User:Kyle Troyer/Harappan architecture

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The Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro (Pakistan)

Harappan architecture is the architecture of the bronze-age[1] Indus Valley Civilization, an ancient society of people who lived during circa 2500 BCE to 1700 BCE in the Indus Valley of modern-day India and Pakistan.

The civilization's cities were noted for their urban planning, baked brick houses, elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems, clusters of large non-residential buildings, and new techniques in handicraft (carnelian products, seal carving) and metallurgy (copper, bronze, lead, and tin).[2] Its large urban centres of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa very likely grew to containing between 30,000 and 60,000 individuals,[3][note 1] and the civilisation itself during its florescence may have contained between one and five million individuals.[4][note 2]

South Asian Harappan culture was heavily formed through its rich integration into international trade, commerce, and contact due to its location along the Indus River.[5] Signs of urbanization in the Indus Valley began as early as 6000 BCE, and by 3200 BCE the region expanded with towns and cities during the Early Harappan phase.[6] By 2500 BCE in the Mature Harappan phase, the Harappan Civilization became the eastern anchor of a network of routes including the Mesopotamian city-states, the Gulf, Iranian Plateau, and Central Asia, and its urbanization emerged as a clear marker of the sociocultural complexity of the Mature Harappan Civilization.[7] Through its urbanization, the Harappan socio-cultural context became a set of intertwined features and processes that were centered on the city while bringing together many kinds of people, different ethnic and linguistic groups, into a socio-cultural whole.[8] Due to the Harappan Civilization's participation in the art of writing, engagement in long-distance trade, and studying of abroad in Mesopotamia,[9] it became a complex ethnic and linguistic civilization that was further felt through its architecture and town planning.


In the known archaeological archives, the race of Harappa cannot be classified; the culture of Harappa cannot be attributed, and the corresponding historical books have not been discovered.. The unearthed seals are engraved with characters with a perfect system.If these seal characters can be deciphered, the above puzzles will be easily solved.Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the words on the architecture of Hapara and the connection with other civilizations.For example,Shaihaijing is a history book of china which recorded some events from Xia Dynasty.Harappa originated from the five rivers of Kunlun Mountains. In the "Shan Hai Jing" ，they are called river, red water, ocean water (black water), green water, and weak water. The names of modern rivers are the Indus, Satledje, Ganges, Yarlung Zangbo (Brahmaputra River),Saraswati River. Scholars have speculated that Zuozu (Kunlunxu) may be the city of Harapa.During the Xia Dynasty, many historical events occurred in these three ancient cities.


Overview[edit]

Elements of Harappan Architecture[edit]

Art of the Indus Valley civilization architecture was indigenous and without any influence. Sculpture had no integral role in architecture; they were found separately. Concentration of utility factor rather than aesthetic factor because they are traders. Harappan architecture of the Indus civilization focused on functional expression rather than pure decoration.[10] Evidence shows that the Indus culture lacked magnificent buildings such as palaces, monuments, discrepancies, and tombs, on the contrary, most buildings were large-scale public buildings, commodious houses, or practical residences, which proved to be the first complex ancient society based on egalitarianism.[11]

Planning[edit]

A notable feature of Harappan architecture is that of a developed infrastructural city plan, in that they had sophisticated systems to control the flow of water and waste with public wells and drains that may have required advanced planning to implement. The cities were divided into rectilinear grids, encircled by fortifications, with each block containing a network of houses and public wells. Harappan cities featured urban and social elements such as roads, fire pits, kilns, and industrial buildings, and were primarily functional in purpose rather than aesthetic.[12]The city sewerage, plumbing, and drainage systems were distributed in the network of the grid planning by early hydro-engineers to be functionally used and maintained.[13] The Harappan civilization seems to also be capable of astrological observation and alignment, as some evidence exists that Mohenjo-daro was aligned with the star "Rohini".[12]

Large Structures[edit]

The Harappan civilization was capable of building large structures that demanded significant engineering prowess:

Citadels (upper part or political, economy rich and VIP area). Citadel for Elite class. Roads cut on right angle and majorly are in rectangular shape. There were presence of multi-storey buildings. Houses are created from stone, mud-brick and wood. Assembly halls are also found there.

Public baths were used for rituals and ceremonies. There were Small rooms along with the bath. No leakages and cracks on stairs. Bricks use for making public bath.

Granaries are found in citadels to save from rats and the other reason where the people from citadel were prosperous. These are also found at Lothal Dockyard to facilitate import and export.

Water management was highly developed by the Harappan civilization.[12] Large scale water works, such as drainage systems, could be covered to cure blockages. Dams were also constructed that controlled water inlets.[12]

The Lothal Dock Yard is away from the main current to avoid deposition of silt. There is a wood lock gate system to avoid tidal flow.[1]

Artificial lakes were cut out of stone to store water, as well as rain.[12]

Corbelling was a technique used extensively by the Harappans to construct stone arches. There is evidence of the civilization building large vaulted culverts in Mohenjo-daro. [12]

Water and Sanitation Technologies[edit]

The Harappa civilization revealed a complex mercantile society based on the well organized and comprehensive urban planning, which included sophiscated water management and sewerage systems to allow structures such as dams, wells, baths, and fountains. The plumbing and sewerage systems were formed by early hydro-engineers to allow water and sanitation practices in the city and were effectively applied and maintained by ancient Harappan residents.[13]

Aqueducts were used in the open or covered underground plumbing and swerage systems to transport water in the long-distanced systems from wells or tanks to the city center.[14]

Dams were hydro-structure built along the Indus River for water management purposes such as collecting, storing and diverting water.[15]

Water cisterns and reservoirs were used in water storage systems including aqueducts and basins for the purpose of water distribution in agricultural practices, some of which took advantage of the terrain height differences to convey and store water.[16]

Fountains were set up connected by water channels to supply for households for purposes of drinking and bathing.[17]

Drainage system and drains were built to make efficient disposal of water waste and residual solid in a sustainable way, which had inspection manholes at regular intervals to ensure efficient operation and proper management.[18][13]

Materials[edit]

The materials of houses depended on the location of the building. If the house was more rural the bricks would be mud. If the house was in an urban area then the bricks would be baked. The bricks were made in ratios of 1x2x4. “Houses range from 1–2 stories in height, with a central courtyard around which the rooms are arranged”[19][20]


Other Characteristics[edit]

Spiritual force

The buildings of the Hapara civilization were very unique at the time, and these buildings were fired. There are only two sizes of modules for bricks, which shows that the weights and measures at that time were also unified. After some cities are destroyed by floods, new cities will be rebuilt on the original cities. One hypothesis supports that this unity is caused by a spiritual force. No military equipment or urban defense equipment provided also support for this hypothesis. And purity and cleanliness of body play a central role in modem Hinduism, as does ritual bathing. As a consequence, archaeologists and historians have speculated that the elegant and sophisticated bathing and ablution facilities in many Indus Valley sites are a reflection of an early version of Hinduism.

History[edit]

Early Harappan Phase[edit]

The Early Harappan Phase, as defined by M.R. Mughal, spans roughly between 3200-2500 B.C.E.[21]. Between the two periods, the number of archeological sites dHarappan Architecture is a reflection of its unique culture. ated to the Mature Harappan Phase was roughly over double to that of the Early Harappan, implying a significant urban growth during the Early Phase. There is not much evidence to show much urbanization, however; most Early Harappan structures were of a small scale and did not expand into public spaces or display a sense of social class. Early Harappan establishments settled in diverse landscapes, such as mountains and alluvium valleys (deposits of fertile soil).[21]

Early to Mature Transition[edit]

There is evidence that the shift from the Early to Mature Harappan ages that point towards a gradual transition, with rapid development and geographical urban expansion.[1][21] During this transition, a significant number of Harappan settlements were abandoned, perhaps due to shifting geography and climate.[21]

Mature Harappan Phase[edit]

The Mature Phase spans roughly between 2500-1900 B.C.E.[1] and is much more reliably dated than the Early Phase. It is distinctive in its urban development, and was shaped by the behavior and activity of a sophisticated societal network.[1] The structures reveal a hierarchy in social classes, and also evidence of extensive trading and farming.[1]

Built Structures[edit]

Historical[edit]

(stub)

Revivalism[edit]

There are few buildings built in the Harappan Revival style. The best well-known is the Mohenjo-daro Museum. It is made of bricks with a very similar color to the buildings from Mohenjo-daro or Harappa. One entrance has a geometric pattern made of bricks similar to those of the original gates.


Excavations of Mounds

Modern excavations at Harappa eventually shifted from Mound E to Mound F, and this site was later determined to be the core of Mature Harappan.The largest (and therefore presumably the most important of all the structures is the so‐called granary on Mound F, whose ruins indicate it played a central role in Mature Harappan Phase. The massive rectangular structure was made of mudbrick with a wooden superstructure, but today only the foundation primarily remains. The building was comprised of two rows of six rooms that were about 50 by 20 feet . Later scholars have pointed out, though, that no evidence of grain has been recovered from the building,leading many to believe it served a different function. Some people believe that the granary was actually used for state or religious functions, pointing to the seals and other inscriptions that were excavated from its foundation. Others have looked to the Harappans' contemporaries in Egypt and Mesopotamia for a potential clue as to the function of the granary, and they believe it very likely could have been a temple. In Mesopotamia and Egypt, temples served as both religious and administrative centers, with the rooms inside divided according to use. The various

rooms would seem to follow this pattern, as some would have been dedicated to sacred functions while others were reserved for affairs of the state. As discussed earlier, Mound E was the site of the earliest ancient Harappan settlement, and after

the city grew and transitioned into the Mature Harappan phase, the major development of the settlement moved to Mound F and Mound ET, but Mound E was also inhabited. Both mounds are at the southern end of the ancient Harappa settlement and are delineated by a modern road. The Mature Harappan level of excavation on mounds E and ET has revealed that the trade activity that began in the Early Harappan phase had grown even more and had become the major industry of the city, driving its growth. The remains of an outer wall at the Mature Harappan level were discovered just south of both mounds. As with the walls discovered in other parts of Harappa, this wall apparently functioned to move traffic and to keep neighborhoods segregated instead of for any defensive purposes. The mudbrick wall was fairly wide at 30‐35 feet thick in some parts, which would have been imposing even if it had been intended for defensive purposes.

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^ Dyson: "Mohenjo-daro and Harappa may each have contained between 30,000 and 60,000 people (perhaps more in the former case). Water transport was crucial for the provisioning of these and other cities. That said, the vast majority of people lived in rural areas. At the height of the Indus valley civilization the subcontinent may have contained 4-6 million people."[3]
  2. ^ McIntosh: "The enormous potential of the greater Indus region offered scope for huge population increase; by the end of the Mature Harappan period, the Harappans are estimated to have numbered somewhere between I and 5 million, probably well below the region's carrying capacity."[4]

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b c d e POSSEHL, G. L. (2000). "THE MATURE HARAPPAN PHASE". Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute. 60/61: 243–251. ISSN 0045-9801.
  2. ^ Wright 2009, pp. 115–125.
  3. ^ a b Dyson 2018, p. 29.
  4. ^ a b McIntosh 2008, p. 187.
  5. ^ POSSEHL, G. L. (2000). "THE MATURE HARAPPAN PHASE". Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute. 60/61: 243–251. ISSN 0045-9801.
  6. ^ POSSEHL, G. L. (2000). "THE EARLY HARAPPAN PHASE". Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute. 60/61: 227–241. ISSN 0045-9801.
  7. ^ POSSEHL, G. L. (2000). "THE MATURE HARAPPAN PHASE". Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute. 60/61: 243–251. ISSN 0045-9801.
  8. ^ POSSEHL, G. L. (2000). "THE MATURE HARAPPAN PHASE". Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute. 60/61: 243–251. ISSN 0045-9801.
  9. ^ POSSEHL, G. L. (2000). "THE MATURE HARAPPAN PHASE". Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute. 60/61: 243–251. ISSN 0045-9801.
  10. ^ Iyengar, R. N. Current Science 95, no. 3 (2008): 404–6. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24102770.
  11. ^ Green, A.S. (2021). Killing the Priest-King: Addressing Egalitarianism in the Indus Civilization. J Archaeol Res 29, 153–202. https://doi-org.proxy.library.upenn.edu/10.1007/s10814-020-09147-9
  12. ^ a b c d e f Iyengar, R. N. (2008). "Review of Harappan Architecture and Civil Engineering". Current Science. 95 (3): 404–406. ISSN 0011-3891.
  13. ^ a b c Khan, S. (2020). Similarities of Minoan and Indus Valley Hydro-Technologies. Sustainability., 12(4897). https://doi.org/10.3390/su12124897
  14. ^ Joshi, J.P. Harappan Architecture and Civil Engineering; Theoretical Economics Letters; Rupa & Co.: New Delhi, India, 2008; Available online: http://www.scirp.org/(S(lz5mqp453edsnp55rrgjct55))/reference/ReferencesPapers.aspx?ReferenceID=1672615 (accessed on 19 November 2018).
  15. ^ Tsatsafinos, C. Ancient Greek Dams. In Proceedings of the Common Conference of HHA, HWA, and HCoMWR, Athens, Greece, 10-12 December 2015; pp. 997-1004.
  16. ^ Subramanian, T.S. The rise and fall of a Harappan city. Frontline Archeol. India's Natl. Mag. 2010, 27, 5-18. Available online: https://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2712/stories/20100618271206200.htm (accessed on 19 August 2019)
  17. ^ Yannopoulos, S.I.; Lyberatos, G.; Theodossiou, N.; Li, W.; Valipour, M.; Tamburrino, A.; Angelakis, A.N. Evolution of water lifting devices (pumps) over the centuries worldwide. Water 2015, 7, 5031-5060.
  18. ^ Water Conservation of Ancient Structures India. Available online: http://www.aelsindia.com/rjcesfeb2017/1a.pdf (accessed on 15 June 2020)
  19. ^ "Harappa: An Overview of Harappan Architecture and Town Planning". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2018-11-15.
  20. ^ Miller, Daniel (June 18, 1984). "Ideology and the Harappan Civilization" (PDF). Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. 4: 34–71. doi:10.1016/0278-4165(85)90013-3.
  21. ^ a b c d POSSEHL, G. L. (2000). "THE EARLY HARAPPAN PHASE". Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute. 60/61: 227–241. ISSN 0045-9801.
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