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Representative Bureaucracy - Initial Contributions

As stated by political scientist Samuel Krislov, representative bureaucracy is a notion that “ broad social groups should have spokesman and officeholders in administrative as well as political positions”. With this notion, representative bureaucracy is a form of representation that captures most or all aspects of a society’s population in the governing body of the state.  ( Krislov, Samuel. (2012). Representative Bureaucracy. Quid Pro Books)

History

The term representative bureaucracy is generally attributed to J. Donald Kingsley’s book titled “ Representative Bureaucracy” that was published in 1944. In his book, Kingsley calls for a “ liberalization of social class selection for the English bureaucracy”. To solve this issue, Kingsley states that “ representative bureaucracy is necessary because there must be at least some administrators sympathetic to the programmatic concerns of the dominant political party”. Years later, political scientist Samuel Krislov’s book titled “ Representative Bureaucracy” also states the same ideals of representative bureaucracy as Kingsley.

In Samuel Krislov’s book, Krislov states that in much, if not all, of bureaucracy’s history, the perception of bureaucracy has had the identification of being entities covered in red tape and having an antagonistic approach to the public. Also with the association of these ideals heavily ingrained into the public, it is hard to think of the positive aspects of such representation. ( Krislov, Samuel. (2012). Representative Bureaucracy. Quid Pro Books)

U.S. Levels of Government

Local

• Mark Bradbury and J. Edward Kellough surveyed local government employees and citizens to find the answers to three questions:  First, to what degree are the views of African-American and white citizens and African-American and white administrators similar or different? For example, are the attitudes of African American citizens and administrators congruent? Second, are African-Americans in government more likely than whites in government to adhere to a minority advocacy role? And third, is attitude congruence with the African-American community a primary determinant of adherence to an African-American advocacy role by public administrators? they found that there are great differences in the attitudes of blacks and whites on all of the survey items, these differences are present between citizens and between government administrators. they found that views of black administrators are consistent with the views of black citizens and that black citizens and white administrators disagree on the same issues. Also, white citizens and white administrators also hold very different views from each other. in the area surveyed white and black citizens hold similar views. the white administrators were out of touch with the views of their citizenry.
• survey used other variables to to see how they affect an administrator's views, age, race, sex, political ideology, education, and feedback. Race has a strong positive effect on adoption of the black representative role. black administrators are much more likely to adopt the role than white administrators.

• Educated administrators more likely to take on representative role

• Conservatives less likely
• age, sex not all that important.
• administrator’s race most important
• single local government surveyed, does not account for history, culture, socioeconomics

State

• Deil S. Wright
• from organizational values to organizational roles examining representative bureaucracy in state administration

Federal

• Representative Bureaucracy, An Empirical Analysis Kenneth John Meier
• Study to determine whether or not the U.S. Federal government is representative
• standards used to determine if the bureaucracy does mirror the society, age, education, income, size of birthplace, social class, region of birth, father’s occupation. Focused on Father’s occupation because they tend to be stable and the best indicator of social class.
• according to father’s occupation the federal gov is representative of the people
• same thing for age
• Family backgrounds similar for personnel under wage board system of classification
• GS1 -GS4 similar to wage board
• GS5 - GS13 unrepresentative of population
• GS14 and above significantly unrepresentative.
• The higher the rank the less representative it becomes
• very similar pattern to English Civil Service
• compared to UK, Denmark, France, Turkey and India, U.S. is most representative.
• U.S. represents middle status occupations better than any other country surveyed, is behind UK and Denmark in representing lower third of occupations, only slightly better than France and Turkey.
• By the place of birth and size of birthplace the it’s representative
• In Bureaucracy and Constitutionalism Norton Long contends representative qualities of the american Civil Service compensates for the unrepresentativeness of the political branches of government.
• The study agrees that the civil service is the most representative followed by the military, political executives, then foreign service.
• does not compensate enough, Long’s proposal weakly supported. however he was correct in saying the foreign service and political branch are less representative
• by race, the percentage of nonwhites decreases progressively as one ascends the bureaucratic hierarchy.
• Representative status of women even worse than nonwhites.
• of the 40% who are women more than 75% of the lower positions in the bureaucracy are filled by women, 3% of higher civil service positions held by women
• women who have attained higher positions are more unrepresentative of American women than their male counterparts are of the male population
• women in higher level positions to a greater degree have fathers who were professionals and executives
• Study analyzes Dept. of Ag., Defense and VA less representative than entire civil service, Post Office and Treasury Dept are more representative.
• conclusions: while broadly representative, when looking at higher level positions, it is not, far from a conclusive study

Bureaucratic Representation

Bureaucratic representation is when it is expected that public administrator and government officials in a bureaucracy represent and conduct duties that are of concern for the interest of the individuals and groups the represent and serve. Studies have shown that there are an endless list of variable linking active and passive representation such as class, race, gender, ethnicity, as well as cultural traits such as language and religion. A number of studies have demonstrated a possible linkage between active and passive representation. Active representation is a process while passive representation is a characteristic. The possible linkage between active and passive is one that is complex and perplexing.

Active

• Active representation is a function that concludes represented groups benefit from representative bureaucracies. Most active representation is concerned with how representation influence policymakers and implementation and assumes that bureaucrats will act purposely on behalf of their counterparts in the general population.
• An example being, women and men working beside one another within a bureaucracy, women are more likely to actively promote issues and agendas that benefit women in the general population. 
• Potential barriers to active representation are peer pressures that appear within work environments as well as social ones. The pressures placed on bureaucratic of a primary group to conform are notorious within any environment.

Passive

• Representative bureaucracy in the passive sense is the degree to which the social characteristics of the bureaucracy reflect the social characteristics of the populations the bureaucracy serves.
• Studies of passive representation examine whether the composition of bureaucracies mirror the demographic composition of the general population. 
• Passive representation exists when bureaucracy's demographic characteristics demonstrate the demographic characteristics of the population. 

Effects on Society

Positive

• Representative bureaucracy has been proven to help build relationships between employees and their respectable employers. Studies show that people tend to relate more to those who share similar characteristics with. These characteristics include but are not limited to: demographic, age, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. When representative bureaucracy is utilized, this enables relationships to flourish due to the attempt of even representation of all the previously listed characteristics.
• In government programs, officials are thought to favor those they can relate to and discriminate others. This can discourage certain ethnicity from applying or receiving benefits. Representative bureaucracy helps to prevent this by providing checks and balances that prevent the favoritism. Representative bureaucracy helps to prevent the bias that is associated with benefits/programming. Although laws do not allow for discrimination, people often subconsciously favor people that resemble them.

Negative

• Some criticisms that are associated with representative bureaucracy are:
• Representative bureaucracy may be too focused on representation instead of productivity. A focus on if everyone is equally represented could lead to a lack of quality out of fear of not being able to achieve equal representation. 
• Scholars believe that focusing solely on representation of all people could lead to an easier platform for racism. This focus has a potential to create more hate between ethnicity. 

Law Enforcement

• Gender representation in police departments can influence an individual's ability to determine an agency's performance (Riccucci). A study conducted at Rutgers University determined that the active representation of female officers positively influenced agency performance, job performance, trustworthiness, and fairness of the agency. Citizens are thus able to be more likely to be cooperative in the conductions of public safety outcomes. Within the domestic violence unit (DVU), a significant change in citizen behavior was seen towards the agency ability to execute and deliver public safety measures. Although there is no difference for male and female agents in filing reports and pursuing suspects, the “...character of the bureaucrat may nonetheless change encourage the client to actively solicit his or her services..” in a more effective manner (Meir).
• Women play an integral role with discretion, implementation, and the enforcement of policies specifically in regards to sexual assault policies (Meir). As law enforcement agents are considered street-level bureaucrats, their need to “...exercise discretion, their attitudes, values, and predispositions…” make  policy implementation an integral process. The representation of women and minorities within bureaucratic agencies, specifically law enforcement, make immediate positive changes in regards to their targeted demographic groups. 
• Studies have shown that racial representation has little effect with street level bureaucrats (Sharp). 

Education

• Research conducted at the University of Kansas investigated the “...impact of minority bureaucratic and political representation on the distribution of disciplinary measures in public schools…” as compared to students within gifted and talented programs (Sharp). 
• Educational institutions are inherently bureaucratic in function and deal with issues regarding a discrepancy in disciplinary action and gifted and talented placement with minorities.  
• There is a noticeable difference within gifted and talented school programs about the lack of student representation. Often times educators look over minorities or low-income students and request gifted and talented testing for caucasian and asian students. Selection for this program is not contingent upon one teacher, but rather higher up school administrators. In this case, a call for minority administrator representation within educational institutions would be more effective than minority teacher placement (Sharp). 
• Representative bureaucracy within education also focuses on teacher representation. Studies show that having “...a greater presence of black teachers does yield more beneficial outcomes for minority students…” due to the fact that teaching consists of two distinct roles. The first being an allotment of education and second being the execution of discipline. 

Representative Bureaucracy - Annotated Bibliography

Brudney, Jeffrey L., F. Ted Hebert, and Deil S. Wright. "From Organizational Values to Organizational Roles: Examining Representative Bureaucracy in State Administration." Journal of Public Administration Research & Theory 10.3 (2000): 491. Business Source Complete. Web. 15 Oct. 2015. This article focuses on the lack of representation among people of color and women in state administrations in the United States, as of July 2000. Scholars analyzed the differences between passive and active representation, development of a model of representative bureaucracy, and testing of the model in a sample of state agency directors. The scholar's findings suggest that on certain issues and behaviors, race and gender can manifest direct effects. They found that over the last few decades, people of color and women have made slow but important progress toward expanding their numbers in the top of state administrations.

Dolan, J. (2002). Representative Bureaucracy in the Federal Executive: Gender and Spending Priorities. Journal Of Public Administration Research & Theory, 12(3), 353. This article examines whether gender influences policy outputs in the U.S. branches of government. The research investigate the impact of organizations socialization and gender on bureaucratic behavior. Scholars also analyzed organizational socialization theory, which is that common working experiences within government agencies will diminish the differences between gender. The article consists of analyzing women and men within their affects towards spending attitudes of federal administrators. The scholars findings stand in major contrast with other research that has studied the link between passive and active representation among female administrators. They found female executives are like to shape internal budget strategies and decisions that incorporate women's perspective.

Grissom, J. A., Nicholson-Crotty, J., & Nicholson-Crotty, S. (2009). Race, Region, and Representative Bureaucracy. Public Administration Review, 69(5), 911-919. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6210.2009.02040.x This peer reviewed article examines the the linkage between passive representation in public agencies and the pursuit of specific policies designed to benefit minority groups. In this article researchers suggests that the structural characteristics of those organizations, the external political environment, and the perceptions of individual bureaucrats each help to facilitate that relationship. The scholars' study argues that, for black bureaucrats, the area of residence is an important moderator of active representation. Their hypotheses is related to an argument in a nationally representative sample of more than 3,000 public schools. The results suggest that black teachers produce greater benefits for black students in the South. Another one of their analysis also confirms that race is a more important issue for Southern black bureaucrats, when compared with their non-Southern counterparts.

Trondal, J., Murdoch, Z., & Geys, B. (2015). Representative Bureaucracy and the Role of Expertise in Politics. Politics & Governance, 3(1), 26-36. doi:10.17645/pag.v3i1.65 Currently in the United States, there is a growing role of experts and expertise in public policy. This article makes the case that with the rising sophistication of modern democracies, the business of governance has become more difficult. While at the same time, decision-makers in Congress has increased the role of “experts” and their “ways of doing things” in processes of proposing, implementing and legitimizing public policy. The analysis concentrates on political life and how it is increasing the reliance on external experts to assist in the development and implementation of policy decisions. The study argues that by raising the need to extend studies of bureaucratic representation to such external and non-permanent experts in governmental affairs.

Wilkins, Vicky M., and Brian N. Williams. (2008). Black or Blue: Racial Profiling and Representative Bureaucracy. Public Administration Review, 68(4), 654-664. This study examines whether the presence of Latino police officers reduces the racial disparity in traffic stops in divisions in which they work. The study closely examines the link between passive and active representation for ethnicity in the context of racial profiling. They also analyze the link within an organization that relies heavily on socialization and racial profiling. The scholars have found that the presence of Latino police officers did increase the racial disparity within the division in which they worked. This discovery is to suggest that the pressure to perform as a police officer weighs heavily on Latinos and may affect their professional attitudes and behaviors.

Representative Bureaucracy - Proposal

Project Proposal: Describe what/why/how our team will contribute to Wikipedia.

Section 1: Evaluation of Existing Article Quality

FIRST:

begin with a two-to three sentence summary The representative bureaucracy page is lacking. There are 4 sub-sections, each could be expanded upon and a lot of information regarding representative bureaucracy is missing.

NEXT:

analyze and describe the quality The quality of the article is poor. The article is short, with few links to other pages and only 4 sources. what are the strengths and weaknesses Strengths: Has some relevant information regarding representative bureaucracy. Weaknesses: -References Samuel Krislov’s Representative Bureaucracy, proceeds to give almost no information regarding the book or any of the information therein. -Very few links to other wiki pages -Upon closer inspection, the 9 sources I mentioned are actually just 4 sources. what should be removed Definition subsection either needs to be expanded or removed. what requires more support The passive and active bureaucratic representation sections should be expanded. Samuel Krislov section could be expanded or transformed into a history section. are all information relevant considering the fact that there is barely any information in the article, yes, what is there is relevant. does it link to other wikipedia sites? Yes, but not nearly enough. are there any links that you could add Plenty.

Section 2: Detailed Outline of Proposed Revisions

Planning the organization and content -Create an Outline for the revised article -include any existing sections to be kept Active and Passive Bureaucratic Representation What sections should be deleted Representative Bureaucracy by Samuel Krislov Proposed New Sections History Levels of Government Local Level State Level Federal Level Bureaucratic Representation Active Passive Effects on Society Positive Negative “Criticisms” Law Enforcement Education Elections and Voting

List references that we expect to be applicable /useful for each section Introduction/Overview Kennedy, Brandy. "Unraveling Representative Bureaucracy A Systematic Analysis of the Literature." Administration & Society 46.4 (2014): 395-421. History Sowa, J. E. and Selden, S. C. (2003), Administrative Discretion and Active Representation: An Expansion of the Theory of Representative Bureaucracy. Public Administration Review, 63: 700–710. doi: 10.1111/1540-6210.00333 Levels of Government (Rand) Local Level Bradbury, M. D., & Kellough, J. E. (2008). Representative Bureaucracy: Exploring the Potential for Active Representation in Local Government. Journal Of Public Administration Research & Theory, 18(4), 697-714.

State Level Brudney, J. L., Hebert, F. T., & Wright, D. S. (2000). From Organizational Values to Organizational Roles: Examining Representative Bureaucracy in State Administration. Journal Of Public Administration Research & Theory, 10(3), 491.

Federal Level Dolan, J. (2002). Representative Bureaucracy in the Federal Executive: Gender and Spending Priorities. Journal Of Public Administration Research & Theory, 12(3), 353. Meier, K. J., & Smith, K. B. (1994). Representative Democracy and Representative Bureaucracy: Examining the Top-Down and Bottom-Up Linkages. Social Science Quarterly (University Of Texas Press), 75(4), 790-803. Meier, Kenneth John. “Representative Bureaucracy: An Empirical Analysis”. The American Political Science Review 69.2 (1975): 526–542. Web… Meier, Kenneth John, and Lloyd G. Nigro. “Representative Bureaucracy and Policy Preferences: A Study in the Attitudes of Federal Executives”. Public Administration Review 36.4 (1976): 458–469. Web... Bureaucratic Representation (Leslie) Active Beverlin, M. (2012). Symbolic Representation in Police Traffic Stops. Journal Of Ethnicity In Criminal Justice, 10(1), 41-70 Marvel, J., & Resh, W. (n.d). Bureaucratic Discretion, Client Demographics, and Representative Bureaucracy. American Review Of Public Administration, 45(3), 281-310. (Ask Hanks if she can access this? Need additional login into AMERICAN REVIEW OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION) Passive Lim, H. (2006). Representative Bureaucracy: Rethinking Substantive Effects and Active Representation. Public Administration Review, 66(2), 193-204. Kennedy, B. (n.d). Unraveling Representative Bureaucracy A Systematic Analysis of the Literature. Administration & Society, 46(4), 395-421. (Ask Hanks if she can access this? Need additional login into AMERICAN REVIEW OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION) Effects on Society Positive(Alex) Naff, K. C. (1995). Perceptions of discrimination: Moving beyond the numbers of representative bureaucracy. Policy Studies Journal,23(3), 483-498. doi:10.1111/1541-0072.ep9602282648 Esman, M. J. (1999). Public administration and conflict management in plural societies: the case for representative bureaucracy.Public Administration & Development, 19(4), 353-366.

Negative “Criticisms” (Alex) Grissom, J. A., Nicholson-Crotty, J., & Nicholson-Crotty, S. (2009). Race, Region, and Representative Bureaucracy. Public Administration Review, 69(5), 911-919. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6210.2009.02040.x Naff, K. C. (1995). Perceptions of discrimination: Moving beyond the numbers of representative bureaucracy. Policy Studies Journal,23(3), 483-498. doi:10.1111/1541-0072.ep9602282648

Law Enforcement (Shifa) Riccucci, N. M., Van Ryzin, G. C., & Lavena, C. F. (2014). Representative Bureaucracy in Policing: Does It Increase Perceived Legitimacy?. Journal Of Public Administration Research & Theory, 24(3), 537-551. doi:10.1093/jopart/muu006 Meier, K. J., & Nicholson‐Crotty, J. (2006). Gender, representative bureaucracy, and law enforcement: The case of sexual assault. Public Administration Review, 66(6), 850-860. SUBRAMANIAM, V. (1967). Representative bureaucracy: a reassessment. American Political Science Review, 611010-1019.

Education (Shifa) Sharp, E. B., Haider-Markel, D. P., Bright, C., & Sylvester, S. (2014). Staying in Class: Race, Representation and Student Punishment. Conference Papers -- American Political Science Association, 1-37. Urick, A., & Bowers, A. J. (2011). What Influences Principals' Perceptions of Academic Climate? A Nationally Representative Study of the Direct Effects of Perception on Climate. Leadership & Policy In Schools, 10(3), 322-348. Sharp, E. B., Haider-Markel, D. P., Bright, C., & Sylvester, S. (2014). Staying in Class: Race, Representation and Student Punishment. Conference Papers -- American Political Science Association, 1-37.

Elections and Voting (Alex) Kropf, M., Vercellotti, T., & Kimball, D. C. (2013). Representative Bureaucracy and Partisanship: The Implementation of Election Law. Public Administration Review, 73(2), 242-252.

• Section 3: Joint Work Plan establish a project timeline Deadlines 10/30 Proposal Evaluation Group Grade 30pts 11/06 Initial Contributions Group Grade 15pts 11/18 Discussing Final Wiki Edits sign up for Wiki Peer Review Sign up for Wiki Presentation Days 11/20 Peer Review Class does NOT meet Initial Contributions must be posted by 5pm Individual Grade 15pts 11/23 Research/Work Day Class does NOT meet Complete Peer Review Form post to the article talk page 11/25 Class does NOT meet 11/27 Class does NOT meet 11/30 Completed Article Revisions Completed Article due by 5pm Group Grade 25pts 12/02 Presentation Group Grade 10pts 12/02 Reflection Individual 15pts Individual Team Member Responsibilities Alex Remind Everyone of Deadlines Leslie upload sections to Wiki linking to external wiki pages keeping an updated Google Doc Rand

Shifa Editing final drafts References External page Trenton

Potential Difficulties? Tasks not being completed by deadline To ensure your task is completed on time it may be beneficial to: Discuss and establish timelines that ALL members can agree on Ask each member to present a progress report each Sunday meeting on what they have completed since the last meeting Offer to assist one another to complete tasks if necessary Members not contributing To ensure that all members are contributing, it may be beneficial to: Have weekly check ins on agreed upon platform and the agreed upon day and time. Use GroupMe to see how everyone in the group is doing Have reminders sent out about due dates and assignments. Hank’s Notes clearly layout the existing layout within your proposal should be roughly 5 pages turn in HARD copy 30pts everyone gets the same grade Hanks will meet with groups to go over our proposal

History

U.S. Levels of Government

Local

Mark Bradbury and J. Edward Kellough surveyed local government employees and citizens to find the answers to three questions:  First, to what degree are the views of African-American and white citizens and African-American and white administrators similar or different? For example, are the attitudes of African American citizens and administrators congruent? Second, are African-Americans in government more likely than whites in government to adhere to a minority advocacy role? And third, is attitude congruence with the African-American community a primary determinant of adherence to an African-American advocacy role by public administrators? they found that there are great differences in the attitudes of blacks and whites on all of the survey items, these differences are present between citizens and between government administrators. they found that views of black administrators are consistent with the views of black citizens and that black citizens and white administrators disagree on the same issues. Also, white citizens and white administrators also hold very different views from each other. in the area surveyed white and black citizens hold similar views. the white administrators were out of touch with the views of their citizenry.

survey used other variables to to see how they affect an administrator's views, age, race, sex, political ideology, education, and feedback. Race has a strong positive effect on adoption of the black representative role. black administrators are much more likely to adopt the role than white administrators.

Educated administrators more likely to take on representative role

Conservatives less likely

age, sex not all that important.

administrator’s race most important

single local government surveyed, does not account for history, culture, socioeconomics.

State

Deil S. Wright

from organizational values to organizational roles examining representative bureaucracy in state administration

Federal

Representative Bureaucracy, An Empirical Analysis Kenneth John Meier

Study to determine whether or not the U.S. Federal government is representative

standards used to determine if the bureaucracy does mirror the society, age, education, income, size of birthplace, social class, region of birth, father’s occupation. Focused on Father’s occupation because they tend to be stable and the best indicator of social class.

according to father’s occupation the federal gov is representative of the people

same thing for age

Family backgrounds similar for personnel under wage board system of classification

GS1 -GS4 similar to wage board

GS5 - GS13 unrepresentative of population

GS14 and above significantly unrepresentative.

The higher the rank the less representative it becomes

very similar pattern to English Civil Service

compared to UK, Denmark, France, Turkey and India, U.S. is most representative.

U.S. represents middle status occupations better than any other country surveyed, is behind UK and Denmark in representing lower third of occupations, only slightly better than France and Turkey.

By the place of birth and size of birthplace the it’s representative

In Bureaucracy and Constitutionalism Norton Long contends representative qualities of the american Civil Service compensates for the unrepresentativeness of the political branches of government.

The study agrees that the civil service is the most representative followed by the military, political executives, then foreign service.

does not compensate enough, Long’s proposal weakly supported. however he was correct in saying the foreign service and political branch are less representative

by race, the percentage of nonwhites decreases progressively as one ascends the bureaucratic hierarchy. 

Representative status of women even worse than nonwhites.

of the 40% who are women more than 75% of the lower positions in the bureaucracy are filled by women, 3% of higher civil service positions held by women

women who have attained higher positions are more unrepresentative of American women than their male counterparts are of the male population

women in higher level positions to a greater degree have fathers who were professionals and executives

Study analyzes Dept. of Ag., Defense and VA less representative than entire civil service, Post Office and Treasury Dept are more representative.

conclusions: while broadly representative, when looking at higher level positions, it is not, far from a conclusive study

Bureaucratic Representation

Active

Passive

Effects on Society 

Positive

May help employees relate to each other/employers more

In government programs, officials are thought to favor those they can relate to and discriminate others. RB helps to prevent this from happening. 

RB helps to prevent the bias that is associated with benefits/programming

Although laws do not allow for discrimination, people often subconsciously favor people that resemble them

India example

Negative “Criticisms”

May be too focused on representation instead of productivity

Too large of a focus on representation of all races could lead to an easier platform for racism

Law Enforcement

Education

Elections and Voting