umar became most powerful ruler in the world.

Modern period

Ottoman rule endured for 400 years.

Jewish community in Europe were oligarchic, strong and powerful.

The Jewish immigrants were bourgeoises, owned capital, such as land, factories and raw material.

Wars, conflicts and disputes

Palestinians became anarchic community under occupation.

Hamas was a charitable organization, based on pacifist principles inspired by Muslim Brotherhood .

bourgeoisie

History (V)

Salama UFO Jerusalem

Early religious significance

Palestine, located in a region is known as Holy Land to Christians, Jews and Muslims. During the time of Abraham, Palestine was known as Canaan. Abraham's sons, Ishmael and Isaac, are known for founding distinct communities. Isaac is known as "Father of Israelites", while Ishmael is known as "Father of Arabs". Jacob, son of Isaac, had 12 sons. They gradually developed into a powerful community, known as Israelites, classified in 12 tribes. Exodus, by Moses, marked beginning of Jewish influence in the region. After a failed attempt during time to Joshua, Israelites formed under leadership of David and conquered Palestine. David established united Kingdom of Israel. Solomon, son of David, built a place of worship, known as Solomon's Temple. Ark of the Covenant was kept in the temple. Due to Solomon's background to tribe of Judah, Judah became a aristocratic tribe of Israel. Future generation of Judah were not strong like Solomon, which led clashes between these tribes.

History (!)

Historical significance

The modern state of Palestine lies in a region of the Middle East, known as Holy Land to Abrahamic religions. Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron, is burial place of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, along with Sarah, Leah and Rebecca. Tribes of Israel were a powerful community. Israelites (Bani Israel) ruled the region. Influenced by biblical figures of Moses, Joshua, David and Solomon, events in Palestine have been recorded in religious texts of Bible and Torah. David built Kingdom of Israel. City of David is known to be one of the earliest settlements in Jerusalem. Solomon built a place of worship, known as Solomon's Temple, which had Ark of the Covenant. Biblical exiles of Jews took place during Neo–Assyrian, Babylonian and Romanian invasion. During Babylonian siege of Jerusalem, Solomonic Temple was destroyed. Second Temple was funded by Cyrus the Great and completed under Darius the Great. Once again, the temple was destroyed in Romanian siege of Jerusalem. By Romanian invasion, Jews expelled for 600 years.

Palestine came under Islamic influence after Muhammad's Night Journey, which made Muslim zeal about the Holy Land. during Muslim conquest of the Levant by Caliphate of Rashidun under the leadership of Umar. Palestine became part of most powerful empire in the West Asia and Northeast Africa. Umar signed peace treaty with Christians, assuring them that their holy places would be protected. Jews were permitted to enter the Holy Land, for the first time, after 600 years. Following Rashidun Caliphate, shifts in rule changed, followed by Abbasid Caliphate and Fatimid Caliphate. In 1099, Crusaders invaded Palestine, which caused massacres of Jews and Muslims. Crusaders rule lasted for 90 years, until Palestine's conquest by the Ayyubid Dynatsy. Under Salahuddin, once again Palestine came under Muslim rule. After Ayyubid Dynasty, Palestine came under control of Mamluk Sultanate from 1250 to 1517. After which, Palestine became a part of the Ottoman Empire.

• Palestine during the Ottoman Empire
• 
  Temple Mount (Al–Haram Al–Sharif) before 18th century
• 
  Stones around Hebron with Byzantine inscriptions
• 
  Hebron in the late 17th century
• 
  Bethlehem in 1853

Historical significance (!)

The modern state of Palestine is situated in the Holy Land, a region of great significance to the Abrahamic religions, including Christianity, Islam, and Judaism, as well as to Mandaeism, Samaritanism, the Baháʼí Faith, and Druze. The city of Jerusalem holds immense historical importance for these major religions. The Western Wall in Jerusalem is the holiest site for Jews, representing the remnants of the First and Second Temples that were destroyed during the Babylonian and Roman sieges of the city. Hebron is home to the Cave of the Patriarchs, where prophets—Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, along with Sarah, Leah and Rebecca are buried. While burial places of Noah, Lot, and Jonah are located in other locations of the present Hebron Governorate. Isaac, the son of Abraham, is known as the "Father of Israelites" as his son Jacob's descendants came to be known as the Israelites. They established a powerful Kingdom of Israel after Moses, the son of Levi, led the Exodus.

Following the Neo-Assyrian invasion, the remaining Israelites eventually became known as Jews. The birth of Jesus in Bethlehem marked the beginning of Christian influence. The Jordan River is associated with the baptism of Jesus by John the Baptist. In Mandaeanism, John the Baptist is considered a chief prophet. Jesus spent his life in Jerusalem, and according to the Gospel, he resurrected Lazarus in Bethany (modern Eizariya), which is now a suburb of Jerusalem. Jesus was crucified at Calvary, located outside Jerusalem, further sanctifying the city for Christians.

Palestine came under the influence of Islam after Muhammad's Night Journey from Makkah to Jerusalem, ascending to heaven via Hebron. The presence of biblical prophets revered by Muslims also adds to the sanctity of this land. These events heightened the Muslim zeal for the conquest of the Holy Land. During the Muslim conquest of the Levant led by Caliph Umar of the Rashidun Caliphate, Palestine came under Islamic rule. A peace treaty was signed between Umar and Sophronius, ensuring the protection of Christians and their holy places. Jews were permitted to reenter the land for the first time after 600 years of Roman expulsion. Both Jews and Christians were granted freedom of religion. In 1099, Crusaders invaded Palestine and established the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Saladin of the Ayyubid Dynasty is renowned as the "Conqueror of Jerusalem" for successfully overthrowing Crusader rule.

Modern period

Before World War I, Palestine remained under the control of the Ottoman Empire. The population consisted mainly of Muslims, with Jewish and Christian minorities coexisting peacefully. The Palestinian Arabs, ethnically distinct from the Ottomans, aspired for liberation from their rule. They supported the British in their war against the Ottomans, in exchange for the promise of an independent country. Meanwhile, the Jewish diaspora in Europe faced adversity due to historical prejudices. Seeking financial support for the war, the British offered them an independent country in Palestine.

Theodor Herzl, known as the "Father of Political Zionism," advocated for the establishment of a Jewish homeland. Initially met with opposition from Jews, Zionism gradually gained political momentum. Jewish migration to Palestine, known as Aliyah, increased significantly. The Balfour Declaration of 1917, a letter from Arthur Balfour to Walter Rothschild, further popularized Zionism. It expressed support for establishing a Jewish state in Palestine while assuring the protection of the rights of the existing Arab population. After the fall of the Ottoman Empire, the British assumed control of Palestine, establishing Mandatory Palestine under a League of Nations mandate. British support facilitated Jewish immigration, which caused growing dissatisfaction among the Arabs. In 1937, the Peel Commission proposed the partition of Palestine into two states, one for Jews and a larger one for Arabs. However, the Arab rejection of this plan led to continued strikes and tensions. The release of the 1939 White Paper, which rejected the idea of a unified Palestine and favored limitations on Jewish immigration, deepened the conflict between the Zionists and the British.

Zionist paramilitary organizations, including Irgun, the Stern Gang, and Haganah, carried out various attacks targeting British officials and Arab civilians. These incidents, such as the Deir Yassin massacre, the Haifa Oil Refinery massacre, and the King David Hotel bombing, left a lasting impact. Prominent figures like Yitzhak Shamir and Menachem Begin were associated with these attacks and later emerged as influential political leaders in the future state of Israel.

The rise of the Nazi Party, led by Adolf Hitler, resulted in the systematic extermination of millions of Jews during the Holocaust. Amin al-Husseini, the Mufti of Jerusalem, infamously aligned himself with Hitler and supported his genocidal plans against Jews. However, it is important to note that many Palestinians opposed Husseini's stance. In response to the atrocities committed by the Nazis, the British Army trained around 12,000 Palestinian troops who were sent to fight against them. As the Holocaust unfolded, many Jews had no choice but to seek refuge in Palestine. Rescue efforts from the Muslim world played a crucial role in saving numerous Jews from extermination. Despite these rescue efforts, tensions escalated between Zionist and Arab factions, leading to increased clashes. The British administration failed to find a resolution to the issue, prompting them to transfer the responsibility to the United Nations in 1947. The United Nations devised a partition plan to divide Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states. While the Arab League rejected this plan, it received a favorable vote of 72% and was subsequently finalized. On May 14, 1948, David Ben-Gurion declared the independence of Israel and assumed the role of its first prime minister.

Wars, conflicts and disputes

Yasser Arafat, kno

Shah Faisal (1906—1975)

Saddam Hussein (1937—2006)

Prior to the declaration of Israel, neighboring Arab countries initiated attacks on Israel, resulting in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. The conflict concluded with Israel emerging victorious and occupying Palestinian territories, including cities like Ashkelon, Ashdod, Jaffa and Modi'in, which were intended to be part of Palestine. Subsequently, there were three more wars between the Arab coalition and Israel in 1948, 1967, and 1973, all of which ended in Israeli victories. The Six-Day War of 1967 resulted in Israel occupying the entire Palestinian territories of the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and East Jerusalem, as well as the Egyptian Sinai Peninsula and the Syrian Golan Heights. This led to a state of disorder among the Palestinians, who were under Israeli military administration. King Faisal of Saudi Arabia gained recognition for his pro-Palestinian stance, notably through an oil embargo imposed on countries supporting Israel during the Yom Kippur War.

Yasser Arafat emerged as a national hero, after founding the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in 1964, with the goal of replacing Israel with Palestine. Initially resorting to armed struggle, the PLO demanded an independent country. The organization was involved in several hijackings of flights and ships, leading countries like the United States and Israel to label it as a terrorist group. In 1974, the PLO received official recognition as the representative of the Palestinian people. During the tenure of Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin, a successful peace treaty was established with Egypt, led by Anwar Sadat. As a result, the Sinai Peninsula was returned to Egypt. Tragically, following this historic move, Sadat was assassinated in an attack by Egyptian extremists.

Hamas, currently recognized as a militant organization, originally operated as a charitable organization. Surprisingly, Hamas received funding from Israel due to their pacifist ideology. However, the organization gained significant popularity during the first intifada, which was sparked by an incident in Gaza. In response, Hamas initiated attacks on multiple locations within Israel. The intifada witnessed widespread protests and demonstrations on the streets of Gaza and Jerusalem, leading to intense clashes between Palestinians and Israelis.

During the ongoing intifada, Yasser Arafat made a declaration establishing Palestine and asserting East Jerusalem as its capital. The declaration was composed by poet Mahmoud Darwish.

Contemporary (!)

During the 1980s and 1990s, Saddam Hussein, the President of Iraq, garnered significant support for his advocacy of the Palestinian cause and his military actions against Israel, including the firing of scud missiles. Prior to these attacks, Saddam had conveyed a message to Israel, delivered through the White House, demanding the withdrawal of Israeli troops from Palestinian territories. In return, Iraq would recognize Israel's right to exist and pursue a path of peace. Following the aftermath of the missile attack, Hussein ultimately agreed to provide compensation amounting to US$74 million.

During the period of the intifada, secret meetings took place between Israel and the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO). In 1993, Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat, in the presence of then-U.S. President Bill Clinton, engaged in face-to-face negotiations. This significant negotiation, known as the Oslo Accords, was held in Oslo, Norway. Arafat acknowledged Israel's right to exist and conveyed his acceptance in a letter addressed to Rabin and Clinton, officially recognizing Israel. In response, Rabin wrote a letter to Arafat, acknowledging the official recognition of the PLO and clarifying that it should not be categorized as a terrorist group. As per the Oslo Accords, a Palestinian government was established. The agreement allocated a limited amount of land to the PLO, which faced opposition among Palestinians, despite their acceptance. Hamas, in opposition to the agreement, carried out terrorist attacks targeting Israeli civilians in cities like Tel Aviv and Haifa. Simultaneously, a number of Jewish extremists also opposed the peace efforts. One such tragic incident was the massacre perpetrated by Baruch Goldstein at the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron, resulting in the loss of approximately 29 Palestinian lives. In 1995, Yigal Amir, an Israeli extremist, assassinated Rabin, which dealt a devastating blow to the peace talks.

In 2000, a peace talk held at Camp David between Yasser Arafat and Ehud Barak failed, while simultaneously, Ariel Sharon, the then opposition leader, made a controversial visit to Temple Mount. These two events served as triggers for the second intifada, which commenced in September 2000. The intifada wreaked havoc on Palestine's previously stable economy and caused extensive destruction to its infrastructure. All three of Palestine's airports, located in Gaza, Jerusalem, and Rafah, ceased operations, with two of them being later destroyed. Gaza Airport's control tower and radar tower were targeted and destroyed in an Israeli airstrike. Only Gush Katif Airport remained operational until 2004. The seaport project site in Gaza was also destroyed in an Israeli airstrike. Citing security concerns, Israel initiated the construction of barriers between Palestinian enclaves and Israeli settlements in 2002. In 2004, Ahmed Yassin, the co-founder of Hamas, was assassinated. The same year, Yasser Arafat passed away, and Mahmoud Abbas assumed the presidency. Following Israel's withdrawal from Gaza and the signing of the Sharm El Sheikh Memorandum, the second intifada came to an end.

In 2006, Hamas emerged victorious in the elections, triggering clashes with Fatah and resulting in political violence in Gaza. Following intense confrontations, Hamas took control of Gaza, while Fatah assumed control of the West Bank. As a response to security concerns, both Egypt and Israel implemented blockades on Gaza, exacerbating its already struggling economy. Since then, Israel and Gaza have been locked in a conflict, which forms a significant aspect of the broader Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Numerous peace proposals have been put forth to the Palestinian Authority and the Israeli government.

Since 2010, Palestine has witnessed a notable improvement in its economy, particularly in the West Bank and even in the Gaza Strip, where economic recovery has been gradual. Recently, new shopping malls, luxury hotels, and technology parks have been established in various cities across the Palestinian territories.

History(!!)

Early historical period

Israelites and Jewish rule

Israelites were powerful community of 12 tribes in Canaan region. Known as 12 tribes of Israel, they were descendants of Jacob (Israel), who was son of Isaac and grandson of Abraham. Isaac was known as "Father of Israelites" and his brother Ishmael was known as "Father of Arabs". After Moses led the Exodus of liberated Israelites from Pharaoh of Egypt, his next target was to capture the city of Jerusalem and take control of Canaan. However,

Christian influence

Jesus was born in Bethlehem, at a place, which is now known as Church of the Nativity. Jordan River is the place where he was baptized by John the Baptist. Jesus was born into Jewish family, but his preaching was different from other previous prophets of Jews. This angered the Jewish community. Thus he got opposition by Jews living over their.

Calvary is the site where Jesus was crucified.

Politics and Administration (!)

Palestine is democratic and Semi-presidential government, which is headed by the President, followed by the Prime Minister. The President of Palestine is appointed by the Palestinian Central Council. Palestinian National Council is the legislature, that established Palestine. Executive Committee of the Palestine Liberation Organization performs function of government living in exile. Pursuant to Oslo Accords of 1993, Palestinian Authority was established as a provisional government for governing the allotted Palestinian enclaves.

Yasser Arafat was the first president of the Palestinian Authority. He also served as the Prime Minster of Palestine and chairman of PLO from 1964 to 2004. Mahmoud Abbas is the current president, serving since 2005. While Mohammad Shtayyeh is serving as current prime minister. For governance of the Gaza Strip, Yahya Sinwar is current leader of Hamas for the territory.

Division

See also: List of cities administered by the Palestinian Authority, Governorates of Palestine, and List of cities administered by Hamas Administration

The West Bank is divided into three areas as per the Oslo II Accord. Area A, comprising 18% of the West Bank, is under Palestinian government administration. Area B, forming 22%, is under joint Israeli-Palestinian security control with Palestinian civil administration. The Israeli Civil Administration administers Area C (excluding East Jerusalem), making up 60% of the West Bank. However, education and medical services are provided by the Palestinian government to the 150,000 Palestinians in the area. Most of Area C is inaccessible to Palestinians due to security concerns. Approximately 330,000 Israelis reside in settlements there. Although Area C is under martial law, Israeli residents have full civic rights.

East Jerusalem, claimed by Palestine as part of the Jerusalem Governorate, is administered by Israel as part of the Jerusalem District. Israel effectively annexed East Jerusalem in 1967, but this is not recognized by other countries. In 2010, East Jerusalem had around 456,000 residents, with roughly 60% Palestinians and 40% Israelis. However, due to the West Bank Security Barrier, tens of thousands of Palestinians with Israeli ID cards have been re-annexed to the West Bank, resulting in a small Israeli majority within the barrier in East Jerusalem.

Additionally, there are Palestinian-controlled areas within Jerusalem, where the Palestinian Authority exercises administrative control over certain neighborhoods. After the Battle of Gaza, Fatah party exercises control on the West Bank and East Jerusalem, while Gaza Strip falls under the governance of Hamas.

Governorates of Palestine

Governorates in West Bank

• Tulkarm Governorate
• Salfit Governorate
• Tubas Governorate
• Qalqilya Governorate
• Jenin Governorate
• Jericho Governorate
• Nablus Governorate
• Bethlehem Governorate
• Ramallah and Al-Bireh Governorate
• Jerusalem Governorate
• Hebron Governorate

Governorates in Gaza Strip

• Deir al-Balah Governorate
• North Gaza Governorate
• Gaza Governorate
• North Gaza Governorate
• Khan Yunis Governorate
• Rafah Governorate

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Palestine

President of India, Pranab Mukherjee, inaugurating ICT center at Al-Quds University, Jerusalem in 2015

The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) represents the State of Palestine and maintains embassies in countries that recognize it. The PLO also participates in international organizations as a member, associate, or observer. In some cases, due to conflicting sources, it is difficult to determine if the participation is on behalf of the State of Palestine, the PLO as a non-state entity, or the Palestinian National Authority (PNA).

In 1988, the State of Palestine's declaration of independence was acknowledged by the General Assembly with Resolution 43/177. In 2012, the United Nations General Assembly passed Resolution 67/19, granting Palestine "non-member observer state" status, effectively recognizing it as a sovereign state. Sweden took a significant step in 2013 by upgrading the status of the Palestinian representative office to a full embassy. They became the first EU member state outside the former communist bloc to officially recognize the state of Palestine.

The UK House of Commons voted in favor of recognizing Palestine as a state in 2014, as a contribution towards achieving a negotiated two-state solution. However, the UK government maintained its policy of reserving the right to recognize Palestine bilaterally at a more opportune time for peace efforts. Similarly, in 2014, the French parliament passed a resolution urging their government to recognize Palestine as a state, with the intention of facilitating a definitive resolution to the conflict. A United Nations Security Council resolution proposed in 2014, calling for the end of Israeli occupation and statehood by 2017, did not pass due to opposition and abstentions.

In January 2015, the International Criminal Court affirmed Palestine's "State" status after its UN observer recognition. The Vatican shifted recognition to the State of Palestine in May 2015, following the 2012 UN vote. This change aligned with the Holy See's evolving position. In December 2015, the UN General Assembly passed a resolution demanding Palestinian sovereignty over natural resources in the occupied territories. It called on Israel to cease exploitation and damage while granting Palestinians the right to seek restitution.

Currently, 139 UN member states (72%) recognize the State of Palestine. Though some don't recognize it, they acknowledge the PLO as the representative of the Palestinian people. The PLO's executive committee acts as the government, empowered by the PNC. Palestine is a member of the United Nations, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, the Arab League, the G77, the International Olympic Committee and the Union for the Mediterranean.

A majority of Arab and Muslim countries, including Algeria, Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Lebanon, Morocco, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and Yemen have supported the country, due to religious and cultural relations. Egypt and Jordan, apart from recognizing have also signed peace treaties with Israel. Egypt and Qatar acts as a mediator between Hamas controlled Gaza and Israel. Countries like India and Republic of Ireland have strongly showed support of an independent Palestine, coexisting with Israel.

Military

The State of Palestine maintains various security forces, including the Civil Police Force, National Security Forces, and Intelligence Services. These entities are responsible for upholding security and safeguarding the well-being of Palestinian citizens and the state itself.

The Palestinian Security Services comprise armed forces and intelligence agencies within the country, including the Palestinian National Security Forces and Palestinian Naval Police. The Palestinian Naval Police operates exclusively in the Gaza Strip, with its headquarters situated in Gaza Port. The Palestine Liberation Army (PLA) serves as the military branch of the PLO.

In addition to these national forces, there are several militant organizations rooted in Palestinian nationalism. Notable examples include Hamas and Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ). While these organizations possess political dimensions, they also maintain military wings that engage in military operations. The Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades serves as the military wing of Hamas, while the Al-Quds Brigades functions as the military wing of Palestinian Islamic Jihad. Due to their conflicts with Israel, both groups have been designated as terrorist organizations by Israel and certain Western countries.

According to The Times of Israel, Hamas allocates approximately US$100 million annually to its military infrastructure. As these organizations face terrorist labels in certain countries, acquiring weapons and equipment poses challenges. Nevertheless, members of Hamas and PIJ include highly qualified engineers and professionals who have developed inventions beneficial to Hamas. For instance, a Hamas member invented the unmanned drone known as Ababeel1. Hamas finds strong allies in Hezbollah, PIJ, and Iran.

Politics and Administration

Palestine is democratic and semi—presidential government, which is headed by the President and followed by the Prime Minister. President of Palestine is appointed by the Palestinian Central Council. Palestinian National Council is the legislature, that established Palestine. Executive Committee of the Palestine Liberation Organization performs function of government living in exile. In 1974, Palestine Liberation Organization was officially recognized by United Nations as representative of Palestinians. Yasser Arafat was the first chairman of PLO, from 1964 to till 2004.

Pursuant to Oslo Accords of 1993, Palestinian Authority was established as a provisional government for governing the allotted Palestinian enclaves. Mahmoud Abbas is current President of the country and chairman of Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and elected from Fatah. Mohammad Shtayyeh holds position of Prime Minister from Fatah party. Yahya Sinwar is leader of Hamas, governing the Gaza Strip territory of Palestine.

Division

See also: List of cities administered by the Palestinian Authority, Governorates of Palestine, and List of cities administered by Hamas Administration

Palestine, as per its claim, is officially consist of two non-contiguous territories of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. Their are about 16 governorates in Palestine, with five of them in Gaza Strip and remaining in West Bank. Governorates are divided into municipalities and village councils. Big cities or governorate capitals are classified as municipalities. Municipalities are leveled as A, B, C and D, depending upon population size of these urban areas. Villages and other rural areas are classified as village councils. Territories are divided into three parts — Area A, Area B and Area C. Area A is completely under control of the Palestinian Authority. In Area B, civil operations are maintained by Palestinian Authority and security is handled by Israel. Area C, where Israeli settlements are located is completely under control of the Israeli government. This function also worked in Gaza Strip, but after Israeli withdrawal, Gaza Strip completely came under control of Palestinian entity. Area A of West Bank comprises 18% of lands.

Based on Oslo Accords, Palestinian Authority is prohibited to operate in Jerusalem. Though some parts of Jerusalem were allotted to the authority as Palestinian Enclaves. Palestinian Authority maintains its offices for Jerusalem Affairs in Abu Dis, which was proposed as the country's capital in Trump Peace Plan.

Governorates of Palestine

Governorates in West Bank

• Tulkarm Governorate
• Salfit Governorate
• Tubas Governorate
• Qalqilya Governorate
• Jenin Governorate
• Jericho Governorate
• Nablus Governorate
• Bethlehem Governorate
• Ramallah and Al-Bireh Governorate
• Jerusalem Governorate
• Hebron Governorate

Governorates in Gaza Strip

• Deir al-Balah Governorate
• North Gaza Governorate
• Gaza Governorate
• North Gaza Governorate
• Khan Yunis Governorate
• Rafah Governorate

Military

Main articles: Palestinian Security Services and Palestine Liberation Army

Palestinian Army during an event of Indian prime minister Narendra Modi with Mahmoud Abbas at Ramallah

Palestinian Security Services is the group of armed forces and intelligence agencies for the country. It also consists of Palestinian National Security Forces and Palestinian Naval Police. Palestinian Naval Police operates only in the Gaza Strip, whose headquarter is in Gaza Port. Palestine Liberation Army (PLA) is the military branch of PLO.

Apart from these national forces, their are a large number of militant organizations established based on Palestinian nationalism. This includes Hamas and Palestinian Islamic Jihad. They are political organizations and have military wings which actually performs military operations. Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades is military wing of Hamas and Al-Quds Brigades is military wing of Palestine Islamic Jihad. Due to their clashes with the Israelis, they have been declared as a terrorist organizations by Israel and Western countries.

As per The Times of Israel, Hamas spends US$100 million per year on its military infrastructure. Since they are tagged as terrorist organization by some countries, it is difficult for these groups to purchase weapons and equipment. Though Hamas and PIJ members are some of the top qualified engineers and professionals. Some of these members discovered inventions useful to Hamas. Ababeel1 is an unmanned drone invented by a Hamas member. Strong allies of Hamas are Hezbollah, PIJ and Iran.

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of the State of Palestine

Since 2011, Palestine have status of a non-member observer state in the United Nations, in order to participate in it. Palestine is a member of the United Nations, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, the Arab League, the G77, the International Olympic Committee and the Union for the Mediterranean.

Those countries, who recognized Palestine officially have established foreign embassies, representative offices and foreign consulates in Palestine. Those who didn't recognized the country, officially recognized either PLO or Palestinian Authority. Both PLO and Palestinian Authority, also maintained official positions in the UN.

A majority of Arab and Muslim countries, including Algeria, Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Lebanon, Morocco, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and Yemen have supported the country, due to religious and cultural relations. Egypt and Jordan, apart from recognizing have also signed peace treaties with Israel. Egypt and Qatar acts as a mediator between Hamas controlled Gaza and Israel. Countries like India and Republic of Ireland have strongly showed support of an independent Palestine, coexisting with Israel.

Status and Recognition

Main article: International recognition of the State of Palestine

Yasser Arafat, the political figure of Palestine

Around 139 members of United Nations officially recognizes Palestine. A majority of Muslim countries officially recognized Palestine. Countries which have not officially recognized it includes Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Mexico, the United Kingdom, and the United States have not officially recognized Palestine. Though these countries support two state solution and other peace negotiations. Instead of recognizing overall country, many have officially recognized either the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) or the Palestinian Authority. In the United Nations, Palestine have given the status of non-member observer state.

The State of Palestine had been officially claimed and declared by the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) on 15 November 1988, officially claiming sovereignty over Palestinian territories of the West Bank, the Gaza Strip and East Jerusalem. Due to disputes over East Jerusalem, many countries have their Palestinian embassies in Ramallah. Though U.S had a Palestinian consulate in Jerusalem and proceeding to reopen.

Territorial disputes and occupation

Main articles: Israeli-occupied territories, Israeli occupation of the West Bank, and Hebron Protocol

Since the Six Day War of 1967, Israel has occupied parts of West Bank and East Jerusalem in Palestine and Golan Heights of Syria. Israeli settlements have been established in occupied parts of West Bank in support of Israeli government. The area where those settlements located is known as Area C. Area C was notified was notified during Oslo Accords in 1994.

A majority of countries, specially the Muslim countries and Arab world officially recognize the country based on the 1967 borders. Countries like Pakistan and Saudi Arabia proposed have future relations with Israel once Palestine will be officially established based on 1967 borders, including West Bank and Gaza Strip and East Jerusalem as its capital. The 1967 borders consist of the West Bank including East Jerusalem and the Gaza Strip. This 1967 borders is also known as Green Line or 1949 Armistice Lines. They are considered normally as ceasefire lines as per many Israelis.

Demonstrations against Israeli occupation of Palestinian territories and Syrian territories

Area C, where Israeli settlements located is a contiguous region and forms major part of West Bank. They are administered by Israel completely under the Israeli law and judiciary system. These settlements are also in East Jerusalem. All these settlements are considered illegal by international community under its global law. But the Israeli government disputes this. Due to this, less foreign companies operates in these settlements. Instead, many Israeli companies have their facilities in the industrial parks of Area C. All foreign and Israeli companies operating in these settlements have been blacklisted by the United Nations. The revenue generated by industries in Area C is not included in the total economic value of Palestine.

Every years, protests and demonstrations against occupation of the Palestinian territories, oppression on Palestinians and successful peace process by Israelis have taken place in the streets of Tel Aviv and Haifa. Some Israeli NGOs and organizations such as Jerusalem Foundation, B'Tselem and Breaking the Silence opposes Israeli oppression against Palestinians, occupation of Palestinian territories, supports Palestinian human rights and peaceful negotiations between Israelis and Palestinians.

Often, the Israeli settlers and Palestinian engages themselves in communal violence. Many times, settler families have been attacked by Palestinian terrorists. These crimes are opposed by a majority of Palestinians. Though many Israeli settlers and Palestinians have peaceful relations and hopes for final negotiations of this regard.

Same case in a greater scale have been observed in Hebron. Hebron (Khalil) is the largest city in West Bank. It is next holy city for Judaism after Jerusalem. The city is divided into two parts — H1 and H2. H1 is the place where most of the Muslims reside. While Jews live in H2 region of Hebron comprising 20% of the city. Israeli army used control allover the city to protect Jewish settlers. This brought huge clashes between Jews and Arabs in Hebron. The notable one was the Cave of the Patriarchs massacre in 1994. Aftermath of attack, Israeli government and Palestinian Authority decided to negotiate. In 1997, Israel and Palestine signed an agreement to withdraw Israeli troops from the H1 region.

Territorial disputes

Since the Six Day War of 1967, Israel has occupied the West Bank and East Jerusalem. Gaza Strip was also occupied, but after withdrawal, it completely became a Palestinian controlled area. After occupying the territory, Israel began constructing a large number of settlements in the West Bank. This move gained global condemnation.

The Israeli settlements are controlled by Israel according to same Israeli law and order. Israeli settlements located in Area C, comprises 61% of the total territory. Since 2002, Israel constructed a barrier between Palestinian enclaves and Israeli settlements, causing more tensions. This barriers are claimed by Israel to erect for security concerns. The occupation have also resulted in clashes between Palestinians and Israeli settlers. Often, Palestinian extremists attack Israeli civilians, which are opposed by a majority of Palestinians. Same happens, in an opposite case.

In East Jerusalem, the displacement of Palestinian families, specially from areas like Sheikh Jarrah and Wadi al-Joz, have attracted international condemnation and criticism of Israel. Many Israeli NGOs such as B'Tselem, Breaking the Silence Jerusalem Foundation and Peace Now are known for raising voice against Israeli oppression on Palestinians.

Peace process and negotiations

Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin, U.S. president Bill Clinton, and PLO chairman Yasser Arafat

Palestinians backed by Muslim world hold diverse views on peace process. Some supports two state, while other support two states. During the Zionist and Arab nationalism movement, Palestinians supported an Islamic state based on the river to the sea, where Christians and Jews (both native and colonial), as well as other non-Muslim communities will be treated as second class citizens. Another proposal came, of establishing an undivided Palestine, where both the Jews and Arabs will share equal rights in a democracy.

In beginning, majority of Palestinians supported a two state solution, based on the 1967 borders. But, in recent figures found that Palestinians majority have supported a one state solution for both Palestinians and Israelis, since the two state solution haven't reached a final stage. In 2000, a one state proposal named Isratin was presented by Muammar Gaddafi and his son Saif al-Islam Gaddafi. In 1990, Iraqi President Saddam Hussein offered a peace proposal to Israel, including Israel's right to exist. In exchange, Israel must withdraw from territories claimed by Palestinians.

In 1993, first peace negotiation between Israel and PLO took place in the shape of Oslo Accords. Through this agreement, Israel and PLO recognized each other officially and Palestine got chance to run its own government in allotted areas. Yitzhak Rabin, Shimon Peres and Yasser Arafat were awarded by Nobel Peace Prize. The signing of peace treaty caused assassination of Rabin in 1995 by Israeli extremists. Under leadership of Benjamin Netanyahu, two more agreements were signed, which included Wye River Memorandum and Hebron Protocol.

Hamas and PIJ opposed peace talks in the beginning. But later

Status of Jerusalem (I)

Main article: Status of Jerusalem

Jerusalem is considered a holy city by multiple religions, including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. It contains important religious sites such as the Western Wall, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, and the Al-Aqsa Mosque. The control and access to these religious sites have been a source of tension and disputes.

Orient House — the former headquarters of PLO in Jerusalem

Muna el-Kurd, a Palestinian activist from Jerusalem, was featured in Time 100 along with her brother Mohammed el-Kurd

The conflict over Jerusalem primarily revolves around its religious, historical, and political significance to both Israelis and Palestinians. The status of Jerusalem has been a contentious issue and a focal point of the conflict for decades. Both Israelis and Palestinians consider Jerusalem as their capital. Israel declared Jerusalem as its capital in 1950, while Palestinians envision East Jerusalem as the capital of a future Palestinian state. The competing claims over the city's sovereignty have been a major stumbling block in peace negotiations.

Following the 1967 Six-Day War, Israel occupied East Jerusalem, including the Old City, which is home to important religious sites. Israel later annexed East Jerusalem, a move that has not been recognized internationally. Palestinians view East Jerusalem as part of their future state, and the annexation is seen as an obstacle to a negotiated settlement. Israel has established Jewish settlements in East Jerusalem, leading to changes in the demographics of the city. These settlements are considered illegal under international law and are seen by Palestinians as an obstacle to the establishment of a viable Palestinian state. Around 80% of East Jerusalem is controlled by Israel, only 20% of the area is under Palestinian control.

Many Palestinian families have been displaced by the Israeli authorities, their properties are demolished for developing settlements, parks and industrial zones. This cases have been specially observed in areas like Sheikh Jarrah, Silwan and Wadi al-Joz.

Jerusalem was not subjected to be part of Oslo Accords. But parts of few Jerusalem localities were also classified as Palestinian enclaves and their sovereignty was transferred to Palestinian Authority. It includes parts of neighborhoods, such as Sur Baher, Beit Hanina, Kafr 'Aqab, Al-Ram, Jabel Mukaber (Ash-Sheikh Sa'd), Arab al-Jahalin and Umm Tuba. Suburban areas and towns in Palestinian Jerusalem Governorate includes Abu Dis, Hizma, Biddu, Qalandia and Bir Nabala etc. as Palestinian enclaves.

PLO have notified East Jerusalem metropolitan area, whose extension includes Ramallah, Nablus and nearby Palestinian enclave towns of Jerusalem Governorate such as Abu Dis, Bethany, Al-Jib and Beit Hanina etc.

The status of Jerusalem is one of the core final status issues to be resolved in any potential peace agreement between Israelis and Palestinians. The conflicting claims, competing narratives, and deep emotional attachments to the city make it a highly complex and sensitive aspect of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Zionist Union and Israeli president MK Isaac Herzog have made a proposal of transferring Palestinian areas of Jerusalem to Palestinian Authority.

• Arab al-Jahalin
• Kafr Aqab
• Umm Tuba
• Umm Lisun
• Beit Hanina
• Al-Ram
• Jabal Mukaber (ash-Sheikh Sa'd)
• Sheikh Sad

Status of Jerusalem (II)

Jerusalem is monumental for both Israelis and Palestinians. Jordan have granted curatorship for Muslim sites across Jerusalem.

Status (!)

Main article: Legal status of the State of Palestine

The status of the State of Palestine remains a complex and unresolved issue. The State of Palestine is recognized as a non-member observer state by the United Nations since November 2012. This upgraded status allows Palestine to participate in UN meetings and join certain international treaties and organizations.

On November 29, 2012, the United Nations passed resolution 67/19, upgrading Palestine to a "non-member observer state" status, similar to the Holy See. This change was seen as de facto recognition of the sovereign State of Palestine. The vote had 138 in favor, 9 against (including Canada, Czech Republic, Israel, and the United States), and 41 abstentions. The new status allows Palestine to join treaties, specialized UN agencies, and pursue legal rights over its territorial waters and airspace. The UN has permitted Palestine to title its representative office as "The Permanent Observer Mission of the State of Palestine to the United Nations," reflecting the UN's recognition of Palestine's sovereignty.

International Recognition

On November 29, 2012, the United Nations General Assembly passed Resolution 67/19 with a vote of 138-9 (with 41 abstentions and 5 absences), upgrading Palestine's status from an "observer entity" to a "non-member observer state" within the United Nations System. This decision was widely seen as recognition of the PLO's sovereignty. Palestine's new status is equivalent to that of the Holy See. The UN has authorized Palestine to designate its representative office to the UN as "The Permanent Observer Mission of the State of Palestine to the United Nations." Consequently, Palestine has instructed its diplomats to officially represent "The State of Palestine" rather than the Palestinian National Authority.

On December 17, 2012, UN Chief of Protocol Yeocheol Yoon declared that the designation of "State of Palestine" would be used by the Secretariat in all official UN documents, officially recognizing it as the state's official name for all UN purposes. A UN memorandum issued on December 21, 2012, discussed appropriate terminology to be used following the adoption of Resolution 67/19. It stated that there were no legal obstacles to using the designation "Palestine" to refer to the geographical area of the Palestinian territory. Additionally, it was clarified that the term "Occupied Palestinian Territory including East Jerusalem" or any other customary terminology used by the Assembly could continue to be used.

As of June 2, 2023, 139 out of 193 member states of the United Nations, accounting for 72% of the total, have recognized the State of Palestine. It is worth noting that some countries that do not formally recognize the State of Palestine still acknowledge the PLO as the representative of the Palestinian people. The PLO's Executive Committee has been authorized by the Palestinian National Council to carry out the functions of the government of the State of Palestine.

Occupation of the West Bank

Main article: Status of the West Bank

The West Bank is a significant territory in the State of Palestine, located on the east side of Israel. It covers an area of 5,655 km2 (2,183 sq mi) and is bordered by Israel to the north, south, and west. The status of the West Bank is a subject of ongoing dispute and contention between Israel and Palestine. Since the Six Day War of 1967, Israel has occupied the West Bank. After occupation, the Israeli government began building settlements to house Israeli citizens. Under law of the international community, these settlements are declared as illegal, but the government of Israel disputes this.

The international community recognizes the West Bank as a region currently under Israeli military occupation. The Israeli government refers to this area as the Judea and Samaria Area, which includes Jewish-majority civilian areas under Israeli administrative control in Area C of the West Bank, with the exception of East Jerusalem. Israeli authorities consider it one of their administrative regions for certain purposes. The United Nations have blacklisted many companies, used to operate in Israeli settlements of Area C.

The West Bank is characterized by its diverse population, which includes both Palestinians and Israeli settlers. The Palestinian Authority exercises varying degrees of administrative control over different areas in the West Bank, divided into three zones: Area A, under full Palestinian civil and security control; Area B, under Palestinian civil control and joint Israeli-Palestinian security control; and Area C, under full Israeli control. Area C constitutes the majority of the West Bank's land and contains Israeli settlements, military installations, and natural resources.

The status of the West Bank is a central issue in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and the quest for a two-state solution. Palestinians seek the establishment of an independent and sovereign Palestinian state in the West Bank, with East Jerusalem as its capital. However, the presence of Israeli settlements, security barriers, and restrictions on Palestinian movement and development have complicated the realization of this goal. Negotiations and diplomatic efforts continue to shape the status of the West Bank and determine its future within the broader context of Israeli-Palestinian relations.

Status of Jerusalem (!)

Main article: Status of Jerusalem

Consulate General of France Jerusalem

Jerusalem holds immense political, cultural, and religious significance in the Middle East and remains a contentious issue in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Israel claims Jerusalem as its capital, but this is not universally recognized by the international community. The city is home to important religious sites for Judaism, Islam, and Christianity. The control and administration of Jerusalem are complex, with Israel governing West Jerusalem and the Palestinian Authority seeking to establish its capital in East Jerusalem. The status of Jerusalem remains a major point of contention in the Israeli-Palestinian peace process.

Orient House, former headquarters of PLO

The United Nations initially proposed Jerusalem as an international city (Corpus separatum), but after its rejection and the 1948 war, West and East Jerusalem came under Israeli and Jordanian control, respectively. Following the Six-Day War in 1967, Israel took full control of Jerusalem and began establishing settlements, which are considered illegal by the international community. In 1980, Israel passed the Jerusalem Law, declaring the entire city as its unified capital, despite the lack of international recognition for its sovereignty over East Jerusalem.

For Palestinians, East Jerusalem is considered their capital, although it was not included in the Oslo Accords. Parts of East Jerusalem and surrounding suburban areas were allocated to the Palestinian Authority. Some neighborhoods, such as Jabal Mukaber, Sur Baher, Umm Tuba, Al-Ram, Beit Hanina, Kafr Aqab, Arab al-Jahalin, and Al-Walaja, fall under either Area A or Area B, giving the Palestinian Authority varying degrees of control. Suburban areas of the Jerusalem Governorate, including Hizma, Abu Dis, Bir Nabala, Eizariya, Qubeida, Biddu, Sawahira, and other villages, were included in the Oslo Accords and designated as part of the Palestinian Authority's jurisdiction. Jordan has been granted custodianship over Muslim sites in Jerusalem.

In 2000, a building was constructed in Abu Dis to house the Palestinian Legislative Council, but due to the intifada and the erection of barriers, the plan was never fully realized, leaving Abu Dis as a poorly controlled town. The Palestinian Ministry of Interior has an office in Abu Dis, and the Consulate Generals of France and the United Kingdom in Jerusalem serve Palestine rather than Israel. The Palestinian Authority also has an office located in the Dahiyat Al Barid neighborhood of Jerusalem.

Despite being under occupation, Palestinians have managed to maintain their presence in Jerusalem in various aspects.

Geography

Jordan River is a major river flows the Palestinian territories

The State of Palestine is officially comprised of two non-contiguous territories, the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, located on the east and west sides of Israel, respectively. The West Bank covers an area of 5,655 km² (2,183 sq mi) and includes East Jerusalem, spanning 70 km² (27 sq mi). The Gaza Strip occupies an area of 365 km² (141 sq mi). The West Bank is bordered by Israel to the north, south, and west, and the Red Sea to the east. The Gaza Strip is bordered by Israel to the east and north, Egypt to the south, and the Mediterranean Sea to the west.

The highest point in Palestine is Mount Nabi Yunis in the Hebron Governorate. The West Bank is characterized by mountains such as Mount Gerizim, Nabi Samwil, and Mount Scopus. Jerusalem is situated in the mountainous range of Judea. The region of Samaria, which holds historical significance to Samaritans, extends into both Israel and Palestine, with the city of Nablus located nearby. In Arabic, Samaria is known as Samira and Jabal Nablus. Judea, Samaria, and Galilee (in Israel and Lebanon) are considered biblical regions and hold sacred importance for Samaritans, Jews and Christians.

The Jordan River, the largest river in Palestinian territory, flows along the eastern border of Palestine and Israel. It holds great significance in Christianity and Judaism, as it is where Jesus was baptized by John the Baptist (Yahya bin Zakaria). The Dead Sea, which borders the West Bank, is known as the lowest point on Earth. The territories also feature numerous wadis (dry riverbeds).

The Levant Basin in the Mediterranean Sea, spanning Egypt, Israel, Lebanon, Syria, and Palestine, contains substantial oil and gas reserves. The natural gas reserves falling under Palestinian territory in the Gaza Strip are known as Gaza Marine. Additionally, the occupied territories hold significant mineral reserves, including limestone, quarries, and silicon.

Biodiversity

Main article: Biodiversity in Palestine

Palestine's total number of species accounts 3% of world's biodiversity. Out of 48 natural reserves of West Bank, 13 reserves are administered by Palestinian Authority and remaining falls under under Israeli administered Area C. Mount of Olives and Wadi Al-Quf are important sites.

Economy (!)

Main article: Economy of Palestine

Palestine is classified as a lower/middle–income developing country, by the International Monetary Fund. The country is not included among least developed countries. In 2016, UNCTAD reported a 4.1% economic growth in Palestine. Paris Protocol, signed in 1994, made Palestinian Authority to collect taxes. But it prohibits the country to have its own currency. Around 35% of the economy is contributed by East Jerusalem–Bethlehem–Ramallah metropolitan area. While the largest share of economy comes from Hebron, which is 45% of the country's total GDP.

Since 1970s, Palestine experienced a favorable economic growth. During labor integration period, country's economic growth was greater than majority of Arab countries. For 30 years, Israel gave employment to Palestinians. Not only in Israel, but in other countries such as Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Kuwait and Libya. This economic growth was not affected badly by regional wars and conflicts in the Middle East, such as Egyptian–Libyan War, Iran–Iraq War and Gulf War. The signing of the Oslo Accords in 1993, gave Palestinian a self governing authority. Today's Gaza was then a hub for tourism and manufacturing, where many international brands had investment plans. Airports at Gaza and Jerusalem, also added an additional factor for economic development. This economic growth was interrupted by the second intifada, which began in September 2000.

Manufacturing and industry

Since 1990s, high–tech industry emerged in the Palestinian territories, supported by its close proximity to Israel. The Palestinian IT sector contributes around 5% of the total GDP. Companies including Alcatel-Lucent, AT&T, Microsoft, Freightos, Intuit, Natural Intelligence, Unity, Nvidia, Synamedia, Intel and Dell Technologies outsource to Palestinian engineers.

Demographics

Cities and towns

Economy (II)

Main article: Economy of Palestine

East Jerusalem–Ramallah–Bethlehem metropolitan area contributes 35% of the national economy

Palestine is classified as a middle–income developing country by the IMF. The current GDP is estimated to be around US$40 billion. Since its high literacy, Palestinians have maintained a positive image in the economic society. Palestine holds huge potential in industrial development. Due to its political status and territorial disputes, the Palestinian economy suffers. Being in conflict with Israel, much of its economy is dependent on Israel. Recent reforms have tried to bring down the country's dependency on Israel and has been gradually emerging. Despite of being in conflict, the economic condition of Palestinian territories (specially West Bank) is moderate. In 2021, Palestine recorded high HDI with 100th rank.

Since 1970s, Palestine experienced a favorable economic growth, due to labor integration with Israel. That period marked transfer of goods and capitals in Palestine. During this period, the economy was greater than Arab countries. This growth was hampered by second intifada, which broke out in September 2000. In intifada period, much of Palestine's infrastructure was destroyed by Israel during its military operations. After victory and gaining control of the Gaza Strip by Hamas, the territory was affected by an economic sanction. Due to security concerns, Israel imposed a total blockade, affecting the economy. Since then, movement of goods to Gaza is controlled by Israeli government. By 2008, new economic reforms have resulted in an economic boom, with development of shopping malls, luxury hotels, technology parks and industrial zones.

Paris Protocol signed in 1994, have prohibited Palestinian Authority having their own currency. By which, Israeli shekel and Jordanian dinar are accepted in Palestinian territories. Israel has also imposed economic restriction and developed checkpoints, which hardens the movement of goods within Palestine. A large number of checkpoints by Israel on Palestinian enclaves, have affected movement of goods. In 2002, Israel constructed a barrier surrounding Palestinian areas of the West Bank. This move further caused difficulties in economy.

Palestine's major trade partners are Israel, Jordan, Egypt, the United States, Germany, Saudi Arabia and Qatar. Major exports from Palestine are cement, building materials, plastic products, chemicals, apparels and textiles. Palestine's main industries are cement, textiles, leather, plastics, chemicals and electronics. East Jerusalem metropolitan area, which includes Ramallah and Bethlehem, contributes 35% of the total economy of Palestine. Recent discoveries of oil and gas reserves in the territory have increased Palestine's potential as an industrial hub.

Agriculture

Main article: Agriculture in Palestine

During Ottoman period, Palestine was an agrarian society. For centuries, Palestine have been popular for manufacture of olive oil and products by olive trees. Olive trees, are more than centuries old. West Bank have a green area, which is suitable for cultivation of crops.

Manufacturing

An industrial area in Hebron

Production have been dropped since second intifada. During the period of labor integration, Palestine had a strong industrial base, specially in cities of Gaza and Jerusalem. In 1981, Palestine reported highest export in its history, worth of US$1 billion. Israeli settler built a large number of greenhouses, which also employed Palestinians. Palestinian–Israeli labor integration helped in growth of manufacturing industry of Palestine. Jerusalem and Gaza were industrial base for Palestinians. Second intifada brought clashes between Israelis and Palestinians and production went down.

Palestinian Authority, in association with France, Germy, Japan and Israel, have built industrial cities in Bethlehem, Jenin, Jericho, Hebron and Gaza. Multinational companies such as Schneider Electric, Pepsi, Coca-Cola and Sinokrot have their facilities in Palestinian territories.

The tech boom of late 1990s, helped in economic recovery of the country. High–tech industry resulted in Israeli–Palestinian economic cooperation, backed by Western countries' entities. Palestine have emerged as an outsourcing hub in the Middle East. Ramallah, Jerusalem, Hebron and now Gaza, have emerged as centers for technology industry. Companies including Alcatel-Lucent, Intel Corporation, Google, Microsoft, Cisco, Natural Intelligence, Freightos, Volvo, Nvidia and Mellanox Technologies have outsourcing operations in Palestine.

Hebron, known as most advanced industrial city in Palestine, is largest export hub of Palestine and is home to limestone quarries. The city is widely known for its plastic industry. Silica reserves are found in Gaza Strip. Occupied part of the West Bank have mineral reserves. In 2000, a massive oil and gas field was discovered in offshore of Gaza Strip. Yasser Arafat lauded this discovery as a gift from God. The gas field named as Gaza Marine contains 32 trillion cubic feet of natural gas. Gaza Marine part of Levant Basin, is spread across Egypt, Israel, Palestine, Lebanon and Syria. Additionally, around 1 billion barrels of oil reserves have been discovered in Gaza. According to a UNCTAD report, the occupied territory of Palestine (West Bank) holds 1,250 billion barrels of oil reserves in the Meged oil field. The oil field falls 80% on land controlled by the Palestinian Authority.

Tourism

Main article: Tourism in Palestine

Due to religious significance, cities of Jerusalem, Bethlehem and Hebron have been touristic sites. Jerusalem is fabl

Jerusalem is most visited Palestinian city, because Jewish pilgrimage and historic tours. Tomb of Lazarus, located in Al-Eizariya is important site for

Infrastructure (!)

Transport

A multilingual signboard in Hebron Governorate

Most of the transport system was destroyed by Israel in second intifada. Before intifada, Palestine had air and road transport. First airport of Palestine was established by the British Government during 1920s in Jerusalem. The second airport was developed at Gaza, which was later named as Yasser Arafat International Airport. In Israeli settlement block of Gush Katif, also had an airport. In beginning of the intifada, Jerusalem Airport and Gaza Airport ceased operations in 2000, the latter one was destroyed in an airstrike by IDF in 2001. Gush Katif Airport managed to operate till 2004. Since then, no any airport operates within the Palestinian territories. Currently, Palestinians are served by Ben Gurion Airport in Tel Aviv and Ramon Airport in Be'er Ora in Israel and Queen Alia International Airport in Amman, Jordan.

In the mid 1990s, Palestinian Authority began constructing a large seaport, jointly with the Netherlands and France. In 2021, then Prime Minister of Israel, Naftali Bennett launched a development plan of Gaza, which includes an artificial island, consisting of airport and seaport.

Culture (!)

Religious significance

Palestine is part of a region, known as Holy Land to Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Islam and Christianity, as well considered in Samaritanism, Mandaeism and Druze. Not only Palestine, but also Israel and wider Syria is sometimes considered part of Holy Land. Religious significance of the region mainly lies in Jerusalem, where peoples of different religions maintained their society. Jerusalem (Al–Quds) is considered holy among Christians, Jews and Muslims and as well as to Mandaens.

Temple in Jerusalem makes the city significant to Jews. Remaining part of destroyed temple is Western Wall, which is holiest site in Judaism. Other prominent Jewish sites includes City of David, Mount Zion, Pool of Siloam and Silwan necropolis. According to Christianity, their central figure Jesus spent his life in Jerusalem. He was crucified in Golgotha, which is outside of Jerusalem. Eizariya is well–known for location of Tomb of Lazarus. Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron, is 3rd holiest site in Judaism, where cenotaph of Abraham is situated.

In Islamic context, the Night Journey of Muhammad, considered as one of the greatest night began from Makkah via Jerusalem. The first qibla was towards Al-Aqsa Mosque, which is third most holiest site in Islam, after Masjid al-Haram (Mecca) and Prophet's Mosque (Medina). According to Islamic sources, Moses (Musa) was buried, known today as Nabi Musa in Jericho. A large mosque, named as Ibrahimi Masjid is located in Cave of the Patriarchs, side–by–side the cenotaph of Abraham.

Jesus, central figure of Christianity, believed to spent his life in Jerusalem and was crucified at Calvary, which is outside of Jerusalem.

Economy (I)

Main article: Economy of Palestine

Around 35% of Palestine's economy is produced in East Jerusalem—Bethlehem—Ramallah metropolitan area

Palestine is classified as a middle income-developing country and is not included in the least developed countries. The economic value is estimated around US$40 billion (PPP) by the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Due to ongoing conflict, the economic conditions are not highly great but is moderate. Palestinian economy is moderately well.

Since 1970s, Palestine experienced a favorable economic growth. The opening of Israeli market to Palestinian labor force positively affected the national economy. For 30 years, Israel permitted working of Palestinians in its districts. At that time, economic growth of Palestine was even higher than Arab states. Also supporting infrastructure used to be at that time. In cities like, Jerusalem and Gaza, Palestinians had businesses either joint or independent. A large number of Palestinians also worked in countries like Libya, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Iraq. Though regional wars and conflicts in the Middle East, such as Kuwait war, Iran–Iraq War and Gulf War which did not affect it much. Broke out of Second Intifada in September 2000, dropped production and destroyed industrial bases in Gaza and Jerusalem. After conflict of Hamas and Fatah on lands of Gaza, Israel and Egypt's blockade has also worsen the Gaza's economy.

Since 2010, the economic reform have resulted a economic boom in the West Bank and even Gaza Strip. A large number of shopping malls, luxury hotels and industrial zones have been developed in Palestinian territories. An airport is also proposed to built in Jerusalem, for both Palestinians and Israelis. Recent discoveries of oil and gas in region gave good hope of Palestine's economy.

Manufacturing and industry

Cities like Jerusalem and Gaza was a manufacturing hub. A large number of greenhouses were developed by Israeli settlers in Gaza, which employed Gaza Palestinians. Even in disputed parts of East Jerusalem, Atarot was a booming industrial center for both Palestinians and Israelis. After intifada, production dropped in Palestine. It gained momentum by 2010.

An industrial area in Hebron

Hebron is industrially most advanced city in the country. It is export hub for Palestine's manufactured goods. Main products exported from Palestine are olive oils, cements and concretes, iron, steels and minerals. Hebron Governorate has limestone quarries, textile factories and plastic industry. Nablus is widely known for its Nablus Soap, which have been a traditional product. An aluminum plant of NAPCO is located in Nablus. Some of the multinational corporations that operate in Palestinian territories includes Pepsi, Coca-Cola, Sinokrot Holdings, Astra Mining and Schneider Electric. Apart from these foreign companies, a large number of Palestinian companies like Sinokrot, PADICO and NAPCO have gain success in establishing manufacturing operations in within the country.

Since 1999, Palestine experienced a growth in high technology industry, supported by its close proximity to Israel. Economic collaborations and joint cooperation between Israelis and Palestinians have prioritized technology, as a top sector. To support the industry, technology parks have been established in cities of Ramallah, Hebron, Gaza and East Jerusalem. Palestine have emerged as an outsourcing hub for multinational companies. A large number of companies including Alcatel-Lucent, Mellanox Technologies, Nvidia, Natural Intelligence, Cisco, Google, Microsoft, Apple and Volvo have been outsourcing and working with Palestinians engineers.

The Palestinian Authority have established industrial zone in Gaza, Jericho, Jenin, Bethlehem and Hebron. An industrial city is proposed in Gaza to reduce unemployment rate in the territory. Their are also many Israeli—Palestinian joint industrial parks, located in the border of Palestine territories and Israel. Notable among them includes Erez and Atarot. A cement plant is under construction in Jericho. In 1999, Israeli industrialist Stef Wertheimer proposed an industrial park in Rafah. But the 2000 intifada delayed the project. The project is planned to restart again, as per Wertheimer.

According to a 2019 UN report, it is estimated that over 3 billion barrels of oil exist off the coast and beneath the occupied lands of Palestine. Additionally, the Levant Basin in the Mediterranean is believed to hold approximately 1.7 billion barrels of oil, with over 1.5 billion barrels estimated to lie beneath the occupied West Bank area. Overall Palestinian territories have 1,525 billion barrels of proven oil reserves.

Tourism

Tourism, specially religious tourism and pilgrimage visits have boosted the tourism sector of Palestine. A large number of historic palaces, religious sites and natural reserves are located. Due to religious significance of cities like Hebron, Jerusalem and Bethlehem have attracted millions of tourists annually.

The tourism sector led development of luxury hotels, with some of them of international brands such as Accor, Mövenpick Hotels & Resorts and Marriott International. After 2000 intifada, once again, Palestinian economy in Jerusalem in the tourism sector have experienced growth with establishment of luxury hotels and shopping malls. However, due to territorial disputes, tourists often faced problems. Bethlehem is a major pilgrimage site for Christians, specially known as birthplace of Jesus and location of Church of the Nativity.

Many luxury hotels in Palestinian territories are owned by international brands, to name a few, which includes Mövenpick Hotels & Resorts,

Cisco. Many companies have been invested by.

Infrastructure

Transport

Main article: Transport in the State of Palestine

See also: List of Airports in Palestine, Railways in Palestine, and Port of Gaza

Beacon fishermen port in Gaza City

Jerusalem International Airport's old terminal in Atarot (Qalandia)

Palestine had a well developed transport system before 2000 intifada. There were well developed roads and functioning airports. The first airport was in Jerusalem Second airport was opened in Gaza in 1998. In 2001 , Gaza Airport was destroyed in an airstrike by IDF. Prior the bombardment, Gush Katif Airport managed to handle air traffic until 2004. Since then no airport is operational in Palestine.

In recent years many new proposals have been made to develop airports and seaports in Palestinian territories to ease the transport. New transport and infrastructure projects have been proposed by the Palestinian Authority.

In 2021, a new proposal have been made by the Israeli government and Palestinian Authority to develop joint Palestinian — Israeli airport on former site in Atarot. in this project, a new terminal will be built for Palestinians. In 2017, then Israeli transport minister Israel Katz, made a proposal to build an artificial island off the Gaza Strip which will house an airport and seaport. The project was later supported by Naftali Bennett.

Palestine Authority prepared a proposal to construct two international airports in West Bank, one at Jericho and the other one in Area C. The proposal also includes development of seaport in Gaza and erection of railway lines from Egypt to Gaza.

Development

See also: Gaza Development Plan

Main highway to Jerusalem through Al-Ram—Atarot industrial zone

Around 74% of the Palestinian population lives in urban areas. Cities like Jerusalem, Ramallah, Gaza, Bethlehem, Nablus and Hebron are well developed with availability of all basic amenities.

East Jerusalem faces poor management and civic problems, specially in the Arabian sector. Jerusalem Municipality of Israel rejected managing Palestinian areas of the city and proposing to transfer these area's sovereignty to Palestinian Authority. However, a number of Palestinians are working to increase Palestinian presence in Jerusalem. Some well-known businessman have built new projects of housing complex, shopping malls, luxury hotels and industrial zone.

Due to terrorist designation of Hamas by some countries and blockade of the movement of goods including building materials are controlled by Israel. Though Gaza is well developed having tall skyscrapers and shopping malls. A development plan for Gaza was proposed by 36th Israeli government under Bennett. The project was divided into two phases. First phase consists of construction of desalination plant and natural gas pipelines and maintenance of electrical transmission and power lines. Next phase will develop an artificial island and a road connecting Gaza Strip and West Bank.

Bashar Masri, a Palestinian industrialist have built the country's first planned city near Ramallah which is Rawabi. This city is in Area A, which completely falls under Palestinian control of government. So the project does not required a permission or approval from the Israeli government. However, the water source for the town crosses through Israeli managed areas and Israeli districts. During construction, Rawabi Contractors needed to get approval from the Israeli government for water sources.

Many new high rises and skyscrapers are upcoming in West Bank and Gaza Strip. Currently, the tallest building in Palestinian territories is Palestine Trade Tower in Ramallah. Al Ghefari Residential Tower is the tallest building. Recent years saw construction boom in Gaza.

Energy

There are only two power plants in Palestine.

Al-Quds University is in the process of setting up a solar power plant near campus in Abu Dis to provide electricity for Palestinian residents of Jerusalem.

Word

• Eleutheromaniac
• Verdant
• Skosh
• Irenic
• Inchoate
• Serendipity
• Mizzle
• Melee
• Rectitude
• Quiescent tranquil
• Clinquant
• Halycon
• Vagary
• Crayer
• Eudaimonia
• Oriflamme

Infrastructure (I)

Palestine does not have a highly developed infrastructure.

Transport

There are three airports in the country, none of them are active now. Jerusalem International Airport was the first airport in Palestine. Based on Green Line, the airport falls under Palestinian part, which is occupied by Israel. Gaza Airport was established in 1998, for serving citizens of Gaza. It was named after Yasser Arafat as Yasser Arafat International Airport. An another airport was at Israeli settlement of Gush Katif in Gaza. All these airports ceased operation in the second intifada, while Gaza Airport was destroyed by Israel in 2001. Gush Katif Airport managed to be operational until 2004.

Port of Gaza is the only port in Palestine. Due to blockade by Israel, the movement of goods through port have become difficult. It houses

Mohamed Abusal, a Palestinian artist have proposed a metro project for Gaza.

Since defuncting of airports, many proposals have came to develop airports. In 2011, Palestinian Authority

Australian entrepreneur Kevin Bermeister have supported and planned to invest in a proposed international airport in Jericho.

Energy

Energy is a major concern in infrastructure of Palestine. Their are two power plants in Palestine, the Gaza Power Plant for Gaza Strip and Jenin Power Plant for the West Bank. A solar power facility was developed in Gaza to provide electricity to 80% of Gaza Industrial Estate, which was destroyed in recent war. Al-Quds University is in a process of setting up a solar power plant in Abu Dis in Jerusalem providing power to city's Palestinian residents. Jerusalem Electricity Company is a Palestinian agency for providing electricity in Palestinian areas of Jerusalem.

Education

Main article: Education in Palestine

Al-Quds University — the first Palestinian university in Jerusalem

As of 2022, Palestine had a literacy rate of 97.7% and is very high according to international standards. It is compulsory for every Palestinian to qualified atleast class 10. According to a governmental survey, their are 11 universities and 11 technical colleges. Additionally, their are 19 community colleges. The Ministry of Education and Higher Education was established in 1994, as a responsible for education management in the country. Educational levels are divided into three phases — Primary, Secondary and Higher. Apart from this, vocational and technical courses are also pursued by students.

An-Najah National University in Nablus was highly ranked Palestinian university. Some of the well–known universities include Al-Quds University, Palestine Polytechnic University, University of Palestine, Islamic University of Gaza, Al-Aqsa University, Hebron University, Birzeit University, University College of Applied Sciences and Ibrahimieh College. Al Aqsa University, established in 1955 in Gaza is largest university of Palestine. Al–Quds University is first Palestinian university of Jerusalem, followed by Ibrahimieh College.

UNRWA has established a large number of schools and institutes in refugee camps of Palestinian territories. Apart from colleges and universities, a large number of research institutes have been setup in Jerusalem conducting research on history of the country.

Demographics

Population

Palestine is 16th most densely populated country in the world and most densely populated in the Middle East after Bahrain. The population of Palestine based on 2016 census is

Cities and towns

Main articles: List of cities administered by the Palestinian Authority, List of cities administered by Hamas Administration, and List of cities in Palestine

There are three largest cities in Palestine: Gaza, East Jerusalem and Hebron. Other major cities includes Ramallah, Bethlehem and Nablus. Gaza is largest city in Palestine, with a population of 555,000 and is one of the most densely populated places in world. Hebron is the largest city in West Bank and is known as commercial hub for both Palestine and Israel.

Largest cities or towns in {{{country}}} Source?
	Rank		Administrative division	Pop.
Gaza East Jerusalem	1	Gaza	Gaza Governorate	{{{pop_1}}}	Hebron Nablus
	2	East Jerusalem	Quds Governorate	{{{pop_2}}}
	3	Hebron	[[{{{div_3}}}]]	{{{pop_3}}}
	4	Nablus	[[{{{div_4}}}]]	{{{pop_4}}}
	5	[[{{{city_5}}}]]	[[{{{div_5}}}]]	{{{pop_5}}}
	6	[[{{{city_6}}}]]	[[{{{div_6}}}]]	{{{pop_6}}}
	7	[[{{{city_7}}}]]	[[{{{div_7}}}]]	{{{pop_7}}}
	8	[[{{{city_8}}}]]	[[{{{div_8}}}]]	{{{pop_8}}}
	9	[[{{{city_9}}}]]	[[{{{div_9}}}]]	{{{pop_9}}}
	10	[[{{{city_10}}}]]	[[{{{div_10}}}]]	{{{pop_10}}}

Culture

Arts and Literature

Mahmoud Darwish — one of the legendary names in Palestinian lterature

Some of legendary Palestinian poets and writers include Mahmoud Darwish, Ghassan Kanafani and Samih al-Qasim. Mahmoud Darwish is viewed as one of the most influential and legendary Palestinian poets. He played a major role in Palestinian nationalism and formation and is one of the most prominent Palestinian figures. During major wars of Palestine, the Palestinian Resistance Literature helped in maintaining Palestinian identity. Miral inspired by a novel on Hind al-Husseini, was written by Rula Jebreal.

Religious culture

Portrait of Yasser Arafat at a billboard in Ramallah

Palestinian cities of Jerusalem, Bethlehem and Hebron are widely regarded among peoples of all Abrahamic religions. It holds historical significance to world's major religions — Christianity, Islam and Judaism. The Palestine region is also known as Holy Land among Christians, Muslims and Jews.

Jerusalem (Yerusalem or Al-Quds) is considered holy for all Christians, Muslims and Jews. The Temple Mount (Haram Al-Sharif) is the place in Jerusalem where holy places of three religions are located. For Jewish peoples, it is the holiest site. The First and Second temples used to be in Jerusalem which was holy for Israelites (Jews). Instead of those temples, the Western Wall stands today as holiest site in Judaism. Some of the old synagogues are in Jerusalem. A large Jewish graveyard is near the Mount of Olives. For Muslims, Jerusalem stands as next holy city after Makkah and Madinah. Al Aqsa Mosque is holiest mosque after Masjid Al Haram (Mecca) and Prophet's Mosque (Medina). The first Qibla was at Al Aqsa Mosque. Later the Qibla was directed towards Al Haram in Makkah. Prophet Muhammad made his travel to heaven through Jerusalem and Hebron. The Night Journey of Muhammad is considered one of the greatest nights according to Islam. In Christianity, Church of the Holy Sepulchre is most holy site. Jesus is believed to spent his life and preached in Jerusalem. He was crucified in Golgotha near Jerusalem. Tomb of Lazarus is place of pilgrimage for Christians in Bethany (Al Eizariya). In Mandaeism, chief prophet John the Baptist was born in Jerusalem. Mandaeans follows the holy scripture of Ginza Rabba, which accounts about presence of John the Baptist, Miriai, Jacob, Benjamin, Anush Uthra and Hibil Ziwa in Jerusalem.

Bethlehem (Bayt Lahm) is considered sacred in Christianity. It is known as the birthplace of Biblical prophet Jesus (Isa). The Church of the Nativity is a basilica located in Bethlehem, which is a popular pilgrimage site for Christians. Other important sites for Christians in city are St. George's Monastery, Al-Khader and Church of Saint Catherine. The city has the highest population of Palestinian Christians. Every year, Palestinian Christians observe Christmas and decorate the city center with a large Christmas tree. The city is mentioned in Bible, Tanakh and Gospel.

Hebron (Al Khalil or Hevron), on other hands is second most holy city for Jews after Jerusalem. As per some sources, it is next holy city in Islam after Makkah, Madinah, Jerusalem and Damascus. The Cave of the Patriarchs (Ibrahimi Mosque) is a very important site for Jews and Muslim. To Muslims it is known as Cave of Machpelah (Ma'arat ha Macheplah) and for Muslims it is known as the Noble Sanctuary of Abraham (Haram Al-Ibrahimi). It is known as burial site of Biblical prophet Abraham (Ibrahim) along with Sarah, Isaac (Ishaq), Rebecca. The grave of Abraham is at center surrounded both sides by a mosque and a synagogue. The Avraham Avinu Synagogue is an old synagogue located at the Jewish Quarter in Old City of Hebron. Prophet Muhammad also travelled through Hebron in his night journey (Isra' and Mi'raj), prayed at the mosque and payed respect to Abraham. Some of the old mosques are in Hebron built during the Mamluk Sultanate and Ottoman Empire.

• Religious significance of Palestine
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  Al-Aqsa Mosque, Jerusalem
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  Western Wall, Jerusalem
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  Christmas night in Jerusalem
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  Ramadan night bazar in Jerusalem
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  Avraham Avinu Synagogue in Hebron
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  Syriac-Aramean scouts in Bethlehem
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  Christmas celebration in Church of the Nativity, Bethlehem

Sport

Main articles: Sports in Palestine and History of sport in Palestine

Crowd at Faisal Al-Husseini Stadium, East Jerusalem

Palestine have participated in a number of multi–sport events which includes Asian Games, Asian Winter Games, Islamic Solidarity Games, the Olympic Games, Paralympic Games, World Athletics Championships, World Aquatics Championships, Universiade and Youth Olympic Games. Palestine have been part of Olympic Council of Asia since 1986 and International Olympic Committee since 1995. The Palestinian Olympic Committee have participated in the 1996 Summer Olympics, 2012 Olympic Games and 2013 Mediterranean Games.

Football is popular allover Palestine just like other Arab countries in the Middle East. It is considered as national sport by the Palestinians. Palestine national football team is governed by the Palestinian Football Association and represent the country in association football. There are two football leagues — West Bank League (also known as Palestinian Premier League) and Gaza Strip League. Oday Dabbagh became first Palestinian footballer to play in Europe's top league.

Though there are many sporting facilities in the country such as stadiums, clubs and playgrounds. Faisal Al-Husseini International Stadium is a large international stadium in Jerusalem which is home to Hilal Al-Quds Club. Palestine Stadium in Gaza is home to Palestine national football team.

Food and cuisine

Albaik, the most popular fast-food chain in Muslim world was founded by Shakour Abu Ghazalah, a Palestinian–Saudi businessman.

Literature

Mahmoud Darwish wrote the Palestinian declaration of independence in 1988.

Architecture

Palestinian architecture is diverse with elements of both historic and modern types. Jerusalem stone, manufactured in the West Bank, dominates historic structures in Jerusalem. These structures also include the Western Wall, holiest site for Jews. Jerusalem is home to many buildings based on Islamic architecture. Islamic architecture ranges from kingdoms to kingdoms. Some examples of Umayyad architecture are Al-Aqsa Mosque, Dome of the Rock and Dome of the Chain in Jerusalem.

Arrival of modern architecture marked by development of skyscrapers, shopping malls and office spaces. Skylines of Ramallah, Gaza and Jerusalem is dominated by high–rise skyscrapers. Palestine Trade Tower in Ramallah is tallest building in Palestine, followed by Abraj House, in same city. Rawabi is the first planned city of Palestine.

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  Manara Clock Tower, Nablus – An Ottoman structure
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  Great Mosque of Gaza
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  A shopping mall in Hebron
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  American Colony Hotel of Jerusalem in night
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  Modern skyline dominated by high–rises in Kafr 'Aqab area of East Jerusalem
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Culture (I)

Jerusalem is fabled city, due to its religious significance.

Economy of Hebron

Main article: Economy of Hebron

Hebron is a leading commercial and industrial center of Palestine. Being 2nd largest city in the West Bank, Hebron have emerged as largest economic hub in the country. Despite experiencing communal violence, trade relations between Israelis and Palestinians in Hebron is strong.

Horizon

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Palestine, officially known as the State of Palestine is a nation state located in the Levantine region of Middle East. The state officially consists of two territories — the West Bank and Gaza Strip. The capital of the state is East Jerusalem, with the government temporarily based in Ramallah. The government is a mixed presidential and parliamentary system.

Population of Palestine is estimated at 4.55 million people, with an average population density of 731 people per km2. Peoples of Palestinians The most populous city is Gaza. Other major cities includes East Jerusalem, Hebron, Nablus and Ramallah etc.

, with 750,000 residents according to recent estimates. The majority of the Palestinian population are Muslims (93%), mostly of the Sunni branch. There is also a significant minority of Christians (6%) and smaller minorities of Samaritans and Druze. Palestinian Arabic, a distinct dialect subgroup of Levantine Arabic, is the most widely spoken language in Palestine. The most common second language is English.

Economy

Jharkhand is one of the most industrialized states of India. The economic value of the state is estimated around US$ 50 billion (PPP GDP). It is one of the developing states of India. The state is with the plethora of mineral resources.

State of Palestine

Palestine, officially known as the State of Palestine is a state in the Levantine region of Middle East. It consists of two non contiguous territories — the West Bank (including East Jerusalem) and Gaza Strip. East Jerusalem is claimed as the capital of state. Palestine's two territories are on the west and easternmost sides of Israel and also share borders with Egypt and Jordan. The population of state is estimated to be of five million peoples. While two million peoples seeking refuge in Jordan and Egypt.

The history of the state centered around world's three major and Abrahamic religions — Christianity, Islam and Judaism. The cities of Jerusalem and Hebron are considered as third and fourth most holiest site for Islam respectively. It is part of region of Palestine which have been ruled by various kingdoms and dynasties including Roman Empire, Crusaders, Babylonians, Rashidun Caliphate, Ottoman Empire and Ayyubid dynasty. After the world war I, the Ottoman lose Palestine to British who formed Mandatory Palestine existed till 1948. In 1967 war, Israel occupied the West Bank including East Jerusalem. In 1988, Palestine declared its independence by Yasser Arafat.

Palestine is affected due to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and Israeli occupation of West Bank including East Jerusalem. To end the conflict peace talks such as Oslo Accords, 2000 Camp David Summit and Road map for peace took place. Due to Israeli occupation, the Palestinian economy have severely affected. In recent years several peaceful economic conferences between of Israel, Jordan and other Muslim countries with Palestine have been organized in order to promote trade between the two countries.

State of Palestine

Palestine, officially known as the State of Palestine is a nation state located in the Levantine region of Middle East. The state officially consists of two territories — the West Bank and Gaza Strip. The capital of the state is East Jerusalem, with the government temporarily based in Ramallah. The government is a mixed presidential and parliamentary system.

History

Early history: Jewish Influence

Kingdom of Israel in Samaria and the Kingdom of Judah The map shows the region in the 9th century BCE.

Present region of Palestine is known as the Holy Land to Christians, Muslims and Jews. The very much early history follows the establishment of ancient religious kingdoms and dynasties of Jews, Muslims, Christians and other religious communities. Kingdom of Judah and Kingdom of Israel.

Entire Palestine region is home to biblical cities — Jerusalem, Hebron, Bethlehem, Capernaum, Beersheba, Mount Zion, Palmyra and Nazareth etc. Modern day countries of Israel and Palestine is located on the historical regions of Judea, Samaria and Galilee which are related to peoples of all Abrahamic religions. These places are mentioned in the Holy Bible. Samaria is known to Muslims by two names — Samira and Mount Nablus.

The Bani Israelis and Moses

The history of this place been revolving around the cities of Jerusalem, Hebron, Nazareth and other cities which have significance on world's three major and Abrahamic religions — Christianity, Islam and Judaism for more than 2000 years. This cities are considered historic in Islam while in Judaism and Bible it is referred as biblical city. Because their names have been mentioned in the holy Bible. The place was inhabited by Bani-Israel. They used to live in the holy land around Jerusalem and other biblical cities. The Bani Israelis were under the rule of Pharaoh. They used to be their slaves.

After arrival, Moses put efforts to free the Israelites (Jews) from the slavery of Pharoah. He was successful in freeing the last Bani Israeli from the slavery of Pharaoh. Their next plan was to access the control of Jerusalem. Jews under the slavery of Pharoah were weekend. They weren't much courageous and capable of fighting

Moses asked Israelites to help him in conquering Jerusalem and whole land. The Israelites refused to help Moses and said him to handle the situation alone. After that the god ordered Moses to stay with Bani Israelis in the desert for 40 years which is now as the Sinai Peninsula in modern Egypt. In between this period the Bani Israelis regained their power and courage to fight. Holy book Torah (known as Taurat in Islam) was revealed to Moses when he was in the Sinai peninsula. In Book of Genesis, its clearly written that the holy land belongs to both Israelites and Arabs.

Jews were finally formed under the leadership of Joshua. They conquered Palestine. But after some time this city and whole territory went out of their hands again. For the next 300 years the Bani Israelis could not capture the state and the city of Jerusalem.

First Temple

Main articles: Solomon's Temple and Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)

After 300 years Bani Israel captured this city under the leadership of David (known as Dawood in Islam). They conquered Jerusalem again. David laid foundation of building the First temple (known as Haikal e Sulaimani to Muslims) in Jerusalem for the peoples. Jews considered it as a place of worship. The construction of First Temple was completed under the leadership of Solomon. A box called Taboot E Sakina placed in the temple.

After Solomon, Jews ruled Jerusalem and Palestine for next 400 years. After 400 years, Neo-Babylonian Empire came to to power in Iraq. A very powerful empire had been formed, whose emperor Nebuchadnezzar II (known as Bakhtenasar for Muslims) attacked Palestine to expand his empire, destroyed the city of Jerusalem and martyred thousands of Jews. He also destroyed the temple which was built by Solomon. Remaining alive Jews were enslaved and took Iraq to their capital Babylon. Jews continue to enslave Iraq for 70 years.

Second Temple

After 70 years, Iraq was attacked by a noble king of Iran, Cyrus the Great and he is known as Zulqarnayn in the Holy Quran. Cyrus the Great conquered this kingdom and sent all the Jews who were here back. He also gave them funds to go back and rebuild the temple of Solomon, which was destroyed. They built the Second Temple. After which the Jews again ruled over Palestine for 400 years.

But they were attacked by an empire which expelled all the Jews from here for 600 years. This empire was none other than the Roman Empire and they did oppression on the Jews. The Jews also tried fight the Roman Empire, but the Roman Empire murdered thousands of Jews. The situation became so worse that the Jews started hiding from the Roman Empire, started living in prisons and the Roman Empire destroyed the Second Temple once again. After that this temple could not rebuilt till date. The Roman Empire ruled Jerusalem and Palestine for 600 years.

Islamic influence on Palestine

Rashidun Caliphate: Umar's accession to Jerusalem

Mosque of Omar, Jerusalem. From Archer and Kingsford's Story of the Crusades.

The Islamic religion and Caliphate spread so fast that within a few years both the Roman and Persian Empires were conquered. After which Khalifa Umar became the most powerful emperor in the world, whose rule was much bigger than the empire of Alexander the Great. After all, the Muslims reached the door of Jerusalem while conquering the Roman Empire. Muhammad, the last prophet of Islam stated that "One day Jerusalem will definitely be conquered by the Muslims. Muslims have two options — either destroy Jerusalem in the same way as other kings had done before or seize it.

Finally, after six months, Governor of Jerusalem — Sophronius said that he will hand over Jerusalem to Muslims only in one condition. That was Khalifa Umar himself should come and meet him. Then Khalid ibn al-Walid thought that why should the Khalifa of Islam be disturbed. So he himself impersonate as Umar and went to meet Sophronius. Because Khalid bin Walid's appearance was similar to Umar and height of both was exactly same. So Khalid bin Walid reached Jerusalem as Umar. But there was person who already met Umar. So he said it could not be Umar. Khalid was forced to do so.

Umar, that time's most powerful king had to leave for Jerusalem. Sophronius got ready wearing full luxury gold and silver jewelry. Because such a big king was coming to meet him. But Sophronius and whole Jerusalem was surprised to see that king's slave was sitting on the camel and the king himself was coming on foot in normal clothes. This scene was very shocking for the people of Palestine. Because, before him whenever any king had conquered Jerusalem, he had destroyed the city and killed many peoples.

Khalifa Umar conquered the city of Jerusalem and took control of entire Palestine. Without shedding anyone's blood, Sophronius handed over the territory to Umar. But he put a condition that, Muslims would not allow the Jews to enter the city of Jerusalem. But Umar did not accept the condition and Jews were also allowed to the Temple Mount. This was the first time when, the state came under control of Muslims. When Umar arrived in Jerusalem, he asked first about the church. After proper inspection of church when he was about to leave it was the time of Salah. The caretaker of Church suggested Umar to pray Salah at church. But he refused to pray at church. He said that if he pray at church, the Muslims will think of converting of church into a mosque which is wrong. Instead of praying their, he prayed at a place outside the church which is now known as the Mosque of Omar in Jerusalem.

Umar gave freedom to all religions. For almost 350 years Muslims, Christians and Jews started living in peace

Attack on Palestine by the Crusaders

350 years later, the Christian gathered troops from allover Europe and attacked Palestine again. At that time, there were many wars going on among the Muslims. Taking advantage of which the Crusaders easily conquered Palestine. After conquering Palestine, they attacked the Muslims and Jews. Thousands of Muslims and Jews were martyred. Mosques and synagogues were destroyed. They converted Al-Aqsa Mosque into a palace. The children and women of Jews hide themselves in buildings and structure. But the Crusaders set fire to these buildings and burned their children and women alive. After which Crusaders ruled the state for almost 90 years

Salahuddin: King of Ayyub dynasty

After 90 years, a great king of Muslims — Saladin planned to conquered the state. He gathered troops from the entire Muslim world and captured the state again by snatching it from the Christians. At that time all the Christians thought that Saladin will take revenge from them in the same way as Crusaders martyred millions of Muslims.

But Saladin, just like Umar forgave all the Crusaders. Even the Crusaders surprised at Saladin's forgiveness. They asked Saladin, that why did he forgave them. But Saladin said:

I am not those men. I am Salahuddin

— Salahuddin Ayyubi

Saladin gave freedom to all these religions again. The mosque, now a palace was restored into a mosque. The first namaz by Saladin was offered there. After Saladin, once again all the Abrahamic religions have conquered the state with peace. They ruled over the land. It lasted for 800 years.

Modern period

Ottoman Empire and World War I

A Jewish man praying at the Western Wall (painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme

After 800 years, the state came under the control of Ottoman Empire. Before World War I, there was no any kind of conflict in Palestine and peoples of all the religions used to live here peacefully. The Muslims were in majority, but with them Jews and Christians also live peacefully. At that time, this entire area falls under the control of Ottoman Empire. On the map, it can be seen that the Ottoman Empire was spread over a large part of Europe, Northern Africa and the parts of Middle East. It was called as the Sultanate of Osmania by Muslims.

Ottoman soldiers guarding Al-Aqsa, Jerusalem

There were some Arab leaders who were very fed up with the rule of Ottoman Empire. They wanted to liberated themselves from here. For this purpose and to accomplish this they secretly met the Britishers. Britishers were enemy of the Ottoman Empire. The British promised them that, if they help them in the war against the Ottoman Empire and in return they would given an independent country. A similar promise was made by British to the Jews present in Europe. Jews present in Europe were already facing a lot of difficulties.

The reason behind is religious conflict. For many centuries, Christians believe that Jews were responsible for the death of Jesus. Due to this, many Christians humiliates Jews in Europe. They don't tolerate the Jews. Jews used to call the movement to get their own country in Palestine as Zionism. This movement was started in 1896 by Theodor Herzl. He wrote a book Der Judenstaat. It was written that if Jews wanted to live a peaceful life, they have to established a state in Palestine. In the beginning, many Jews were against this concept. But soon this movement turned into a political form.

Jews from allover the world called Palestine. They started turning to Palestine and funded by their own community. Jews got funded to setup businesses and factories there. The British government had also promised them i.e. European Jews, that they will give them chance to build their own country in Palestine. In world war I, the Ottoman Empire was suffering a severe defeat. On 2 November 1917, Britain's foreign secretary Arthur Balfour gave a letter in the name of Walter Rothschild who was head of a British Jewish Community. It was written that British government decided that Jews should come to Palestine and develop their own country. Rothschild was assured that British government will support them. Also it was written that this will not cause any harm to the Muslims already living here.

Mandatory Palestine (1924 — 1948)

Main article: Mandatory Palestine

A month after writing Balfour's letter, British solider came and captured Palestine. They ended the 400 year rule of Ottoman Empire. Palestine came under the control of British in world war I. They tried their best to establish a Jewish colony and became successful. In 1919, Balfour wrote a memorandum in which it was written, that he no need to consult Arabs for establishing Jewish colony.

King David Hotel, Jerusalem - post bombing 1946

Lord Balfour's visit to Binyamin 1925. Sitting from left to right: Vera Weizman, Haim Weizman, Balfour, Nahum Sokolov. Standing: British Mandate officials and PKA officials (Henry Frank and Jules Rosenhack)

In the eye of the Arabs of Palestine, the law made by Britain for Jews was very soft. The process of coming of Jewish immigrants from all over the world started in Palestine. They built their own schools and factories. Immigration of Jews to Palestine is termed as Aliyah. With the wish of British, they also created their own small army known as Haganah. Arabs saw the establishment of Jewish settlements by British. They continued to tolerate it for some years. But in 1939, the Arabs of Palestine started raising their voice.

For raising their voice, the Palestinian Arabs were given severe punishment. Many were arrested, some leaders were expelled from Palestine and some were hanged. But still the Arabs of Palestine did not end their strikes. On this the British government formed Peel Commission to solve the matter. This commission found a solution to unrest in Palestine that Palestine should be divided into two parts. It was rejected by the Arabs. There was already unrest on the issue of division of Palestine, which was objected by Arabs. Their strike continued till 1939, until the British government released its White Paper.

Jewish protest demonstrations against Palestine White Paper, May 18, 1939. Zionist young men & girls parading on King George Ave, Jerusalem

In this White Paper, the British government condemned the last 20 years of Palestine. Keeping the current situation in mind, a policy was published. In this policy, first of all the Peel Commission was rejected. This ended the Arabian strike. Apart from this, the new Jewish immigrants coming to Palestine were banned and already present Jews of Palestine were banned of buying lands from Arabs. It was also decided that Palestine should be an independent state in next 10 years and the same would be the home country of the Jewish people.

This White Paper was like a fraud to Zionists. White Paper first time created conflict between the Jews and the British. They refused to accept the White Paper and started attacks on the British government throughout Palestine. In which many local Palestinians were also killed. These attacks continued for several months.

World War II started in 1939, where this war took lives of 60 million peoples. Meanwhile in Germany, Hitler led Nazi Party mercilessly killed six million European Jews in their death camps. This incident is called Holocaust. 66% Jews living in Europe between 1941 and 1945 were killed by Hitler. The surviving Jews had no other option but to go to Palestine. Because it was holy place for them, already some Jewish community already settled there and many of the Muslims saved Jews from Holocaust. Arabs of Palestine also welcomed Jews and they had not much objection on their arrival.

Despite the limit on immigration imposed by the British, they started migrating to Palestine. After the second world war, Britishers were tired and no longer had the courage to fight against Zionist in Palestine. In 1947, they decided to leave. They handed over this issue to the UN.

United Nations proposed to give larger parts of Palestine to minority Jews and smaller parts to the majority Arabs. In the UN General Assembly, this proposal got 72 votes and it was finalized that larger part of Palestine would be given for the Jewish state. At that time, India was also present in the UN Assembly and India also voted against this decision. Then prime minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru had raised a lot of voice against the decision of UN and said that the Indian ambassador of UN was bribed by Zionists to vote in their favor. This resolution of UN was rejected by all the Arab countries. Both sides started attacking each other. But the Jewish army was very strong, so the Palestinians could not compete with them.

Israeli independence and Palestinian nationalism

Yasser Arafat's speech to the United Nations in 1974

Demonstration in Tel Aviv supporting Geneva Accord (2004).

On 14th May 1948, David Ben-Gurion officially formed the state of Israel. He became the first Prime Minister of Israel. In 1948, all the Arab neighboring countries together decided to attack Israel. This was the First Arab-Israeli War, in which five Arab countries attack Israel which formed recently. But Israel had support of Western countries. They had a very strong military. Therefore, Israel alone defeated five Arab countries. After the end of war, the areas chosen by UN for Palestine are now occupied by Israel.

The West Bank came under the control of Jordan and Gaza Strip under the control of Egypt. In 1967, another Arab — Israeli war takes place in which Israel not only occupies the West Bank but also the Gaza Strip and the entire Sinai Peninsula of Egypt. In the midst of all this, the people of Palestine want to create their own country. For this purpose, they formed their own organization which was named Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). Initially, by taking up arms, they tried to forcefully get their own country. To raise their voice, PLO also hijacked many planes and ships. Thus from the side of U.S. and Israel, PLO was declared as a terrorist organization. But many countries did not declare PLO as terrorist organization. They considered it only as a revolutionist who wants to create their own country.

In 1974, PLO got official recognition in the UN in this regard that they are representative of Palestinians. After that, in 1979, peace talks between Egypt and Israel successfully held and Egypt becomes the first Muslim country to officially recognize Israel. After which Israel returns Sinai Peninsula to Egypt. But after two years, Egyptian PM Anwar Sadat got assassinated by extremist group who opposed his move with Israel. In 1988, Yasser Arafat declared the Palestine's independence. At that time a part of PLO splits which is today known as Hamas.

Once again peace talks take place between Israel and PLO. PLO leader Yasser Arafat also officially recognize and Israeli prime minister Yitzhak Rabin also officially recognize PLO. He makes it clear that PLO is not a terrorist organization. Hamas didn't want to compromise with Israel. Other hand, Israel's extremist also opposed any kind of compromise with Palestine. But this does not affected the peace talks. PLO and Israel came face to face first time. They try to solve this issue. This peace agreement is known as Oslo Accords. But in 1995, the assassination of Yitzhak Rabin by Israeli extremist Yigal Amir shattered all the peace talks.

In 1996, first government of Palestine forms.

History

Early religious influences

Palestine region holds historical significance to world's major Abrahamic religions. The history

Politics

Main article: International recognition of the State of Palestine

Madeleine Albright and Yasser Arafat in 1998

Palestine is a de jure country. As of 2 June 2023, a total of 139 countries recognize it. Palestine is recognized as a non member observer state at UN since November 2012. It is officially known as the State of Palestine in the UN. The state of Palestine claims two territories — the West Bank (including East Jerusalem) and the Gaza Strip. Since the Six Day war of 1967, Israel has occupied East Jerusalem and parts of West Bank.

After the first Arab Israel war, Israel occupied the territories of Palestine planned by UN which includes today's Acre and Nazareth. In 1967, the official partition was planned for Palestine and Israel. After the 1967 Six Day war ended, Israel occupied not only West Bank but also the entire Sinai Peninsula. In 1979, a peace treaty was signed between Egyptian prime minister Anwar Sadat and Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin witnessed by Jimmy Carter. Following this move, Israel returned the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt.

Following the Oslo Accords I in 1993, both Palestine Liberation Organization and Israel recognize each other. In the Oslo Accords, the parts of West Bank was divided into three parts — Area A, Area B and Area C. Area A would be completely under control of Palestinian Authority, Area B under control of both PA and Israeli government and Area C completely under control of Israeli government. However, this move made split of Hamas from the PLO. Hamas opposed the peace process with Israel. But since 2000, Hamas have also offered truce which was rejected by Israel.

Peace process and negotiations

Main articles: Israeli–Palestinian peace process and Israel palestine peace

See also: Oslo Accords and 2000 Camp David Summit

Yitzhak Rabin, Yasser Arafat and Bill Clinton at White House in 1993

In 1993, Oslo Accords started Oslo process, a new peace process between Israel and Palestine to implement peace between the country. This was the first time when Israel and PLO came together. Taba Summit was the final agreement of the Oslo Accords. In this agreement, both Israel and Palestine Liberation Organization recognize each other. However this move was opposed by the extremist wings of both sides. This gave Hamas more attention who too opposed the peace negotiations with Israel. As same the Jewish extremists opposed the movement. But this opposition didn't affected the peace talks. Following this peace talks Yasser Arafat, Yitzhak Rabin and Shimon Peres were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. In 1995, Rabin was assassinated by right wing extremist Yigal Amir. The assassination severely affected the peace talk.

After the Oslo Accords, many more peace talks held between Palestine and Israel. These includes Wye River Memorandum (1998), Camp David Summit (2000), Isratin (2000), Taba Summit (2001), Roadmap for peace (2002) and Geneva Initiative (2004) etc.

The Geneva Initiative was well appreciated by Yasser Arafat but criticized by Ariel Sharon. This initiative states equal division of Jerusalem among the Jews and Muslims. The division of Jerusalem was as same as the The Clinton Parameters which guided two state solution for Israel and Palestine. Since 1993, many economic peace efforts have been taken by entrepreneurs both sides. This initiative have introduced various joint development projects. Out of which many projects have been successful.

In 2017, Hamas accepted the two state solution based on the 1967 border.

Several times Israel offered peace solution and blamed Palestinians for its rejection and failure. On other hand, Palestine with Muslim countries proposed peace process also rejected by Israel. Hamas offered five time peace which was usually long term truce and was rejected by the Israeli government. Muslim political leaders such as Muammar Gaddafi, Shah Faisal and Saddam Hussein also participated in the Israeli–Palestinian peace process but failed and rejected. In 2017, Hamas accepted the two state solution based on the 1967 borders.

Like how Israel offered peace and accused Palestinians for rejecting. Same Israel too rejected peace with Hamas five times. Ahmed Yassin, founder of Hamas proposed long term Hudnas (truce) which were rejected by Israel. In case of any development project with Israel, Hamas agreed on long truce. Muslim leaders such as Muammar Gaddafi, Shah Faisal and Saddam Hussein also participated in the Israel palestine peace process but failed

Administration

President Mahmoud Abbas

Prime Minister Mohammad Shtayyeh

Palestine is governed by the Palestinian National Authority commonly known as PA. whose headquarters known as Muqata is in Ramallah.

As per the Oslo Accords, the West Bank was divided into three sections — Area A, Area B and Area C. Area A completely came under the control of Palestinian Authority, Area B under the control of both PA and Israeli government and Area C completely under the control of Israel. This plan poorly corresponds to the UN partition plan of both 1948 borders and 1967 borders.

As per the Oslo Accords, the Palestine Authority have complete control over Area A and partial control over Area B of West Bank, parts and suburbs of East Jerusalem and the Gaza Strip. While Area C is contiguous Israeli settlement which is considered illegal internationally.

Geography

The state of Palestine officially consists of two non contiguous territories of the West Bank and Gaza Strip on the east and west corners of Israel respectively. West Bank encompasses an area of 5,655 km² (2,183 sq mi) which includes East Jerusalem with an area of 70 km² (27 sq mi). Major cities in the West Bank under Palestinian Authority includes Hebron, Bethlehem, Nablus, Jericho and Jenin. The Gaza Strip includes the state's largest city Gaza and others include Rafah and Khan Yunis.

Demographics

As per the recent census, the population of Palestine combining both West Bank and Gaza Strip.

As per an Italian Jewish demographer Sergio Della Pergola, at that time the population Muslims was around 1 million, Jews were 600 thousand and Christians were 100 thousand

Largest cities or towns in State of Palestine Source?
	Rank		Administrative division	Pop.
Gaza Jerusalem (East)	1	Gaza	Gaza Governorate	766,331	Hebron Nablus
	2	Jerusalem (East)	Quds Governorate	482,854
	3	Hebron	Hebron Governorate	239,772
	4	Nablus	Nablus Governorate	{{{pop_4}}}
	5	Khan Yunis	Khan Yunis Governorate	{{{pop_5}}}
	6	Jabalia	North Gaza Governorate	165,110
	7	Jabalia	North Gaza Governorate	165,110
	8	Rafah	Rafah Governorate	158,414
	9	Ramallah	Ramallah and al-Bireh Governorate	104,173
	10	Beit Lahia	North Gaza Governorate	86,526

Economy

Main article: Economy of Palestine

Rawabi is the first planned tech city of Palestine built near Ramallah

Palestine has a lower middle income and developing economy. In 2021, the GDP of the state was US$30 billion. Due to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, there have been several restrictions on transport of goods and materials across the state. Though being poor from one side, its quite developed from another site. The economic condition is well in the West Bank as compared to the Gaza Strip. Previously Palestine used to have infrastructures accommodating industries. Prior to second intifada, the airports in Palestine were destroyed and since then no any airports have been active in Palestine.

However their are significant sources indicating that at many extents, the state has quite prosperity specially in the West Bank. As per sources, it have been found that there are 600 millionaires in the Gaza Strip. Industries consists of generally small family businesses that produce cement, textiles, soap, olive-wood carvings, and mother-of-pearl souvenirs; the Israelis have established some small-scale, modern industries in the settlements and industrial centers. In recent year high tech industries have started developing in the state.

Manufacturing and industry

A cement plant near Ramallah

The manufacturing industry is quite developed in West Bank. To promote foreign relations of Palestine, several countries in association have built up many industrial parks and promote trade between them. The four major industrial parks includes the Jericho Industrial Park (Japan), Bethlehem Industrial Park (France), Tarquima Industrial Park (Turkey) and Jenin Industrial Park (Germany). Many Israeli and Palestinian joint industrial parks have also opened.

However, Gaza has potential to be a big industrial center in the Sinai Peninsula. In 2000, a gas field was discovered in the Gaza Strip. It is worth more than millions or trillions of dollars. Gaza Marine could help in boosting the Palestinian economy and regional cooperation. In 2019, the gas fields were worth more than US$500 billion. Located about 30 kilometers from the Gaza coast, it is between the giant Leviathan and Zohr gas fields. Gaza is a coastal city. Since the Oslo Accords signed in 1993, there have plans to build a seaport and airport in the Gaza Strip.

In the West Bank, Ramallah is the primary financial, commercial and technical hub of the state. Many of the electronics and IT companies have come up to invest in the state of Palestine. Some of the multinational companies such as Apple Inc and Mellanox Technologies have setup R&D centers in Palestine. Hebron is popular for its Hebron glass. While Nablus is widely known for its Nabulsi soap. Food and beverage companies — Coca-Cola, Pepsi and SodaStream had their manufacturing plants in Gaza Strip.

Information technology and telecommunications

See also: Communications in the State of Palestine

Rawabi is home to R&D centers of Apple Inc and Mellanox Technologies

13 universities have ICT-faculties, with 2500 yearly graduates. There are more than 300 ICT-related companies, both in the West Bank as in Gaza, with a total of around 5000 employees. Paltel Group and Jawwal are the major telecom companies of the state. Paltel Group have two data centers for telecommunication in Ramallah. The company has also opened a technology park in Ramallah to accommodate ICT companies

Mellanox Technologies, Wix, Freightos, Microsoft Israel, and a host of other Israeli companies already employ Palestinian software engineers and programmers – whether directly or through third-party associates — in Gaza, Ramallah, Nablus, Hebron and, now, Rawabi. ASAL Technologies is an outsourcing firm of Palestine which outsource engineers and other professionals from the state for Israeli companies.

American multinational electronics company Apple Inc have two research and development centers in the state. One is at Jerusalem and another is at Rawabi. Mellanox Technologies also invested in the state. The company planned to setup R&D center in West Bank and Gaza Strip.

Transport

Beacon fishermen port in Gaza City

Palestine have a poor transport system due to the Israeli occupation and travelling restrictions. In terms of road transport, only the state is quite stable. There are many major roads in the Area A and Area B. Due to many checkpoints, travelling across the Palestinian territories have created difficulty in the economy. The blockade of Gaza Strip have severely affected the territory's economy.

Currently there are no active airports in the state of Palestine. There are three airports in the state — Yasser Arafat International Airport (Gaza Strip), Gush Katif Airport (Gaza Strip) and Jerusalem International Airport (Atarot, East Jerusalem). After Atarot airport, Yasser Arafat International Airport was opened in 1998. It was destroyed in 2001 during Second Intifada by Israeli airstrikes. Prior to airport's bombing, Gush Katif Airport managed to handle air traffic for the strip until 2004.

Tourism

Due to presence of religious and pilgrimage sites across Jerusalem, Bethlehem and Hebron have attracted many foreign and domestic tourists. Many of the tourists also come to the state for pilgrimage purposes. After Makkah and Madinah, Jerusalem and Hebron are considered as the third and fourth holiest site in Islam. Bethlehem has been the birthplace of Jesus. Hebron is the resting place of Abraham

Culture

______

State of Palestine

Palestine, officially known as the State of Palestine is a state located in the Middle East. It consists of two non contiguous territories of West Bank and Gaza Strip which also includes East Jerusalem. The state claims Jerusalem, specially the East Jerusalem as its capital. Palestine have an overall population of five million peoples. Two territories of the state is situated on the east and west ends of Israel

History

Early and medieval

The history of state begins with the establishment of the early peoples known as Jews, the adherents of Judaism. It is believed that the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem is the birthplace of Jesus. Jesus is known as centrifugal figure in Christianity. The actual Jewish inhabitants were Israelites (known as Bani-Israeli in Islam). The Solomon's Temple

Salahuddin Ayyubi and Ottoman Empire

In the 12th century, Salahuddin al-Ayyubi took control of the city

Economy

Economy of Palestine

Ramallah — the financial and commercial capital of Palestine
Currency	None de jure. Currencies generally used in Palestine include: Israeli new shekel (ILS; ₪) alongside: Jordanian dinar (JOD) United States dollar (USD) Egyptian pound (EGP)
Fiscal year	Calendar year
Trade organisations	OIC, Group of 77
Country group	Developing/Emerging Lower-middle income economy
Statistics
Population	4,569,087 (2018)
GDP	$30 billion (2021 est.)
GDP growth	1.2% (2017) 0.9% (2018) −2.5% (2019e) 2.1% (2020f)
GDP per capita	$1924 (West Bank) $876 (Gaza)
GDP by sector	agriculture: 5.5% industry: 23.4% services: 71.1% (2014 UN data)
Inflation (CPI)	2.7% (June 2013)
Population below poverty line	25.8% (2011 est.)
Human Development Index	0.690 medium (2018) (119th) 0.597 medium IHDI (2018)
Labour force	1,316,023 (2019) 32.0% employment rate (2018)
Labour force by occupation	Agriculture: 12% Industry: 23% Services: 65% (2008 est.)
Unemployment	27.5% (Q1 2013)
Main industries	Cement, quarrying, textiles, soap, olive-wood carvings, mother-of-pearl souvenirs, food processing
External
Exports	$720 million (2011)
Export goods	Olives, fruit, vegetables, limestone, citrus, flowers, textiles
Imports	$4.2 billion (2011)
Import goods	Food, consumer goods, construction materials
Public finances
Government debt	$4.2 billion (June 2013)
Budget balance	$1.3 billion (13% of GDP; 2012 est.)
Revenues	$2.2 billion (2012 est.)
Expenses	$3.54 billion (2012)
Foreign reserves	$464 million (march 2016) (163nd)
All values, unless otherwise stated, are in US dollars.

The economy of State of Palestine is Developing and Emerging Lower-middle income economy. It's GDP is around US$ 30 billion. The economy of Palestine is middle income developing. It's GDP is estimated to be US$30 billion in 2021. Though being active in the ongoing conflict with Israel, Palestine continues to grow and sustain development. Along with the self development and peace process efforts, their has been a change in the state's economy. Ramallah is a major commercial and financial center of Palestine home to many of the Palestinian banks and software companies. Other major cities in the state includes Gaza, Nablus, Bethlehem and Hebron

According to 2012 Happy Planet Index, Palestinian Authority was found to be third happiest Arab country and 30th happiest in the world.

Developing/Emerging Lower-middle income economy

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The economy of Palestine is middle income developing. It's GDP is estimated to be US$30 billion in 2021. Though being active in the ongoing conflict with Israel, Palestine continues to grow and sustain development. Along with the self development and peace process efforts, their has been a change in the state's economy. Ramallah is a major commercial and financial center of Palestine home to many of the Palestinian banks and software companies. Other major cities in the state includes Gaza, Nablus, Bethlehem and Hebron

Palestine Export Treemap from MIT Harvard Economic Complexity Observatory

The Palestinian industrial sector is categorized by its wide variety of products and interrelated sub sector branches. The sector lacks severely the adequate continuously available raw materials for the sustainability of the sector. But it has a great advantage of the dedicated hard working and resilient business community. The business community, as a driving force for the industry, was able to achieve several successes during difficult uncertain conditions. One of the main features of industry was its connectivity to the Israeli economy. On one side this is a fatal threat to industry because its success is subject to the Israeli priorities, not the Palestinian priorities, and it is a known fact that most of these priorities are not business related and highly politicized. On the other hand, industry has benefited from Israeli business connections elsewhere in the world. The sector is represented by the Palestinian Federation of Industries (PFI). The PFI advocates for better industrial policies and regulations and works on developing and upgrading industrial performance. The federation started its work in 1999 with a representation of six industrial associations. Today, thirteen different industrial associations are members of the federation. Industry is playing an important role in the economic and social well being of the Palestinian society. It employs about 13% of the total workforce and it contributes 16% to the GDP. Exports were (and still are) a good economic ambassador for the entire Palestinian cause. The rapid growth of industry was notable during the nineties, the political uncertainty and turbulences have affected the industrial sector negatively. A slight shift was noticed in the structuring of industry that is related to both political changes and international economic changes and globalization sequences. The leather and shoe making industry and the garment and textile industry are examples of badly affected industries. Contrary to that, Pharmaceutical industries and marble and stone industries were good examples of positive change.

Through donations from Arab Funds, rehabilitation was carried out in the industrial parks of Beit Jala, Salfit, Abu Deis, Albeireh, Nablus and others still on the list. With the assistance of donor community, four industrial zones have been rated as a priority for development. These are:

•  Jenin industrial park with the help of German government (KFW)
•  Tarqumia industrial park with the help of Turkish government
•  Bethlehem industrial park with the help of French government
•  Jericho agricultural park with the help of Japanese government.

Table 16: main export products #o Products Percentage

• 1 Marble and stone 30%
• 2 Food products 16%
• 3 Metal and plastic products 10%
• 4 Agricultural products 19%
• All other sectors 25%

Sectors

Industry and manufacturing

Metal and steel

Metal and engineering industries have a wide variety of products that are strongly related to the anticipated construction process. Any further efforts to boost the construction sector will have its sequential effects on the metal industry. Specifically, the following products are directly related to construction process: abrasives and welding rods, nails, reinforcement steel rods, aluminum profiles for windows, doors, partitions, kitchen and path room facilities, metal decorative and entrance doors, metal furniture and other similar necessities. Moreover, metal industries have a wide variety of products, ranging from construction related industries to production of mechanical and electrical machines. The data of PCBS shows that the sector has the second largest exported products after stone and marble industries. More specifically, it exported about US$ 72 million in the year 2007.

As of 2021, Palestine exported iron and steel to Israel worth US$89 million.

Stone and marble industry

The stone and marble industry is the largest exporting industry in terms of export volume and export markets. A number of firms are ready for export in terms of machinery and raw materials. They lack the expertise of marketing, good manufacturing practices and the organization culture for export as well as the quality culture. Currently the number of direct exporting firms ranges from eight to twelve, whereas the indirect exporters could reach the figure of 40 firms. Qualifying another ten companies in the sector will have its positive impacts on the whole sector. The official export data of 2007 is about US$103 million, whereas the actual figures greatly exceed the official figures.

The Palestinian stone and marble products are sold in more than 35 countries, and the production capacity has reached about 40 million square meters per year. Any assistance given to the industry will help resume the production capacity utilization and restore employment trend to its normal figures of 15000 workers. The following effect can be seen in the sector. The stones and marbles are widely used in the construction industry. Some of the precious stones and marbles are used for construction of buildings and structures like stately buildings, memorial buildings, and monuments. These include mosques, churches, cathedrals, temples, cemeteries, theaters, universities, public libraries, palaces, villas, hotels, malls, and so forth.

Food and beverage industry

The water purification facility of the Khan Yunis Water Authority

The food sector is growing rapidly both vertically and horizontally. The official figures of the sector indicate that there are more than 1600 working firms in this sector including bakeries. Excluding bakeries, the actual number of firms becomes 224 manufacturing firms including the large scale milk cow farms (>50 cows). 152 of them are active members of the food industry association, which is a strong association. The large number of female cooperatives working in food processing sector and traditional sweets and confectionary makers are not included. The labor force is estimated at 8000 worker. The industry is spread all over the West Bank. The importance of the sector is its direct organic relation the food security of the nation.

Chemical

The sector is represented by an industrial association that needs to be strengthened and institutionalized. The estimated number of regulated companies working in the industry is 60, five in producing cosmetics, five in the production of paints and inks and the remaining are working in the detergents production. The actual number of producers (un-regulated) is much more than that. Some factories produce both detergents and cosmetics. The average number of workers is estimated at 15, and the total employment is estimated at 900 workers. The actual number is greater than this because of the non-regulated manufacturers. The industry is spread all over the West Bank.

Plastics and Polymers

This industry is distributed around the various parts of the West Bank with a focus on plastic pipes in Hebron and Ramallah. According to the sectors association records the total number of industrial facilities is 100 firms employing 1000 workers with a total average of 10 workers per firm. The working labor varies from 5 to 20 workers with an exception of 4 factories employing more than 50 workers. The industry is represented by an association that needs to be strengthened. The industry sales are distributed over the West Bank 66%, Gaza Strip 15%, Jerusalem 2% and Israel 10%. It is clear that local market is the core of this industry.

Electronics industry

Due to its close proximity to Israel, which is home to Middle East's most advance technology industries and Palestine takes an advantage of this proximity. In the Levant, after Silicon Wadi and Download Valley, the tech cluster in Palestine especially in Rawabi and Ramallah is home to electronics industries of the state. The growth of software companies have also attracted electronics and electrical equipment company to setup their businesses in Palestine. Owing to Israeli–Palestinian peace process, various initiatives have been taken to promote business and trade between the states, specially in the field of electronics.

Mellanox Technologies (now sold to Nvidia), a former Israeli—American supplier of telecom equipment have employed Palestinian professionals from the West Bank and Gaza Strip. The company also invested in setting up new factories and R&D centers in Palestine to improve the relations of Israel and Palestine. Eyal Waldman, the former CEO of the company choose Ramallah and Gaza for setting up R&D center which costed more than opening such center in Europe.

Apple Inc have been operating its business in the region for more than 20 years. The company have invested throughout the region in new R&D and outsourcing centers. It operates a research & development (R&D) center in Jerusalem. An another R&D center is located in Rawabi which is operated in association with ASAL Technologies.

Software and telecommunications

Since 2000, a high tech industry have taken birth in Palestine. This is supported by its close proximity of Israel. Many software companies who invests in Israel express their wish to invest in Palestine as well. Apple Inc operates an R&D center in Jerusalem, Rawabi and Ramallah.

Oil and gas

The oil and gas industry have plethoric opportunities for the state's economic and industrial development. In 2000, an oil and gas field was discovered in Gaza. It is worth about more than US$500 billion or US$1 trillion.

Electronics

Due to its close proximity to Israel, which is home to Middle East's most advance technology industries and Palestine takes an advantage of this proximity. In the Levant, after Silicon Wadi and Download Valley, the tech cluster in Palestine especially in Rawabi and Ramallah is home to electronics industries of the state. The growth of software companies have also attracted electronics and electrical equipment company to setup their businesses in Palestine. Owing to Israeli–Palestinian peace process, various initiatives have been taken to promote business and trade between the states, specially in the field of electronics.

Mellanox Technologies (now sold to Nvidia), a former Israeli—American supplier of telecom equipment have employed Palestinian professionals from the West Bank and Gaza Strip. The company also invested in setting up new factories and R&D centers in Palestine to improve the relations of Israel and Palestine. Eyal Waldman, the former CEO of the company choose Ramallah and Gaza for setting up R&D center which costed more than opening such center in Europe.

Apple Inc have been operating its business in the region for more than 20 years. The company have invested throughout the region in new R&D and outsourcing centers. It operates a research & development (R&D) center in Jerusalem. An another R&D center is located in Rawabi which is operated in association with ASAL Technologies.

•  Jenin industrial park with the help of German government (KFW)
•  Tarqumia industrial park with the help of Turkish government
•  Bethlehem industrial park with the help of French government
•  Jericho agricultural park with the help of Japanese government.

Table 16: main export products #o Products Percentage

• 1 Marble and stone 30%
• 2 Food products 16%
• 3 Metal and plastic products 10%
• 4 Agricultural products 19%
• All other sectors 25%

Economy

A panoramic view of Rawabi which is the first planned city in the state

The economic value of the state is US$30 billion which makes it as a middle lower and developing one. Despite being active in the ongoing Israeli–Palestinian conflict, the state tries to develop and have gathered momentum for the development. Israel is the largest trade partner for Palestine for both imports and exports. Other major export partners of the state includes Israel, Turkey, China, Jordan and Germany. While export partners includes Israel, Jordan, United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia.

Industry and manufacturing

Manufacturing industry is highly concentrated in the West Bank. Due blockade on Gaza, their has been limited industrial development as compared to the West Bank. However, their is possibility of Gaza to be developed like Singapore or Dubai. Palestine's major exports includes steel, iron, stone, furniture and plastics etc. Palestine has signed free trade agreements and business association agreements with the European Union, the United States, Egypt, Russia, Turkey, and GAFTA, among other countries

Four major industrial parks have been established by the Palestinian Authority in West Bank and Gaza Strip. Those includes Jenin industrial Park (KFW), Tarqumia Industrial Park, Bethlehem Industrial Park and Jenin Industrial Park (KFW). Apart from them several special economic zones and free trade zones have been established to attract investments for the state. A large number of IT parks have been established in the major cities of West Bank — Ramallah, Nablus, Hebron and Bethlehem,

In 2000, oil and gas reserves found in the Gaza Strip's coast. It was named as the Gaza Marine. The Gaza Marine is a project for development of gas field in Gaza. It is worth of more than US$500 billion or US$1 trillion. Coca-Cola, SodaStream and Pepsi used to have their manufacturing plants in Gaza Strip. Electronics giant Apple Inc operates R&D centers in Rawabi and Jerusalem. Hebron is widely known for the production of Hebron glass. Nablus located on the Judaean Mountains is the center of Nabulsi soap

Information Technology and Telecommunications

13 universities have ICT-faculties, with 2500 yearly graduates. There are more than 300 ICT-related companies, both in the West Bank as in Gaza, with a total of around 5000 employees. Paltel Group and Jawwal are the major telecom companies of the state. Paltel Group have two data centers in Ramallah. The company has also opened a technology park to accommodate ICT companies

Mellanox Technologies, Wix, Freightos, Microsoft Israel, and a host of other Israeli companies already employ Palestinian software engineers and programmers – whether directly or through third-party associates — in Gaza City, Ramallah, Nablus, Hebron and, now, Rawabi.

Tourism

Tourism is widely contributor to the state both economically and culturally. The presence of holy sites for Christians, Jews and Muslims have attracted tourists from all over the world. In Jerusalem, especially the East Jerusalem (claimed capital of Palestine) is home to holy sites for Christianity, Islam and Judaism which includes the Western Wall, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and the Masjid Al Aqsa. Apart from Jerusalem, other cities too are considered as holy places for Abrahamic religions. Hebron is known for Cave of the Patriarchs which is holy to Jews and Muslims.

•  Tarqumia industrial park with the help of Turkish government
•  Bethlehem industrial park with the help of French government
•  Jericho agricultural park with the help of Japanese government

•  Jericho agricultural park with the help of Japanese government



•  Jenin industrial park with the help of German government (KFW)
•  Tarqumia industrial park with the help of Turkish government
•  Bethlehem industrial park with the help of French government
•  Jericho agricultural park with the help of Japanese government.

Table 16: main export products #o Products Percentage

• 1 Marble and stone 30%
• 2 Food products 16%
• 3 Metal and plastic products 10%
• 4 Agricultural products 19%
• All other sectors 25%

Recognition

U.S. President Bill Clinton, Israeli PM Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat at White House during Oslo Accords in 1993

Palestine is considered as de jure state. It has limited recognition as a country just like Taiwan, Somaliland and Moldova etc. The two non contiguous territories claimed by Palestine are the Gaza Strip and West Bank including East Jerusalem. West Bank including East Jerusalem have been occupied by Israel. It is considered as illegal under the international law. Since 2007, a blockade have been implemented on Gaza Strip by Israel and Egypt.

Though East Jerusalem have been illegally occupied but still the Palestinian National Authority operates the Jerusalem Governorate. Though many Palestinians live in Muslim neighborhoods such as Sheikh Jarrah and etc. But due to occupation, often Palestinians and Israelis clashes with each other.

Largest cities

Largest cities or towns in State of Palestine Source?
	Rank		Administrative division	Pop.
Gaza Jerusalem (East)	1	Gaza	Gaza Governorate	766,331	Hebron Nablus
	2	Jerusalem (East)	Quds Governorate	482,854
	3	Hebron	Hebron Governorate	239,772
	4	Nablus	Nablus Governorate	{{{pop_4}}}
	5	Khan Yunis	[[{{{div_5}}}]]	{{{pop_5}}}
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Economy

Main article: Economy of Palestine

Bank of Palestine

A view of Rawabi from Ramallah

Palestine though being in the ongoing Israeli–Palestinian conflict have managed itself to sustain a quite better economy. The condition of West Bank including East Jerusalem is far off better than the Gaza Strip. Palestine's GDP in 2021 was US$30 billion (PPP GDP). Previously Palestine used to have infrastructures accommodating industries. Prior to second intifada, the airports in Palestine were destroyed and since then no any airports have been active in Palestine.

However their are significant sources indicating that at many extents, the state has quite prosperity specially in the West Bank. As per sources, it have been found that there are 600 millionaires in the Gaza Strip. Industries consists of generally small family businesses that produce cement, textiles, soap, olive-wood carvings, and mother-of-pearl souvenirs; the Israelis have established some small-scale, modern industries in the settlements and industrial centers. In recent year high tech industries have started developing in the state.

Manufacturing and industry

A cement plant near Ramallah

The manufacturing industry is quite developed in West Bank. To promote foreign relations of Palestine, several countries in association have built up many industrial parks and promote trade between them. The four major industrial parks includes the Jericho Industrial Park (Japan), Bethlehem Industrial Park (France), Tarquima Industrial Park (Turkey) and Jenin Industrial Park (Germany).

However, Gaza has potential to be a big industrial center in the Sinai Peninsula. In 2000, a gas field was discovered in the Gaza Strip. It is worth more than millions or trillions of dollars. Gaza Marine could help in boosting the Palestinian economy and regional cooperation. In 2019, the gas fields were worth more than US$500 billion. Located about 30 kilometers from the Gaza coast, it is between the giant Leviathan and Zohr gas fields. Gaza is a coastal city. Since the Oslo Accords were signed in 1993, there have plans to build a seaport and airport in the Gaza Strip.

In the West Bank, Ramallah is the primary financial, commercial and technical hub of the state. Many of the electronics and IT companies have come up to invest in the state of Palestine. Some of the multinational companies such as Apple Inc and Mellanox Technologies have setup R&D centers in Palestine. Hebron is popular for its Hebron glass. While Nablus is widely known for its Nabulsi soap. Food and beverage companies — Coca-Cola, Pepsi and SodaStream had their manufacturing plants in Gaza Strip.

Information technology and telecommunications

See also: Communications in the State of Palestine

Rawabi is home to R&D centers of Apple Inc and Mellanox Technologies

13 universities have ICT-faculties, with 2500 yearly graduates. There are more than 300 ICT-related companies, both in the West Bank as in Gaza, with a total of around 5000 employees. Paltel Group and Jawwal are the major telecom companies of the state. Paltel Group have two data centers for telecommunication in Ramallah. The company has also opened a technology park in Ramallah to accommodate ICT companies

Mellanox Technologies, Wix, Freightos, Microsoft Israel, and a host of other Israeli companies already employ Palestinian software engineers and programmers – whether directly or through third-party associates — in Gaza City, Ramallah, Nablus, Hebron and, now, Rawabi.

American multinational electronics company Apple Inc have two research and development centers in the state. One is at Jerusalem and another is at Rawabi. Mellanox Technologies also invested in the state. The company planned to setup R&D center in West Bank and Gaza Strip.

Transport

Beacon fishermen port in Gaza City

Palestine have a poor transport system due to the Israeli occupation and travelling restrictions. In terms of road transport, only the state is quite stable. There are many major roads in the Area A and Area B. Due to many checkpoints, travelling across the Palestinian territories have created difficulty in the economy. The blockade of Gaza Strip have severely affected the territory's economy.

Currently there are no active airports in the state of Palestine. There are three airports in the state — Yasser Arafat International Airport (Gaza Strip), Gush Katif Airport (Gaza Strip) and Jerusalem International Airport (Atarot, East Jerusalem). After Atarot airport, Yasser Arafat International Airport was opened in 1998. It was destroyed in 2001 during Second Intifada by Israeli airstrikes. Prior to airport's bombing, Gush Katif Airport managed to handle air traffic for the strip until 2004.

Tourism

Tourism is widely contributor to the state both economically and culturally. The presence of holy sites for Christians, Jews and Muslims have attracted tourists from all over the world. Jerusalem is home to holy sites for world's three major religion — Christianity, Islam and Judaism which includes the Western Wall, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and the Masjid Al Aqsa. Apart from Jerusalem, other cities too are considered as holy places for Abrahamic religions. Hebron is known for Cave of the Patriarchs which is holy to Jews and Muslims.

• 
  Gaza City
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 
  Omari Mosque in Gaza

Development

A proposal by the Israeli minister of intelligence wants to see an artificial island built off the coast of the Gaza Strip. It would house an international airport, seaport and even a hotel.

• 
  Al-Aqsa Mosque is third most holiest site of Islam after Masjid al-Haram (Mecca) and Prophet's Mosque (Medina)
• 
  The Dome of the Rock
• 
  Great Mosque of Gaza
• 
  Cave of the Patriarchs
• 

Economy

Oil and gas

The oil and gas industry have plethoric opportunities for the state's economic and industrial development. In 2000, an oil and gas field was discovered in Gaza. It is worth about more than US$500 billion upto US$1 trillion. Which is very high in front of the GDP of Israel. It is to be found that significant oil reserves are found in Gaza Strip and parts of the West Bank.

Iron and Steel

Iron and steel are of the main exports of the state of Palestine. A significant number of steel companies are found in the state, manufacturing and exporting to the countries. As of 2021, Palestine exported iron and steel to Israel worth US$89 million.

Software and Telecommunications

The IT sector of Palestine also includes the communication industry of the state. IT sector in Palestine is supported by its proximity to Israel. Following the Israeli–Palestinian peace process, various initiatives have been taken in order to promote trade between the two states especially in the field of information technology and telecommunications. Many Israeli companies have been outsourcing engineers and technicians from Palestine.

13 universities have ICT-faculties, with 2500 yearly graduates. There are more than 300 ICT-related companies, both in the West Bank as in Gaza, with a total of around 5000 employees. Paltel Group and Jawwal are the major telecom companies of the state. Paltel Group have two data centers in Ramallah. The company has also opened a technology park to accommodate ICT companies

Mellanox Technologies, Wix, Freightos, Microsoft Israel, and a host of other Israeli companies already employ Palestinian software engineers and programmers – whether directly or through third-party associates — in Gaza City, Ramallah, Nablus, Hebron and, now, Rawabi.

Infrastructure

Transport

Transport facility in West Bank is fairly better than the Gaza Strip. Previously there were three airports used at that time. Namely — the Yasser Arafat International Airport (Gaza), Jerusalem International Airport (Jerusalem and Ramallah) and Gush Katif Airport (Rafah). Yasser Arafat International Airport was built in Gaza by funding from Qatar, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia and was opened in 1998. Then US President Bill Clinton was present on the inaugural ceremony with Yasser Arafat.

Prior to Second Intifada, the Gaza Airport was destroyed in 2001. After that Gush Katif Airport started being used in replacement of Gaza Airport until 2004, when the airport was insufficient in handling the air traffic with limited capacity.

Israeli government planned to build settlements on the Atarot airport resulting protests from the Palestinians. After the protest, the authorities dismissed the plan and put forward the proposal of developing a joint airport between Israel and Palestine. This project will be basically the redevelopment of former Atarot airport.

After signing of Oslo Accords in 1993, a plan of developing seaport in Gaza came out.

References

•  This article incorporates public domain material from The Current Status of Industrial Sector in Palestine (PDF). United States Government.

Economy of Palestine

A photo showing sunset moments from downtown Ramallah

The economy of Palestine lower middle income developing based. GDP of the state of Palestine was US$30 billion in 2021. Palestinian economy is severely affected due to Israeli imposition of the territories. However in recent years, the economy of the state have been improved.

Industries

Electronics

Since 2000, high tech industry have started emerging in the state. This is due to the development of software and telecommunications companies having close proximity to Israel. Following the Israeli–Palestinian economic peace efforts, many

Due to presence of significant software companies, many electronics manufacturing company also wishes to setup themselves in Palestine. Some of the multinational companies have their manufacturing plants and R&D centers in the state of Palestine. Most of these facilities are located in West Bank and some in the Gaza Strip. Industrial parks established in Gaza, Ramallah, Bethlehem and Rawabi have attracted businesses in the electronics industry. Following Israeli–Palestinian economic peace efforts, many Israeli electronics companies have setup their facilities in the state. However, some companies do not directly operate in Palestine. Palestinian companies such as ASAL Technologies outsource Palestine engineers for foreign companies.

Due to its close proximity to Israel, which is home to Middle East's most advance technology industries and Palestine takes an advantage of this proximity. In the Levant, after Silicon Wadi and Download Valley, the tech cluster in Palestine especially in Rawabi and Ramallah is home to electronics industries of the state. The growth of software companies have also attracted electronics and electrical equipment company to setup their businesses in Palestine. Owing to Israeli–Palestinian peace process, various initiatives have been taken to promote business and trade between the states, specially in the field of electronics. Mellanox Technologies (now sold to Nvidia), a former Israeli—American supplier of telecom equipment employs Palestinian professionals from the West Bank and Gaza Strip. The company also invested in setting up new factories and R&D centers in Palestine to improve the relations of Israel and Palestine. Eyal Waldman, the CEO of company choose Ramallah and Gaza for setting up R&D center which costed more than outsourcing from Europe. Apple Inc have been operating its business in the region for more than 20 years. The company have invested throughout the region in new R&D and outsourcing centers. It operates a research & development (R&D) center in Jerusalem. An another R&D center is located in Rawabi which is operated in association with ASAL Technologies.

List of tallest buildings in the state of Palestine

This article follows the list of tallest buildings in Palestine

List

Rank	Name	Image	City	Location	Built	Use	Height (tip)	Floors (above ground)	Source
1	Palestine Trade Tower		Ramallah	Al Irsal	2017	Commercial	120 m (390 ft)	24
2			Ghazzah		2001	Office, Residential	235 m (771 ft)	69
3	AMAAR Tower				2016	Mixed	212 m (696 ft)	54

list

• Palestine Trade Tower
• Al Ghefari
• Rawabi
• Nablus
• Irsal

upcoming

• Skyscraper of Liberation
• Nablus Financial Quarter
  • Building 1
  • Building 2
  • Building 3

Srl	Name

Electronics

Due to its proximity with Israel, which is hub of high tech industry and by this Palestine quite emerged as a hub of electronic industries. The estab

Economy of Palestine

A photo showing sunset moments from downtown Ramallah

The economy of Palestine lower middle income developing based. GDP of the state of Palestine was US$30 billion in 2021. Palestinian economy is severely affected due to Israeli imposition of the territories. In recent years, the economy of the state have been improved. Major export and import partners of Palestine are Israel, Qatar, Egypt, Turkey and Jordan.

However, the dispute over the lands of Jerusalem, the revenue of Palestinian Arab industries don't include. If these amounts are included then the GDP might increase greatly. Due to close proximity to Israel, the silicon valley of Middle East have supported the growth of high tech industry in the state. Thus Palestine also houses a quite sizable electronics and ICT industry. Following the economic peace efforts, many Israeli — Arab joint industrial parks have been developed.

Industrial regions

Jerusalem

The Atarot Industrial Park houses several Palestinian Arab companies

Before the beginning of second intifada in 2000, the Atarot Industrial Park housed several joint and independent Palestinian Arab companies. Major industrial areas in the city includes Atarot, Wadi al-Joz Multinational companies such as Coca-Cola, Israel Aerospace Industries and Mercedes-Benz used to have their facilities in the area.

Being holy city to Christians, Muslims and Jews, tourism in the Muslim Quarters and related activities makes up the city's economy. Every year, various tourists and pilgrims visits the city. Their are various hotels, offices and shopping malls in the city. Retail and real estate sector also makes up a large part of the city's economy. Many Israeli Palestinian joint development projects have been developed throughout the city. A joint shopping mall for both Israelis and Palestinians have been opened.

Major industries of the Palestinian Jerusalem includes mining and quarrying, manufacturing, electrical power and water supply. Due to the Israeli restrictions on the main East Jerusalem city, now most of the industries are shifting from Jerusalem J1 to Jerusalem J2. The Jerusalem Governorate have more than 1000 factories. Most of these factories engages in manufacturing furniture, food and beverages and apparel etc.

To promote regional development, a joint Israel — Palestine airport is planned to be developed at the former Jerusalem International Airport site in Atarot which houses Jerusalem's largest industrial park.

Gaza

The economy of Gaza Strip have affected severely due to second intifada followed by the blockade by Israel and Egypt. In 2000, a large natural gas field was discovered in Gaza by British Company. It is named as Gaza Marine. As per the industrial experts, the value of the gas field ranges from US$500 billion to US$1 trillion. In 2023, the Palestinian Authority in cooperation with Hamas and Israel have planned to developed Gaza Marine.

Industries

Cement and concreate manufacturing

Development of various megaprojects in Palestine have increased huge demands of building materials including cement and marbles. The cement industry in Palestine is about to develop and flourish in the West Bank and Gaza Strip.

Information Technology and Communications

Main article: Communications in the State of Palestine

The IT sector of Palestine also includes the communication industry of the state. IT sector in Palestine is supported by its proximity to Israel. Following the Israeli–Palestinian peace process, various initiatives have been taken in order to promote trade between the two states especially in the field of information technology and telecommunications. Many Israeli companies have been outsourcing engineers and technicians from Palestine. There are 13 universities having ICT facilities. Every year 2500 Palestinians graduates in the field of IT engineering. There are more than 300 IT and telecommunication companies in the state, both in the West Bank as in the Gaza Strip. The IT and telecommunication sector employs around 5000 peoples. In recent years, many Palestinian companies in the field of telecommunications have been running successful. Paltel Group and Jawwal are the state's major telecom companies and both are headquartered in Ramallah.

Paltel Group have developed a technology park and special economic zone known as Paltel Business Center in Ramallah to house software and telecom companies. It is located near to the Palestine Trade Tower in Irsal Street of Ramallah. Paltel Group also operates two data centers in Ramallah. In between the conflict and occupation, many Israeli companies wishes to invest in the state to promote trade relations. However, most of the Israeli companies do not operate direct in the state. They outsource Palestinian engineers through outsourcing companies of the state.

Many countries have opened their joint technology parks in Palestine. One such includes the Palestine Techno Park in Ramallah and Bethlehem and was developed in association with India and other Indian companies. A tech hub have been also developed in Rawabi known as Silicon Rawabi. Israeli — Palestinian joint technology parks have been developed in West Bank and Jerusalem. In East Jerusalem, many Palestinian and Israeli joint industrial areas houses software companies.

Israeli companies including Wix and Freightos employ Palestinian engineers and professionals directly and third party associates in Gaza, Ramallah, Nablus, Hebron and Rawabi. This third party associates are companies like ASAL Technologies, who provides outsourcing services to Israeli companies on basis of a contract.

Mellanox Technologies,

Wix, Freightos, Microsoft Israel, and a host of other Israeli companies already employ Palestinian software engineers and programmers – whether directly or through third-party associates — in Gaza City, Ramallah, Nablus, Hebron and, now, Rawabi.

Electronics industries

The electronics industry in Palestine is quite sizable. Due to its close proximity to Israel, which is known as Silicon Valley of Middle East and many electronics companies have established themselves in Palestine. The presence of software and telecommunication companies in Palestine have supported development of quite sizable electronic and equipment industry. A number of electronics and electrical equipment companies have setup their manufacturing plants and R&D centers in the Palestinian Territories.

Schneider Electric operates a facility in the Bethlehem Industrial Park in West Bank. It provides technical training to candidates. Mellanox Technologies outsource Palestinian engineers from the West Bank and Gaza Strip. The company has also planned to open R&D centers in Ramallah and Gaza. Since 2018, Apple has been operating an R&D center in Rawabi. Apple has hired the services of Ramallah-based development contractor ASAL Technologies. There are about 60 engineers in the Rawabi facility working virtually with teams based in Herzliya and Haifa, both in Israel.

Electronics and Electrical equipment

Since 2000, high industries including electronics and electrical equipment industries have sustained growth the state. Due to presence of significant software and telecommunication companies, electronics companies also supported with the similar infrastructures. Industrial parks in the West Bank and Gaza Strip have attracted investments in the electronics sector. Many multinational foreign companies in the electronics sector have setup R&D and outsourcing centers in the state of Palestine.

Electronics companies concentrated in Palestine mainly focuses in manufacturing of chips, semiconductors, mobile phones and generators. Following the Israeli–Palestinian economic peace efforts, many Israeli companies have setup their manufacturing plants in Ramallah, Jerusalem and Gaza. Force Engineering for Generators and Solar Energy have a manufacturing plant in Gaza Strip. Schneider Electric operates a facility in Bethlehem Industrial Park, Bethlehem which provides technical training to peoples.

Mellanox Technologies, a former supplier of telecom equipment have planned to invest in Palestine, in Ramallah and Gaza Strip. The company have proposed to setup two R&D centers, one in Ramallah and another in Gaza. Though the company outsource Palestinian engineers on contract basis through ASAL Technologies. Apple Inc have been operating its business in the region for more than 20 years. The company have invested throughout the region in new R&D and outsourcing centers. It operates a research & development (R&D) center in Jerusalem. An another R&D center is located in Rawabi which is operated in association with ASAL Technologies.

Following Israeli–Palestinian economic peace efforts, many Israeli electronics companies have setup their facilities in the state. However, some companies do not directly operate in Palestine. Palestinian companies such as ASAL Technologies outsource Palestine engineers for foreign companies.

Due to its close proximity to Israel, which is home to Middle East's most advance technology industries and Palestine takes an advantage of this proximity. In the Levant, after Silicon Wadi and Download Valley, the tech cluster in Palestine especially in Rawabi and Ramallah is home to electronics industries of the state. The growth of software companies have also attracted electronics and electrical equipment company to setup their businesses in Palestine. Owing to Israeli–Palestinian peace process, various initiatives have been taken to promote business and trade between the states, specially in the field of electronics.

Mellanox Technologies (now sold to Nvidia), a former Israeli—American supplier of telecom equipment employs Palestinian professionals from the West Bank and Gaza Strip. The company also invested in setting up new factories and R&D centers in Palestine to improve the relations of Israel and Palestine. Eyal Waldman, the CEO of company choose Ramallah and Gaza for setting up R&D center which costed more than outsourcing from Europe. Apple Inc have been operating its business in the region for more than 20 years. The company have invested throughout the region in new R&D and outsourcing centers. It operates a research & development (R&D) center in Jerusalem. An another R&D center is located in Rawabi which is operated in association with ASAL Technologies.

Stone and marble

The stone and marble industries went rapid growth in the early 1990s. Hebron and Bethlehem are widely known for its stone and marble industries. Launch of several development projects have increased the demand of building materials including

Economy

East Jerusalem is a disputed part of Palestinian territories between Israelis and Palestine. Numerous Palestinian Arab enterprises have been operating in Jerusalem over a century. Since the Israeli annexation, many of the Palestinian neighborhoods are underdeveloped and affected by poor management. Though many Palestinian entities invests in the city to improve the Palestinian economy of Jerusalem, particularly East Jerusalem.

Once East Jerusalem was an industrial powerhouse for Palestinians. Atarot was the largest industrial zone in the city where many Jews and Arabs worked together in factories. Palestinian Arab companies either independent or in joint venture used to operate in the zone. Multinationals such as Mercedes Benz, Israel Aerospace Industries and Coca-Cola had facilities in the zone. The second Intifada brought clashes between Palestinians and Israelis which heavily destroyed the industrial zone and Palestinian economy in East Jerusalem. Since then most of the businesses have moved to Ramallah.

Due to Israeli occupation and economic restrictions, most of the factories have been moved to J2 Jerusalem. Salah Al Din Street is known for its bustling commercial hub and marketplaces. A large numbers of restaurants and shopping malls are located in the street. Major sectors remained contributing to the economy; textiles, leather and apparels, tourism and hospitality, retail and shopping, electronics and software industries. Parts of Jerusalem having control of PA houses some manufacturing plants of leathers, textiles and apparels.

The reform since 2010 saw East Jerusalem developing too. In recent years many Palestinian entrepreneurs have invested the city's high tech and tourism sector. EasTech is a newly developed technology park for Palestinians developed by Jerusalem Foundation in Salah Al Din Street. Numerous companies including AT&T, Dell Technologies, Nvidia, Intel, Intuit, Natural Intelligence, Techlink and Cisco etc. have invested the facility.

Banking and Finance

Dome of the Rock and the Western Wall taken from Hass Promenade

The economy of the State of Palestine is middle income based and is a developing country. As per recent estimates by the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the GDP of Palestine is around US$40 billion. Major industries are cement, textiles, software, electronics, glass and building materials etc.

After 1993, Palestine experienced a favorable economic growth. At that time, the economic growth rate of Palestine was higher than even developed Arab countries like Saudi Arabia, Qatar and Kuwait etc. This developed was interrupted after beginning of the intifada in 2000. Economic condition have been severely affected with the broke of second intifada which was ended in 2004.

Palestine is affected due to ongoing conflict and occupation engaging Israel. Expelled Palestinians used to live in refugee camps which shows poverty of the state. But a major part of Palestine is quite developed and prosperous. In recent years, a large number of shopping malls, luxury hotels and industrial parks have been developed at local scale.

History

After the establishment of Mandatory Palestine in 1922, a large number of Jews started immigrating to Palestine. This immigration is known as Aliyah. Jews established factories and industries across the lands of Palestine.

At that time Haifa was the largest industrial center of the state. It houses numerous heavy industries. In the 1930s, the Haifa Oil Refinery was established following the development of oil pipelines from the region which is now in Iraq. Emerging Zionism gave rise to Jewish terrorism. Zionist terrifically attacked the Arabs of Palestine and destroyed their economy.

The notable among these attack were the King David Hotel bombing and Haifa Oil Refinery massacre. After formation of Israel, neighboring Arab countries declared wars against Israel in 1948, 1967 and 1973 and lose in all the wars. The economy of Palestine gradually declined. Though many Arabs maintained strong business base specially in East Jerusalem.

Economic rise

East Jerusalem in 1993, the year of Oslo Accords

Modern buildings in Ghazzah before intifada in 2000

Following the implementation of peaceful environment with singing of Oslo Accords have brought a new economic boom to the state. In the 1990s, the Palestinian economic growth went up higher than even those of Arab countries like Qatar or Saudi Arabia.

Various joint development projects between Israelis and Palestinians were planned. In 1999, Israeli industrialist Stef Wertheimer planned to build an industrial park in Rafah. Around 150,000 Palestinians used to work in Israel. Also many Palestinian had businesses in East Jerusalem. Atarot was manufacturing base for Palestine. It used to house many multinational companies such as Coca-Cola, Israel Aerospace Industries and Mercedes-Benz etc. Many Palestinian Arabs had their businesses in this area either jointly or independently.

In 1998, Gaza International Airport was developed with funds from the governments of Saudi Arabia, Qatar and Japan.

In 2000, the failure of Camp David Summit and proactive visit to Temple Mount by then opposition leader Ariel Sharon led broke out of second intifada. The intifada destroyed Palestinian economic growth which was higher than even majority of Arab states. Various companies which planned projects in Palestine halted. In 1994, France and Netherlands invested in the development of a seaport in Gaza. Due to some restrictions the project was delayed. It got resumed in 2000. But an airstrike by Israel destroyed the project site.

Once a thriving industrial zone of Jerusalem was Atarot. In intifada, it was completely destroyed. Jerusalem Airport over their was closed down in 2000. In 2001, Gaza Airport was destroyed in an airstrike by Israel. Prior to that, Gush Katif Airport managed to operate until 2004. Since then their is no active airport in Palestine

Second intifada and recovery

After the end of second intifada, a new wave of economic development began in Palestine. Industries in East Jerusalem regained momentum. Halted projects development projects continued. Some of the project continued.

Sectors

Chemicals and Health related products

Palestine's largest exports are pharmaceutical and drug products such as penicillin, streptomycin, deriv and dosages. The pharmaceutical industry of Palestine is worth of US$100 million. Most of the pharma industry are located in West Bank.

Stones and marbles

The city of Hebron is widely known for its globally renowned powerhouse of marble and stone industry.

Software and telecommunications

Silicon Rawabi is the tech hub of Palestine

Since 2000, software and telecommunication industry have experience a significant growth. This is supported by its close proximity to Israel. Joint economic efforts between Israel and Palestine have top prioritized the software industry. In recent years, a large number of special economic zones including technology parks have been developed between Ramallah and East Jerusalem as well as in Hebron. The IT industry of Palestine contributes about 5% of the state's total GDP in 2010.

Major telecommunication companies of Palestine includes Paltel Group, Ooredoo Palestine and Jawwal. All these companies have their headquarter in Ramallah. In 2019, Jerusalem Foundation inaugurated a technology park named EasTech in East Jerusalem. This is a joint park developed for both Israelis and Palestinians. Multinational companies such as Intel, Intuit, Synamedia, Lightricks, Exlibris, Natural Intelligence, Wix, HP Inc and Unity etc. have invested and partnered in the technology park.

Jerusalem Innovation Park is another technology complex which will house institutions and technology parks. Gaza Sky Geeks is the first and right now only technology park in Gaza Strip which was funded by companies like Google, Cisco and Meta Platforms. This park consists of startup accelerator and training center.

Oil and gas

Main articles: Natural gas in the Gaza Strip and Gaza Marine

There is significant reserves of oil and gas in the Palestinian territories. In 2000, oil and gas reserves were found in the coast of Gaza Strip and parts of Palestinian territories. Yasser Arafat referred it is a gift from God to Palestine. Over 3 billion barrels of oil are estimated to be reserved in the coast and lands of Palestine.

According some economic experts and even local citizens, the ongoing conflict's major reason is for Israel to grab the oil and gas resources.

Companies

• Jerusalem District Electricity Company
• Yamsafer
• PADICO Holding
• Sinokrot
• Jawwal
• Paltel Group
• Gaza Sky Geeks

Banking and finance

Currently, Palestine don't have its own currency. All what here accepted is Israeli shekel and Jordanian dinar. Due to Israeli restrictions, their is no own currency. The financial sector of the state is mainly concentrated around Ramallah and East Jerusalem. Many banks have their regional headquarters over their.

Two major financial districts are under construction — Rawabi and Nablus Financial Quarter. These two are megaprojects in the Palestinian territories. The cost of development of Rawabi is more than a billion dollar. The project is also partially funded by Qatari government. It is the first planned Palestinian city located just outside of Ramallah.

Economy of Palestine

Ramallah — the financial and technical hub of Palestine

The economy of Palestine is quite moderate. It has been classified by IMF as a middle income based developing country. Palestine is not in least developed countries. The GDP of Palestine is US$ 40 billion. A sizeable manufacturing and software industry thrives in Palestine.

From 1970s, Palestine experienced an economic boom. It's growth was higher than even majority of Arab states. Many Palestinians worked in Israel. Even in disputed places like Jerusalem, Palestinians had businesses. This economic growth was interrupted by second intifada in 2000. By the intifada, Palestinian economy was completely destroyed. Since 2010, Palestine once again experienced an economic boom in the West Bank and even Gaza Strip and East Jerusalem. Recent years saw development of new malls, hotels and industries.

History

For 30 years, Israel opened its market free to Palestinian labor force. Israel issued work permits for Palestine who used to work their. After the Six Day War and Yom Kippur War, Palestine began an economic boom. A large number of Palestinians worked in some of the biggest Israeli companies, primarily in the cities of Tel Aviv and Haifa. They primarily engaged in manufacturing and construction sector. Even in disputed places of Jerusalem, once Palestinians had independent and joint companies in Atarot.

Apart from Israel, Palestinians also used to worked in countries in Middle East like Iraq, Libya, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. However, the economy often quite affected by regional wars and conflicts in Middle East such as 1982 Lebanon War, Iran–Iraq War and Gulf War.

Industrial regions

East Jerusalem

Main articles: Economy of East Jerusalem and Economy of Jerusalem

East Jerusalem was strong base for Palestinian businesses. Many Palestinian companies had their headquarters in East Jerusalem. An industrial region in Atarot (under Israeli control) was example of joint cooperation between Israelis and Palestinians. Due to presence of religious sites, tourism and hospitality still thrives in the city.

Mercedes Benz had a large manufacturing plant and R&D center in Atarot. Israel Aerospace Industries operated a research center in the industrial park. Coca-Cola have a bottling plant and distribution center in the zone. Additionally a large number of Israeli —Palestinian joint companies had their factories in Atarot. Many independent Palestinian companies

West Bank

Ramallah in West Bank is the primary business hub of Palestine.

Gaza Strip

Main article: Economy of Gaza

After occupation, Israeli settler began developing greenhouses in the territory These greenhouses were a source of economy in Gaza. Many Palestinians used to work in these greenhouses. During boom time, many foreign companies also came forward to invest in constructing new factories, luxury hotels and shopping malls. The second intifada broke in September 2000. It destroyed the economy of Palestine specially Gaza and East Jerusalem. Due to Hamas's victory in election, Israel imposed blockade claiming for security reasons.

Since 2010, reforms have resulted in a new economic growth quietly in the territory. The new reforms have seen an increase in construction of shopping malls, beach resorts and luxury hotels. According to Mahmoud Zahar, the economy began improving. Also Israel Defense Forces said that, from 2011 the economy started improving.

History _ !!

Islamic influence on Palestine

Rashidun Caliphate: Umar's accession to Jerusalem

Mosque of Omar, Jerusalem. From Archer and Kingsford's Story of the Crusades.

The Islamic religion and Caliphate spread so fast that within a few years both the Roman and Persian Empires were conquered. After which Khalifa Umar became the most powerful emperor in the world, whose rule was much bigger than the empire of Alexander the Great. After all, the Muslims reached the door of Jerusalem while conquering the Roman Empire. Muhammad, the last prophet of Islam stated that "One day Jerusalem will definitely be conquered by the Muslims. Muslims have two options — either destroy Jerusalem in the same way as other kings had done before or seize it.

Finally, after six months, Governor of Jerusalem — Sophronius said that he will hand over Jerusalem to Muslims only in one condition. That was Khalifa Umar himself should come and meet him. Then Khalid ibn al-Walid thought that why should the Khalifa of Islam be disturbed. So he himself impersonate as Umar and went to meet Sophronius. Because Khalid bin Walid's appearance was similar to Umar and height of both was exactly same. So Khalid bin Walid reached Jerusalem as Umar. But there was person who already met Umar. So he said it could not be Umar. Khalid was forced to do so.

Umar, that time's most powerful king had to leave for Jerusalem. Sophronius got ready wearing full luxury gold and silver jewelry. Because such a big king was coming to meet him. But Sophronius and whole Jerusalem was surprised to see that king's slave was sitting on the camel and the king himself was coming on foot in normal clothes. This scene was very shocking for the people of Palestine. Because, before him whenever any king had conquered Jerusalem, he had destroyed the city and killed many peoples.

Khalifa Umar conquered the city of Jerusalem and took control of entire Palestine. Without shedding anyone's blood, Sophronius handed over the territory to Umar. But he put a condition that, Muslims would not allow the Jews to enter the city of Jerusalem. But Umar did not accept the condition and Jews were also allowed to the Temple Mount. This was the first time when, the state came under control of Muslims. When Umar arrived in Jerusalem, he asked first about the church. After proper inspection of church when he was about to leave it was the time of Salah. The caretaker of Church suggested Umar to pray Salah at church. But he refused to pray at church. He said that if he pray at church, the Muslims will think of converting of church into a mosque which is wrong. Instead of praying their, he prayed at a place outside the church which is now known as the Mosque of Omar in Jerusalem.

Umar gave freedom to all religions. For almost 350 years Muslims, Christians and Jews started living in peace

Attack on Palestine by the Crusaders

350 years later, the Christian gathered troops from allover Europe and attacked Palestine again. At that time, there were many wars going on among the Muslims. Taking advantage of which the Crusaders easily conquered Palestine. After conquering Palestine, they attacked the Muslims and Jews. Thousands of Muslims and Jews were martyred. Mosques and synagogues were destroyed. They converted Al-Aqsa Mosque into a palace. The children and women of Jews hide themselves in buildings and structure. But the Crusaders set fire to these buildings and burned their children and women alive. After which Crusaders ruled the state for almost 90 years

Salahuddin: King of Ayyub dynasty

After 90 years, a great king of Muslims — Saladin planned to conquered the state. He gathered troops from the entire Muslim world and captured the state again by snatching it from the Christians. At that time all the Christians thought that Saladin will take revenge from them in the same way as Crusaders martyred millions of Muslims.

But Saladin, just like Umar forgave all the Crusaders. Even the Crusaders surprised at Saladin's forgiveness. They asked Saladin, that why did he forgave them. But Saladin said:

I am not those men. I am Salahuddin

— Salahuddin Ayyubi

Saladin gave freedom to all these religions again. The mosque, now a palace was restored into a mosque. The first namaz by Saladin was offered there. After Saladin, once again all the Abrahamic religions have conquered the state with peace. They ruled over the land. It lasted for 800 years.

Modern period

Ottoman Empire and World War I

A Jewish man praying at the Western Wall (painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme

After 800 years, the state came under the control of Ottoman Empire. Before World War I, there was no any kind of conflict in Palestine and peoples of all the religions used to live here peacefully. The Muslims were in majority, but with them Jews and Christians also live peacefully. At that time, this entire area falls under the control of Ottoman Empire. On the map, it can be seen that the Ottoman Empire was spread over a large part of Europe, Northern Africa and the parts of Middle East. It was called as the Sultanate of Osmania by Muslims.

Ottoman soldiers guarding Al-Aqsa, Jerusalem

There were some Arab leaders who were very fed up with the rule of Ottoman Empire. They wanted to liberated themselves from here. For this purpose and to accomplish this they secretly met the Britishers. Britishers were enemy of the Ottoman Empire. The British promised them that, if they help them in the war against the Ottoman Empire and in return they would given an independent country. A similar promise was made by British to the Jews present in Europe. Jews present in Europe were already facing a lot of difficulties.

The reason behind is religious conflict. For many centuries, Christians believe that Jews were responsible for the death of Jesus. Due to this, many Christians humiliates Jews in Europe. They don't tolerate the Jews. Jews used to call the movement to get their own country in Palestine as Zionism. This movement was started in 1896 by Theodor Herzl. He wrote a book Der Judenstaat. It was written that if Jews wanted to live a peaceful life, they have to established a state in Palestine. In the beginning, many Jews were against this concept. But soon this movement turned into a political form.

Jews from allover the world called Palestine. They started turning to Palestine and funded by their own community. Jews got funded to setup businesses and factories there. The British government had also promised them i.e. European Jews, that they will give them chance to build their own country in Palestine. In world war I, the Ottoman Empire was suffering a severe defeat. On 2 November 1917, Britain's foreign secretary Arthur Balfour gave a letter in the name of Walter Rothschild who was head of a British Jewish Community. It was written that British government decided that Jews should come to Palestine and develop their own country. Rothschild was assured that British government will support them. Also it was written that this will not cause any harm to the Muslims already living here.

Mandatory Palestine (1924 — 1948)

Main article: Mandatory Palestine

A month after writing Balfour's letter, British solider came and captured Palestine. They ended the 400 year rule of Ottoman Empire. Palestine came under the control of British in world war I. They tried their best to establish a Jewish colony and became successful. In 1919, Balfour wrote a memorandum in which it was written, that he no need to consult Arabs for establishing Jewish colony.

King David Hotel, Jerusalem - post bombing 1946

Lord Balfour's visit to Binyamin 1925. Sitting from left to right: Vera Weizman, Haim Weizman, Balfour, Nahum Sokolov. Standing: British Mandate officials and PKA officials (Henry Frank and Jules Rosenhack)

In the eye of the Arabs of Palestine, the law made by Britain for Jews was very soft. The process of coming of Jewish immigrants from all over the world started in Palestine. They built their own schools and factories. Immigration of Jews to Palestine is termed as Aliyah. With the wish of British, they also created their own small army known as Haganah. Arabs saw the establishment of Jewish settlements by British. They continued to tolerate it for some years. But in 1939, the Arabs of Palestine started raising their voice.

For raising their voice, the Palestinian Arabs were given severe punishment. Many were arrested, some leaders were expelled from Palestine and some were hanged. But still the Arabs of Palestine did not end their strikes. On this the British government formed Peel Commission to solve the matter. This commission found a solution to unrest in Palestine that Palestine should be divided into two parts. It was rejected by the Arabs. There was already unrest on the issue of division of Palestine, which was objected by Arabs. Their strike continued till 1939, until the British government released its White Paper.

Jewish protest demonstrations against Palestine White Paper, May 18, 1939. Zionist young men & girls parading on King George Ave, Jerusalem

In this White Paper, the British government condemned the last 20 years of Palestine. Keeping the current situation in mind, a policy was published. In this policy, first of all the Peel Commission was rejected. This ended the Arabian strike. Apart from this, the new Jewish immigrants coming to Palestine were banned and already present Jews of Palestine were banned of buying lands from Arabs. It was also decided that Palestine should be an independent state in next 10 years and the same would be the home country of the Jewish people.

This White Paper was like a fraud to Zionists. White Paper first time created conflict between the Jews and the British. They refused to accept the White Paper and started attacks on the British government throughout Palestine. In which many local Palestinians were also killed. These attacks continued for several months.

World War II started in 1939, where this war took lives of 60 million peoples. Meanwhile in Germany, Hitler led Nazi Party mercilessly killed six million European Jews in their death camps. This incident is called Holocaust. 66% Jews living in Europe between 1941 and 1945 were killed by Hitler. The surviving Jews had no other option but to go to Palestine. Because it was holy place for them, already some Jewish community already settled there and many of the Muslims saved Jews from Holocaust. Arabs of Palestine also welcomed Jews and they had not much objection on their arrival.

Despite the limit on immigration imposed by the British, they started migrating to Palestine. After the second world war, Britishers were tired and no longer had the courage to fight against Zionist in Palestine. In 1947, they decided to leave. They handed over this issue to the UN.

United Nations proposed to give larger parts of Palestine to minority Jews and smaller parts to the majority Arabs. In the UN General Assembly, this proposal got 72 votes and it was finalized that larger part of Palestine would be given for the Jewish state. At that time, India was also present in the UN Assembly and India also voted against this decision. Then prime minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru had raised a lot of voice against the decision of UN and said that the Indian ambassador of UN was bribed by Zionists to vote in their favor. This resolution of UN was rejected by all the Arab countries. Both sides started attacking each other. But the Jewish army was very strong, so the Palestinians could not compete with them.

Israeli independence and Palestinian nationalism

Yasser Arafat's speech to the United Nations in 1974

Demonstration in Tel Aviv supporting Geneva Accord (2004).

On 14th May 1948, David Ben-Gurion officially formed the state of Israel. He became the first Prime Minister of Israel. In 1948, all the Arab neighboring countries together decided to attack Israel. This was the First Arab-Israeli War, in which five Arab countries attack Israel which formed recently. But Israel had support of Western countries. They had a very strong military. Therefore, Israel alone defeated five Arab countries. After the end of war, the areas chosen by UN for Palestine are now occupied by Israel.

The West Bank came under the control of Jordan and Gaza Strip under the control of Egypt. In 1967, another Arab — Israeli war takes place in which Israel not only occupies the West Bank but also the Gaza Strip and the entire Sinai Peninsula of Egypt. In the midst of all this, the people of Palestine want to create their own country. For this purpose, they formed their own organization which was named Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). Initially, by taking up arms, they tried to forcefully get their own country. To raise their voice, PLO also hijacked many planes and ships. Thus from the side of U.S. and Israel, PLO was declared as a terrorist organization. But many countries did not declare PLO as terrorist organization. They considered it only as a revolutionist who wants to create their own country.

In 1974, PLO got official recognition in the UN in this regard that they are representative of Palestinians. After that, in 1979, peace talks between Egypt and Israel successfully held and Egypt becomes the first Muslim country to officially recognize Israel. After which Israel returns Sinai Peninsula to Egypt. But after two years, Egyptian PM Anwar Sadat got assassinated by extremist group who opposed his move with Israel. In 1988, Yasser Arafat declared the Palestine's independence. At that time a part of PLO splits which is today known as Hamas.

Once again peace talks take place between Israel and PLO. PLO leader Yasser Arafat also officially recognize and Israeli prime minister Yitzhak Rabin also officially recognize PLO. He makes it clear that PLO is not a terrorist organization. Hamas didn't want to compromise with Israel. Other hand, Israel's extremist also opposed any kind of compromise with Palestine. But this does not affected the peace talks. PLO and Israel came face to face first time. They try to solve this issue. This peace agreement is known as Oslo Accords. But in 1995, the assassination of Yitzhak Rabin by Israeli extremist Yigal Amir shattered all the peace talks.

In 1996, first government of Palestine forms.

History (I)

Around 3,300 years ago, Moses was ordered by God to liberate Israelites from the slavery of Pharaoh. After successfully liberating them, their next plan was to conquer Palestine and take control of Jerusalem. While Israelites refused to join Moses and was ordered to stay in a desert for 40 years. Torah was revealed to Moses at that place which is now known as Sinai Peninsula. Under the leadership of Joshua, Israelites once again conquered the territory but couldn't handled territory for a longer time. For the next 300 years, they could not capture the state.

Israelites formed under leadership of David and conquered Palestine again. He laid foundation of a temple. Construction of temple completed during the time of Solomon. The Solomon's Temple (Haikal e Suleimani) stored the Ark of Covenant (Taboot e Sakina). After Solomon, Israelites ruled for next 400 years. After 400 years, Babylonian Empire came power in Iraq, whose emperor Nebuchadnezzar II (Bakhtenasar) attack Palestine and destroyed the temple in Jerusalem. He enslaved them and took Bablylon for 70 years.

Modern history

Hitler led Nazi army began exterminating European Jews in the second world war. A large number of Palestinian army trained by British Government were sent to fight the Nazis. Apart from Palestine, other countries including Egypt, Iraq, Algeria, Morocco and other Muslim countries went Germany to fought Nazis and saved remaining Jews.

History

After arrival, Moses put efforts to free the Israelites (Jews) from the slavery of Pharoah. He was successful in freeing the last Bani Israeli from the slavery of Pharaoh. Their next plan was to access the control of Jerusalem. Jews under the slavery of Pharoah were weekend. They weren't much courageous and capable of fighting

Moses asked Israelites to help him in conquering Jerusalem and whole land. The Israelites refused to help Moses and said him to handle the situation alone. After that the god ordered Moses to stay with Bani Israelis in the desert for 40 years which is now as the Sinai Peninsula in modern Egypt. In between this period the Bani Israelis regained their power and courage to fight. Holy book Torah (known as Taurat in Islam) was revealed to Moses when he was in the Sinai peninsula. In Book of Genesis, its clearly written that the holy land belongs to both Israelites and Arabs.

Jews were finally formed under the leadership of Joshua. They conquered Palestine. But after some time this city and whole territory went out of their hands again. For the next 300 years the Bani Israelis could not capture the state and the city of Jerusalem.

First Temple

Main articles: Solomon's Temple and Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)

After 300 years Bani Israel captured this city under the leadership of David (known as Dawood in Islam). They conquered Jerusalem again. David laid foundation of building the First temple (known as Haikal e Sulaimani to Muslims) in Jerusalem for the peoples. Jews considered it as a place of worship. The construction of First Temple was completed under the leadership of Solomon. A box called Taboot E Sakina placed in the temple.

After Solomon, Jews ruled Jerusalem and Palestine for next 400 years. After 400 years, Neo-Babylonian Empire came to to power in Iraq. A very powerful empire had been formed, whose emperor Nebuchadnezzar II (known as Bakhtenasar for Muslims) attacked Palestine to expand his empire, destroyed the city of Jerusalem and martyred thousands of Jews. He also destroyed the temple which was built by Solomon. Remaining alive Jews were enslaved and took Iraq to their capital Babylon. Jews continue to enslave Iraq for 70 years.

Second Temple

After 70 years, Iraq was attacked by a noble king of Iran, Cyrus the Great and he is known as Zulqarnayn in the Holy Quran. Cyrus the Great conquered this kingdom and sent all the Jews who were here back. He also gave them funds to go back and rebuild the temple of Solomon, which was destroyed. They built the Second Temple. After which the Jews again ruled over Palestine for 400 years.

But they were attacked by an empire which expelled all the Jews from here for 600 years. This empire was none other than the Roman Empire and they did oppression on the Jews. The Jews also tried fight the Roman Empire, but the Roman Empire murdered thousands of Jews. The situation became so worse that the Jews started hiding from the Roman Empire, started living in prisons and the Roman Empire destroyed the Second Temple once again. After that this temple could not rebuilt till date. The Roman Empire ruled Jerusalem and Palestine for 600 years.

Islamic influence on Palestine

Rashidun Caliphate: Umar's accession to Jerusalem

Mosque of Omar, Jerusalem. From Archer and Kingsford's Story of the Crusades.

The Islamic religion and Caliphate spread so fast that within a few years both the Roman and Persian Empires were conquered. After which Khalifa Umar became the most powerful emperor in the world, whose rule was much bigger than the empire of Alexander the Great. After all, the Muslims reached the door of Jerusalem while conquering the Roman Empire. Muhammad, the last prophet of Islam stated that "One day Jerusalem will definitely be conquered by the Muslims. Muslims have two options — either destroy Jerusalem in the same way as other kings had done before or seize it.

Finally, after six months, Governor of Jerusalem — Sophronius said that he will hand over Jerusalem to Muslims only in one condition. That was Khalifa Umar himself should come and meet him. Then Khalid ibn al-Walid thought that why should the Khalifa of Islam be disturbed. So he himself impersonate as Umar and went to meet Sophronius. Because Khalid bin Walid's appearance was similar to Umar and height of both was exactly same. So Khalid bin Walid reached Jerusalem as Umar. But there was person who already met Umar. So he said it could not be Umar. Khalid was forced to do so.

Umar, that time's most powerful king had to leave for Jerusalem. Sophronius got ready wearing full luxury gold and silver jewelry. Because such a big king was coming to meet him. But Sophronius and whole Jerusalem was surprised to see that king's slave was sitting on the camel and the king himself was coming on foot in normal clothes. This scene was very shocking for the people of Palestine. Because, before him whenever any king had conquered Jerusalem, he had destroyed the city and killed many peoples.

Khalifa Umar conquered the city of Jerusalem and took control of entire Palestine. Without shedding anyone's blood, Sophronius handed over the territory to Umar. But he put a condition that, Muslims would not allow the Jews to enter the city of Jerusalem. But Umar did not accept the condition and Jews were also allowed to the Temple Mount. This was the first time when, the state came under control of Muslims. When Umar arrived in Jerusalem, he asked first about the church. After proper inspection of church when he was about to leave it was the time of Salah. The caretaker of Church suggested Umar to pray Salah at church. But he refused to pray at church. He said that if he pray at church, the Muslims will think of converting of church into a mosque which is wrong. Instead of praying their, he prayed at a place outside the church which is now known as the Mosque of Omar in Jerusalem.

Umar gave freedom to all religions. For almost 350 years Muslims, Christians and Jews started living in peace

Attack on Palestine by the Crusaders

350 years later, the Christian gathered troops from allover Europe and attacked Palestine again. At that time, there were many wars going on among the Muslims. Taking advantage of which the Crusaders easily conquered Palestine. After conquering Palestine, they attacked the Muslims and Jews. Thousands of Muslims and Jews were martyred. Mosques and synagogues were destroyed. They converted Al-Aqsa Mosque into a palace. The children and women of Jews hide themselves in buildings and structure. But the Crusaders set fire to these buildings and burned their children and women alive. After which Crusaders ruled the state for almost 90 years

Salahuddin: King of Ayyub dynasty

After 90 years, a great king of Muslims — Saladin planned to conquered the state. He gathered troops from the entire Muslim world and captured the state again by snatching it from the Christians. At that time all the Christians thought that Saladin will take revenge from them in the same way as Crusaders martyred millions of Muslims.

But Saladin, just like Umar forgave all the Crusaders. Even the Crusaders surprised at Saladin's forgiveness. They asked Saladin, that why did he forgave them. But Saladin said:

I am not those men. I am Salahuddin

— Salahuddin Ayyubi

Saladin gave freedom to all these religions again. The mosque, now a palace was restored into a mosque. The first namaz by Saladin was offered there. After Saladin, once again all the Abrahamic religions have conquered the state with peace. They ruled over the land. It lasted for 800 years.

Modern period

Ottoman Empire and World War I

A Jewish man praying at the Western Wall (painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme

After 800 years, the state came under the control of Ottoman Empire. Before World War I, there was no any kind of conflict in Palestine and peoples of all the religions used to live here peacefully. The Muslims were in majority, but with them Jews and Christians also live peacefully. At that time, this entire area falls under the control of Ottoman Empire. On the map, it can be seen that the Ottoman Empire was spread over a large part of Europe, Northern Africa and the parts of Middle East. It was called as the Sultanate of Osmania by Muslims.

Ottoman soldiers guarding Al-Aqsa, Jerusalem

There were some Arab leaders who were very fed up with the rule of Ottoman Empire. They wanted to liberated themselves from here. For this purpose and to accomplish this they secretly met the Britishers. Britishers were enemy of the Ottoman Empire. The British promised them that, if they help them in the war against the Ottoman Empire and in return they would given an independent country. A similar promise was made by British to the Jews present in Europe. Jews present in Europe were already facing a lot of difficulties.

The reason behind is religious conflict. For many centuries, Christians believe that Jews were responsible for the death of Jesus. Due to this, many Christians humiliates Jews in Europe. They don't tolerate the Jews. Jews used to call the movement to get their own country in Palestine as Zionism. This movement was started in 1896 by Theodor Herzl. He wrote a book Der Judenstaat. It was written that if Jews wanted to live a peaceful life, they have to established a state in Palestine. In the beginning, many Jews were against this concept. But soon this movement turned into a political form.

Jews from allover the world called Palestine. They started turning to Palestine and funded by their own community. Jews got funded to setup businesses and factories there. The British government had also promised them i.e. European Jews, that they will give them chance to build their own country in Palestine. In world war I, the Ottoman Empire was suffering a severe defeat. On 2 November 1917, Britain's foreign secretary Arthur Balfour gave a letter in the name of Walter Rothschild who was head of a British Jewish Community. It was written that British government decided that Jews should come to Palestine and develop their own country. Rothschild was assured that British government will support them. Also it was written that this will not cause any harm to the Muslims already living here.

Mandatory Palestine (1924 — 1948)

Main article: Mandatory Palestine

A month after writing Balfour's letter, British solider came and captured Palestine. They ended the 400 year rule of Ottoman Empire. Palestine came under the control of British in world war I. They tried their best to establish a Jewish colony and became successful. In 1919, Balfour wrote a memorandum in which it was written, that he no need to consult Arabs for establishing Jewish colony.

King David Hotel, Jerusalem - post bombing 1946

Lord Balfour's visit to Binyamin 1925. Sitting from left to right: Vera Weizman, Haim Weizman, Balfour, Nahum Sokolov. Standing: British Mandate officials and PKA officials (Henry Frank and Jules Rosenhack)

In the eye of the Arabs of Palestine, the law made by Britain for Jews was very soft. The process of coming of Jewish immigrants from all over the world started in Palestine. They built their own schools and factories. Immigration of Jews to Palestine is termed as Aliyah. With the wish of British, they also created their own small army known as Haganah. Arabs saw the establishment of Jewish settlements by British. They continued to tolerate it for some years. But in 1939, the Arabs of Palestine started raising their voice.

For raising their voice, the Palestinian Arabs were given severe punishment. Many were arrested, some leaders were expelled from Palestine and some were hanged. But still the Arabs of Palestine did not end their strikes. On this the British government formed Peel Commission to solve the matter. This commission found a solution to unrest in Palestine that Palestine should be divided into two parts. It was rejected by the Arabs. There was already unrest on the issue of division of Palestine, which was objected by Arabs. Their strike continued till 1939, until the British government released its White Paper.

Jewish protest demonstrations against Palestine White Paper, May 18, 1939. Zionist young men & girls parading on King George Ave, Jerusalem

In this White Paper, the British government condemned the last 20 years of Palestine. Keeping the current situation in mind, a policy was published. In this policy, first of all the Peel Commission was rejected. This ended the Arabian strike. Apart from this, the new Jewish immigrants coming to Palestine were banned and already present Jews of Palestine were banned of buying lands from Arabs. It was also decided that Palestine should be an independent state in next 10 years and the same would be the home country of the Jewish people.

This White Paper was like a fraud to Zionists. White Paper first time created conflict between the Jews and the British. They refused to accept the White Paper and started attacks on the British government throughout Palestine. In which many local Palestinians were also killed. These attacks continued for several months.

World War II started in 1939, where this war took lives of 60 million peoples. Meanwhile in Germany, Hitler led Nazi Party mercilessly killed six million European Jews in their death camps. This incident is called Holocaust. 66% Jews living in Europe between 1941 and 1945 were killed by Hitler. The surviving Jews had no other option but to go to Palestine. Because it was holy place for them, already some Jewish community already settled there and many of the Muslims saved Jews from Holocaust. Arabs of Palestine also welcomed Jews and they had not much objection on their arrival.

Despite the limit on immigration imposed by the British, they started migrating to Palestine. After the second world war, Britishers were tired and no longer had the courage to fight against Zionist in Palestine. In 1947, they decided to leave. They handed over this issue to the UN.

United Nations proposed to give larger parts of Palestine to minority Jews and smaller parts to the majority Arabs. In the UN General Assembly, this proposal got 72 votes and it was finalized that larger part of Palestine would be given for the Jewish state. At that time, India was also present in the UN Assembly and India also voted against this decision. Then prime minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru had raised a lot of voice against the decision of UN and said that the Indian ambassador of UN was bribed by Zionists to vote in their favor. This resolution of UN was rejected by all the Arab countries. Both sides started attacking each other. But the Jewish army was very strong, so the Palestinians could not compete with them.

Israeli independence and Palestinian nationalism

Yasser Arafat's speech to the United Nations in 1974

Demonstration in Tel Aviv supporting Geneva Accord (2004).

On 14th May 1948, David Ben-Gurion officially formed the state of Israel. He became the first Prime Minister of Israel. In 1948, all the Arab neighboring countries together decided to attack Israel. This was the First Arab-Israeli War, in which five Arab countries attack Israel which formed recently. But Israel had support of Western countries. They had a very strong military. Therefore, Israel alone defeated five Arab countries. After the end of war, the areas chosen by UN for Palestine are now occupied by Israel.

The West Bank came under the control of Jordan and Gaza Strip under the control of Egypt. In 1967, another Arab — Israeli war takes place in which Israel not only occupies the West Bank but also the Gaza Strip and the entire Sinai Peninsula of Egypt. In the midst of all this, the people of Palestine want to create their own country. For this purpose, they formed their own organization which was named Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). Initially, by taking up arms, they tried to forcefully get their own country. To raise their voice, PLO also hijacked many planes and ships. Thus from the side of U.S. and Israel, PLO was declared as a terrorist organization. But many countries did not declare PLO as terrorist organization. They considered it only as a revolutionist who wants to create their own country.

In 1974, PLO got official recognition in the UN in this regard that they are representative of Palestinians. After that, in 1979, peace talks between Egypt and Israel successfully held and Egypt becomes the first Muslim country to officially recognize Israel. After which Israel returns Sinai Peninsula to Egypt. But after two years, Egyptian PM Anwar Sadat got assassinated by extremist group who opposed his move with Israel. In 1988, Yasser Arafat declared the Palestine's independence. At that time a part of PLO splits which is today known as Hamas.

Once again peace talks take place between Israel and PLO. PLO leader Yasser Arafat also officially recognize and Israeli prime minister Yitzhak Rabin also officially recognize PLO. He makes it clear that PLO is not a terrorist organization. Hamas didn't want to compromise with Israel. Other hand, Israel's extremist also opposed any kind of compromise with Palestine. But this does not affected the peace talks. PLO and Israel came face to face first time. They try to solve this issue. This peace agreement is known as Oslo Accords. But in 1995, the assassination of Yitzhak Rabin by Israeli extremist Yigal Amir shattered all the peace talks.

In 1996, first government of Palestine forms.

Cities (I)

Jerusalem is an ancient city located in Judea of Levant, separated between Israel's Jerusalem District and Palestinian territory of West Bank. It is considered holy city among world's three major Abrahamic religions — Christianity, Islam and Judaism. It is populated by 1.1 million peoples, which includes both Israeli and Palestinian areas and as well as its metropolitan region. Both Israelis and Palestinians claims Jerusalem as their capital. Though established its capital in Jerusalem, while in case of Palestinians, Jerusalem is proposed as future capital of Palestine.

Due to its holiness Christians, Muslims and Jews regard Jerusalem as an important city. Throughout the history, the city has been sieged many times.

Status

The dispute between Israelis and Palestinians, who both claim Jerusalem as its capital have created controversy and complexity over the city's status. In both Peel Commission and UN partition plan, Jerusalem was supposed to be under international control. Due to frequent wars, this plan couldn't implement successful. After Six Day war, Israel occupied East Jerusalem, which is part of Palestine as per UN and international community's law.

Economy

Jerusalem is

The Palestinian notified Jerusalem–Bethlehem–Ramallah metropolitan area, contributes 35% of the Palestinian economy.

mamma

Cities

Jerusalem

Jerusalem Al Quds Yerusalem
Metropolis
Administered by	Israel, Palestine
Oslo Accords (few parts got to Palestinian Authority	1994
Seat	Jerusalem Municipality, Quds Governorate
Boroughs	Areas governed by Israeli government and Palestinian Authority
Government
• Type	Municipality, Governorate
• Body	Jerusalem Municipality

Jerusalem is an ancient city in the Levantine region of Middle East, situated on the mountainous range of Judea and is considered holy for world's three major Abrahamic religions — Christianity, Islam and Judaism. Both Israelis and Palestinians claim Jerusalem as their capital. Israel maintain its capital in Jerusalem. Though Palestine also maintains it sovereignty, but have its administrative center in Ramallah which is very near to Jerusalem.

According to international community's law, East Jerusalem is officially under Palestinian territories but is occupied by Israel since 1967. In Oslo Accords, few parts of the city were allotted to Palestinian Authority to maintain their sovereignty these parts. Indicating, that Palestine also governs but the administrative center is in Ramallah near Jerusalem.

Historical significance of Jerusalem has been recorded in religious texts such as Bible, Torah and Quran etc. The City of David is the earliest settlement found in Jerusalem. Israelites are the first inhabitants of Holy Land. According Bible and Q

Palestine Export Tree map from MIT Harvard Economic Complexity Observatory