User:Pseudo-Richard/Catholic Church/History

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Early Christianity - Roman Empire[edit]

Proposal A[edit]

According to its doctrine, the Catholic Church was founded by Jesus Christ.[1] The New Testament records the activities and teaching of his group of sectarian Jews and his appointing of the twelve Apostles, and his giving them authority to continue his work.[1] The Church teaches that Jesus designated Simon Peter as the leader of the apostles by proclaiming "upon this rock I will build my church ...I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven ..."[2] The Church teache that the coming of the Holy Spirit upon the apostles, in an event known as Pentecost, signaled the beginning of the public ministry of the Church. All duly consecrated bishops since then are considered the successors to the apostles.[3]

There is a tradition about the early history of the Church, traceable from late antiquity. which places Peter in Rome, where he founded a church and served as the first bishop of the See of Rome, consecrating Linus as his successor and beginning the line of Popes.[4] The only element of this which the Catholic Encyclopedia presents as historical is Peter's martyrdom at Rome.[5]

Some historians of Christianity assert that the Catholic Church can be traced to Jesus's consecration of Peter,[6][7] some that Jesus did not found a church in his lifetime but provided a framework of beliefs,[8] while others do not make a judgement about whether or not the Church was founded by Jesus but disagree with the traditional view that the papacy originated with Peter. These assert that Rome may not have had a bishop until after the apostolic age and suggest the papal office may have been superimposed by the traditional narrative upon the primitive church.[9]

During the 1st century, the Apostles traveled around the Mediterranean region founding the first Christian communities,[10] over 40 of which had been established by the year 100.[11] By 58 AD, a large Christian community existed in Rome.[12] The New Testament gospels indicate that the earliest Christians continued to observe several traditional Jewish pieties.[13] Jesus also directed the evangelization of non-Jewish peoples, prompting circumcision controversies at the Council of Jerusalem. At this council, Paul argued that circumcision was no longer necessary. This position was supported widely and was summarized in a letter circulated in Antioch.[14]

Constantine I, believed Christ had helped him win Rome. Soon Christianity became the official state religion

Early Christianity accepted several Roman practices, such as slavery, campaigning primarily for humane treatment of slaves but also admonishing slaves to behave appropriately towards their masters.[15] Early Christians refused to offer sacrifices to the Roman gods or to worship Roman rulers as gods and were thus subject to persecution.[16] The first case of imperially-sponsored persecution of Christians occurred in 1st century Rome under Nero. Further such persecutions occurred under various emperors until the great persecution of Diocletian and Galerius, seen as a final attempt to wipe out Christianity.[17]

Nevertheless, the early Church continued to spread, and developed both in doctrinal and structural ways. From as early as the 1st century, the Church of Rome was recognized as a doctrinal authority because it was believed that the Apostles Peter and Paul had led the Church there.[18] In the 2nd century, writings by prominent teachers defined Catholic ideas in stark opposition to Gnosticism.[19] Other writers—such as Pope Clement I and Augustine of Hippo—influenced the development of Church teachings and traditions. These writers and others are collectively known as Church Fathers.[20] While competing forms of Christianity emerged early, the Roman Church evolved the practice of meeting in "synods" (councils) to ensure that any internal doctrinal differences were quickly resolved, which facilitated broad doctrinal unity within the mainstream churches.[21] Primacy of the Roman Pontiff was recognized by the church from the second century, although disputes over its implications ultimately led to schisms such as the Donatist controversy.[22]

Christianity was legalized in 313 under Constantine's Edict of Milan,[23] and declared the state religion of the Empire in 380.[24] After its legalization, a number of doctrinal disputes led to the calling of ecumenical councils. The doctrinal formulations resulting from these ecumenical councils were pivotal in the history of Christianity. The first seven Ecumenical Councils, from the First Council of Nicaea (325) to the Second Council of Nicaea (787), sought to reach an orthodox consensus and to establish a unified Christendom. In 325, the First Council of Nicaea convened in response to the rise of Arianism, the belief that Jesus had not existed eternally but was a divine being created by and therefore inferior to God the Father.[25] In order to encapsulate the basic tenets of the Christian belief, it promulgated a creed which became the basis of what is now known as the Nicene Creed.[26] In addition, it divided the church into geographical and administrative areas called dioceses.[27] The Council of Rome in 382 established the first Biblical canon when it listed the accepted books of the Old and New Testament.[28] The Council of Ephesus in 431[29] and the Council of Chalcedon in 451 defined the relationship of Christ's divine and human natures, leading to splits with the Nestorians and Monophysites.[21]

Constantine moved the imperial capital to Constantinople, and the Council of Chalcedon (AD 451) elevated the See of Constantinople to a position "second in eminence and power to the bishop of Rome".[30] From circa 350 to circa 500, the bishops, or popes, of Rome steadily increased in authority.[12] Rome had particular prominence over the other dioceses: it was considered the see of Peter and Paul, it was located in the capital of the Western Roman Empire, it was wealthy and known for supporting other churches, and church scholars wanted the Roman bishop's support in doctrinal disputes.[31]

Proposal B[edit]

The Catholic Church considers Pentecost to be the beginning of its own history.[32][33] According to historians, the apostles traveled to northern Africa, Asia Minor, Arabia, Greece, and Rome to found the first Christian communities,[32][10] over 40 of which had been established by the year 100.[11] Early Christians refused to offer sacrifices to the Roman gods or to worship Roman rulers as gods and were thus subject to persecution.[16] This began under Nero in the first century and persisted through the great persecution of Diocletian and Galerius, which was seen as a final attempt to wipe out Christianity.[17] Nevertheless, Christianity continued to spread and was eventually legalized in 313 under Constantine's Edict of Milan.[23]

Early Christians were martyred as entertainment in the Colosseum in Rome. Jean-Léon Gérôme, 1883.

During this era of persecution, the early Church evolved both in doctrinal and structural ways. The apostles convened the first Church council, the Council of Jerusalem, in or around the year 50 to resolve issues concerning evangelization of Gentiles.[34] While competing forms of Christianity emerged early, the Roman Church retained this practice of meeting in ecumenical councils to ensure that any internal doctrinal differences were quickly resolved, which facilitated broad doctrinal unity within the mainstream churches.[21][35] From as early as the first century, the Church of Rome was recognized as a doctrinal authority because it was believed that the Apostles Peter and Paul had led the Church there.[36][18][37] The concept of the primacy of the Roman bishop over other churches was increasingly recognized by the church at large from at least the second century.[38][22] From the year 100 onward, teachers like Ignatius of Antioch and Irenaeus defined Catholic teaching in stark opposition to Gnosticism.[19] Church teachings and traditions were influenced over time by other Church Fathers such as Pope Clement I, Justin Martyr, Augustine of Hippo.[20] In 325, the First Council of Nicaea convened in response to the threat of Arianism, formulated the Nicene Creed as a basic statement of Christian belief,[26] and divided the church into geographical and administrative areas called dioceses.[27] Although this council sanctioned the primacy of three dioceses—Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch—Rome had certain qualities that destined it for particular prominence; it was considered the see of Peter and Paul, it was located in the capital of the empire, church scholars were desirous of obtaining the Roman bishop's support in doctrinal disputes, and it was wealthy and known for supporting other churches around the world.[31]

Emperor Constantine I commissioned the first Basilica of St. Peter and several other sites of lasting importance to Christianity.[39] By this time, the altar as the focal point of each church, the sign of the cross, and the liturgical calendar had been established[40] and in 380, Christianity was declared the sole religion of the Empire.[24] The Council of Rome in 382 created the first Bible when it listed the accepted books of the Old and New Testament.[28] The Council of Ephesus in 431[29] and the Council of Chalcedon in 451 defined the relationship of Christ's divine and human natures, leading to split with the Nestorians and Monophysites.[21] The Council of Chalcedon also elevated the See of Constantinople to a position "second in eminence and power to the bishop of Rome".[41][30]

Differences[edit]

NB: This section should be reserved for differences between Proposals A, B and C. All discussion of the merits of each section should be conducted in the section below.

  • Proposal A uses the section heading "Early Christianity" while Proposals B and C use the heading "Roman Empire"
  • Proposal A mentions that "According to its doctrine, the Catholic Church was founded by Jesus Christ" and that "the Church teaches that Pentecost signaled the beginning of the public minisgtry of the Church". Proposals B and C states that "The Catholic Church considers Pentecost to be the beginning of its own history."
  • Proposal A mentions the only the Circumcision controversy in early Christianity whereas Proposals B and C mention more broadly "issues concerning evangelization of Gentiles".
  • Proposal A states that "Rome had particular prominence over the other dioceses" and then lists certain attributes of the diocese of Rome. Proposals B and C state that "Rome had certain qualities that destined it for particular prominence. Proposal A appears to suggest a looser link between Rome's prominence and its attributes whereas Proposals B and C assert that these attributes "destined it for particular prominence".

Discussion[edit]

Middle Ages[edit]

After Roman collapse in the West, the Catholic faith competed with Arianism for the conversion of barbarian tribes.[42] The 496 conversion of Clovis I, pagan king of the Franks, marked the beginning of a steady rise of the Catholic faith in the West.[43] The Rule of St Benedict, composed in 530, became a blueprint for the organization of monasteries throughout Europe,[44] which provided a focus for spiritual life; preserved classical craft, artistic skills, and intellectual culture within schools, scriptoria and libraries; and functioned as agricultural, economic and production centers in remote regions.[45] Pope Gregory the Great reformed church practice and administration around 600 and launched renewed missionary efforts[46] which were complemented by other missionary movements such as the Hiberno-Scottish mission.[47] Missionaries took Christianity to the Anglo-Saxons and other Germanic peoples.[48] In the same period, the Visigoths and Lombards moved from Arianism toward Catholicism,[43] and the Celtic churches united with Rome in 664.[47] Later missionary efforts by Saints Cyril and Methodius in the 9th century reached greater Moravia and introduced the Cyrillic alphabet.[49] While Christianity continued to expand in Europe, Islam presented a significant military threat to Western Christendom.[50] By 715, Muslim armies had conquered much of the Southern Mediterranean.[51]

From the 8th century, Iconoclasm, the destruction of religious images, became a major source of conflict in the eastern church.[52] Byzantine emperors Leo III and Constantine V strongly supported Iconoclasm, while the papacy and the western church remained resolute in favour of the veneration of icons. In 787, the Second Council of Nicaea ruled in favor of the iconodules but the dispute continued into the early 9th century.[53] The consequent estrangement led to the creation of the papal states and the papal coronation of the Frankish King Charlemagne as Emperor of the Romans in 800. This ultimately created a new problem as successive Western emperors sought to impose an increasingly tight control over the popes.[54] Eastern and Western Christendom grew farther apart in the 9th century. Conflicts arose over ecclesiastical jurisdiction in the Byzantine-controlled south of Italy, missionaries to Bulgaria and a brief schism revolving around Photios of Constantinople.[55] Further disagreements led to Pope and Patriarch excommunicating each other in 1054, commonly considered the date of the East–West Schism.[56] The Western branch of Christianity remained in communion with the Pope and remained a part of the Catholic Church, while the Eastern (Greek) branch that rejected the papal claims became known as the Eastern Orthodox churches.[57] Efforts to mend the rift were attempted at the Second Council of Lyon in 1274 and Council of Florence in 1439. While in each case the Eastern Emperor and Eastern Patriarch both agreed to the reunion,[58] neither council changed the attitudes of the Eastern Churches at large, and the schism remained.[59]

The Cluniac reform of monasteries that had begun in 910 sparked widespread monastic growth and renewal.[60] Monasteries introduced new technologies and crops, fostered the creation and preservation of literature and promoted economic growth. Monasteries, convents and cathedrals still operated virtually all schools and libraries.[61] Despite a church ban on the practice of usury the larger abbeys functioned as sources for economic credit.[62] The 11th and 12th century saw internal efforts to reform the church. The college of cardinals in 1059 was created to free papal elections from interference by Emperor and nobility. Lay investiture of bishops, a source of rulers' dominance over the Church, was attacked by reformers and under Pope Gregory VII, erupted into the Investiture Controversy between Pope and Emperor. The matter was eventually settled with the Concordat of Worms in 1122 where it was agreed that bishops would be selected in accordance with Church law.[63]

Colored painting showing a large congregation of bishops listening to the Pope
Pope Urban II at the Council of Clermont (1095), where he preached the First Crusade; later manuscript illumination of c. 1490.

In 1095, Byzantine emperor Alexius I appealed to Pope Urban II for help against renewed Muslim invasions,[64] which caused Urban to launch the First Crusade aimed at aiding the Byzantine Empire and returning the Holy Land to Christian control.[59] The goal was not permanently realized, and episodes of brutality committed by the armies of both sides left a legacy of mutual distrust between Muslims and Western and Eastern Christians.[65] The sack of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade, conducted against papal authorisation, left Eastern Christians embittered and was a decisive event that permanently solidified the schism between the churches.[66] The crusades saw the formation of various military orders that provided social services as well as protection of pilgrim routes.[67] The Teutonic Knights, one of the orders, conquered the then-pagan Prussia.[67] The Templars became noted bankers and creditors who were suppressed by King Philip IV of France shortly after 1300.[68] Later, mendicant orders were founded by Francis of Assisi and Dominic de Guzmán which brought consecrated religious life into urban settings.[69] These orders also played a large role in the development of cathedral schools into universities, the direct ancestors of the modern Western institutions.[70] Notable scholastic theologians such as the Dominican Thomas Aquinas worked at these universities, and his Summa Theologica was a key intellectual achievement in its synthesis of Aristotelian thought and Christianity.[71]

Twelfth century France witnessed the emergence of Catharism, a dualist heresy that had spread from Eastern Europe through Germany. After the Cathars were accused of murdering a papal legate in 1208,[72] Pope Innocent III declared the Albigensian Crusade against them. When this turned into an "appalling massacre",[73] later popes instituted the first papal inquisition to prevent further massacres and to root out the remaining Cathars.[73] Formalized under Gregory IX, this Medieval inquisition found guilty an average of three people per year for heresy.[68]

In the 14th century, the Papacy came under French dominance, with Clement V in 1305 moving to Avignon.[74] The Avignon Papacy ended in 1376 when the Pope returned to Rome[75] but was soon followed in 1378 by the 38-year-long Western schism with separate claimants to the papacy in Rome, Avignon and (after 1409) Pisa, backed by conflicting secular rulers.[75] The matter was finally resolved in 1417 at the Council of Constance where the three claimants either resigned or were deposed and held a new election naming Martin V Pope.[76]

The Church was the dominant influence on the development of Western art in these times, overseeing the rise of Romanesque, Gothic and Renaissance styles of art and architecture.[77] Renaissance artists such as Raphael, Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Bernini, Botticelli, Fra Angelico, Tintoretto, Caravaggio, and Titian, were among a multitude of artists sponsored by the Church.[78] In music, Catholic monks developed the first forms of modern Western musical notation in order to standardize liturgy throughout the worldwide Church,[79] and an enormous body of religious music has been composed for it through the ages. This led directly to the emergence and development of European classical music, and its many derivatives.[80]

Reformation and Counter-Reformation[edit]

Current version[edit]

Main articles: Protestant Reformation, English Reformation, Counter-Reformation, and European wars of religion

The English and Protestant Reformations resulted in the separation of Anglicans and Protestants from the Catholic Church. In response, the Vatican initiated a series of reforms in the areas of doctrine, ecclesiastical structure, religious orders, spiritual movements and politics. The ensuing tensions between Catholics and Protestants and the perceived need for uniformity of faith helped fuel the European wars of religion.

John Wycliffe and Jan Hus crafted the first of a new series of disruptive religious perspectives that challenged the Church. The Council of Constance (1414–1417) condemned Hus and ordered his execution, but could not prevent the Hussite Wars in Bohemia. In 1509, the scholar Erasmus wrote In Praise of Folly, a work which captured the widely held unease about corruption in the Church.[81] The Council of Constance, the Council of Basel and the Fifth Lateran Council had all attempted to reform internal Church abuses but had failed.[82] As a result, rich, powerful and worldly men like Roderigo Borgia (Pope Alexander VI) were able to win election to the papacy.[83] In 1517, Martin Luther included his Ninety-Five Theses in a letter to several bishops.[84] His theses protested key points of Catholic doctrine as well as the sale of indulgences.[84] Huldrych Zwingli, John Calvin, and others further criticized Catholic teachings. These challenges developed into a large and all encompassing European movement called the Protestant Reformation.[31]

In Germany, the reformation led to a nine-year war between the Protestant Schmalkaldic League and the Catholic Emperor Charles V. In 1618 a far graver conflict, the Thirty Years' War, followed.[85] In France, a series of conflicts termed the French Wars of Religion were fought from 1562 to 1598 between the Huguenots and the forces of the French Catholic League. The St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre marked the turning point in this war.[86] Survivors regrouped under Henry of Navarre who became Catholic and began the first experiment in religious toleration with his 1598 Edict of Nantes.[86] This Edict, which granted civil and religious toleration to Protestants, was hesitantly accepted by Pope Clement VIII.[87]

The English Reformation under Henry VIII initially began as a political dispute. When the annulment of his marriage was denied by the pope, Henry had Parliament pass the Acts of Supremacy, which made him, and not the pope, head of the English Church.[88] Although he tried to maintain traditional Catholicism, Henry initiated the confiscation of monasteries, friaries, convents and shrines throughout his realm.[89] Under Mary I, England was reunited with Rome, but Elizabeth I later restored a separate church that outlawed Catholic priests[90] and prevented Catholics from educating their children and taking part in political life[91] until new laws were passed in 1778.[92]

The Council of Trent (1545–1563) became the driving force behind the Counter-Reformation. Doctrinally, it reaffirmed central Catholic teachings such as transubstantiation, and the requirement for love and hope as well as faith to attain salvation.[93] It also made structural reforms, most importantly by improving the education of the clergy and laity and consolidating the central jurisdiction of the Roman Curia.[93][note 1] To popularize Counter-Reformation teachings, the Church encouraged the Baroque style in art, music and architecture,[80] and new religious orders were founded. These included the Theatines, Barnabites and Jesuits, some of which became the great missionary orders of later years.[96] The Jesuits quickly took on a leadership in education during the Counter-Reformation, viewing it as a "battleground for hearts and minds";[97] at the same time, the writings of figures such as Teresa of Avila, Francis de Sales and Philip Neri spawned new schools of spirituality within the Church.[98]

Toward the latter part of the 17th century, Pope Innocent XI reformed abuses that were occurring in the Church's hierarchy, including simony, nepotism and the lavish papal expenditures that had caused him to inherit a large papal debt.[99] He promoted missionary activity, tried to unite Europe against the Turkish invasion, prevented influential Catholic rulers (including the Emperor) from marrying Protestants but strongly condemned religious persecution.[99]

Early modern period[edit]

Main article: Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery

The Age of Discovery saw the expansion of Western European power and culture and, given the prominent role of Spain and Portugal, the spreading of Catholicism to the Americas and Asia by explorers and missionaries.

Pope Alexander VI had awarded colonial rights over most of the newly discovered lands to Spain and Portugal[100] and the ensuing patronato system allowed state authorities, not the Vatican, to control all clerical appointments in the new colonies.[101] Although the Spanish monarchs tried to curb abuses committed against the Amerindians by explorers and conquerors,[102] Antonio de Montesinos, a Dominican friar, openly rebuked the Spanish rulers of Hispaniola in 1511 for their cruelty and tyranny in dealing with the American natives.[103] King Ferdinand enacted the Laws of Burgos and Valladolid in response. The issue resulted in a crisis of conscience in 16th-century Spain.[104] and, through the writings of Catholic clergy such as Bartolomé de Las Casas and Francisco de Vitoria, led to debate on the nature of human rights[105] and to the birth of modern international law.[106] Enforcement of these laws was lax, and some historians blame the Church for not doing enough to liberate the Indians; others point to the Church as the only voice raised on behalf of indigenous peoples.[107]

In 1521 the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan made the first Catholic converts in the Philippines.[108] Elsewhere, Portuguese missionaries under the Spanish Jesuit Francis Xavier evangelized in India, China, and Japan.[109] Church growth in Japan came to a halt in 1597 when the Shogunate, in an effort to isolate the country from foreign influences, launched a severe persecution of Christians or Kirishitan's.[110] An underground minority Christian population survived throughout this period of persecution and enforced isolation which was eventually lifted in the 19th century.[111] In China, despite Jesuit efforts to find compromise, the Chinese Rites controversy led the Kangxi Emperor to outlaw Christian missions in 1721.[112] These events added fuel to growing criticism of the Jesuits, who were seen to symbolize the independent power of the Church, and in 1773 European rulers united to force Pope Clement XIV to dissolve the order.[113] The Jesuits were eventually restored in the 1814 papal bull Sollicitudo omnium ecclesiarum.[114] In the Californias, Franciscan priest Junípero Serra founded a series of missions.[115] In South America, Jesuit missionaries sought to protect native peoples from enslavement by establishing semi-independent settlements called reductions.

From the 17th century onward, the Enlightenment questioned the power and influence of the Church over Western society.[116] Eighteenth century writers such as Voltaire and the Encyclopedists wrote biting critiques of both religion and the Church. One target of their criticism was the 1685 revocation of the Edict of Nantes by King Louis XIV which ended a century-long policy of religious toleration of Protestant Huguenots.

The French Revolution of 1789 brought about a shifting of powers from the Church to the State, destruction of churches and the establishment of a Cult of Reason.[117] In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Italy, imprisoning Pope Pius VI, who died in captivity. Napoleon later re-established the Catholic Church in France through the Concordat of 1801.[118] The end of the Napoleonic wars brought Catholic revival and the return of the Papal States.[119]

In Latin America, a succession of anti-clerical regimes came to power beginning in the 1830s.[120] Church properties were confiscated, bishoprics left vacant, religious orders suppressed,[121] the collection of clerical tithes ended,[122] and clerical dress in public prohibited.[123]

Pope Gregory XVI challenged the power of the Spanish and Portuguese monarchs by appointing his own candidates as colonial bishops. He also condemned slavery and the slave trade in the 1839 papal bull In Supremo Apostolatus, and approved the ordination of native clergy in the face of government racism.[124]

Industrial age[edit]

Current version[edit]

In response to the social challenges of the Industrial Revolution, Pope Leo XIII published the encyclical Rerum Novarum. It set out Catholic social teaching in terms that rejected socialism but advocated the regulation of working conditions, the establishment of a living wage and the right of workers to form trade unions.[125] Although the infallibility of the Church in doctrinal matters had always been a Church dogma, the First Vatican Council, which convened in 1870, affirmed the doctrine of papal infallibility when exercised under specific conditions.[126] This decision gave the pope "enormous moral and spiritual authority over the worldwide" Church.[116] Reaction to the pronouncement resulted in the breakaway of a group of mainly German churches which subsequently formed the Old Catholic Church.[127] The loss of the papal states to the Italian unification movement created what came to be known as the Roman Question,[128] a territorial dispute between the papacy and the Italian government that was not resolved until the 1929 Lateran Treaty granted sovereignty to the Holy See over Vatican City.[129] At the end of the 19th century, Catholic missionaries followed colonial governments into Africa and built schools, hospitals, monasteries and churches.[130]

The 20th century saw the rise of various politically radical and anti-clerical governments. The 1926 Calles Law separating church and state in Mexico led to the Cristero War[131] in which over 3,000 priests were exiled or assassinated,[132] churches desecrated, services mocked, nuns raped and captured priests shot.[131] In the Soviet Union following the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution, persecution of the Church and Catholics continued well into the 1930s.[133] In addition to the execution and exiling of clerics, monks and laymen, the confiscation of religious implements and closure of churches was common.[134] During the 1936–39 Spanish Civil War, the Catholic hierarchy supported Francisco Franco's rebel Nationalist forces against the Popular Front government,[135] citing Republican violence directed against the Church.[136] Pope Pius XI referred to these three countries as a "Terrible Triangle" and the failure to protest in Europe and the United States as a Conspiracy of Silence.

After violations of the 1933 Reichskonkordat which had guaranteed the Church in Nazi Germany some protection and rights,[137] Pope Pius XI issued the 1937 encyclical Mit brennender Sorge[138] which publicly condemned the Nazis' persecution of the Church and their ideology of neopaganism and racial superiority.[139] After the Second World War began in September 1939, the Church condemned the invasion of Poland and subsequent 1940 Nazi invasions.[140] In the Holocaust, Pope Pius XII directed the Church hierarchy to help protect Jews from the Nazis.[141] While Pius XII has been credited with helping to save hundreds of thousands of Jews by some historians,[142] the Church has also been accused of encouraging centuries of antisemitism[143] and Pius himself of not doing enough to stop Nazi atrocities.[144] Debate over the validity of these criticisms continues to this day.[142]

Postwar Communist governments in Eastern Europe severely restricted religious freedoms.[citation needed] Even though some clerics collaborated with the Communist regimes,[145] the Church's resistance and the leadership of Pope John Paul II have been credited with hastening the downfall of communist governments across Europe in 1991.[146] The rise to power of the Communists in China in 1949 led to the expulsion of all foreign missionaries.[147] The new government also created the Patriotic Church whose unilaterally appointed bishops were initially rejected by Rome before many of them were accepted.[148] The Cultural Revolution of the 1960s led to the closure of all religious establishments. When Chinese churches eventually reopened they remained under the control of the Patriotic Church. Many Catholic pastors and priests continued to be sent to prison for refusing to renounce allegiance to Rome.[149]

Contemporary[edit]

Current version[edit]

The Second Vatican Council initiated in 1962 was described by its advocates as an "opening of the windows".[150] It led to changes in liturgy within the Latin Church, focus of its mission and a redefinition of ecumenism, particularly dialogue with the Orthodox Church and Protestants.[151]

Reception of the council has formed the basis of multifaceted internal positions within the Church since then. A so-called Spirit of Vatican II followed the council, influenced by exponents of Nouvelle Théologie such as Karl Rahner. Some dissident liberals such as Hans Küng claimed Vatican II had not gone far enough.[152] On the other hand, Traditionalist Catholics represented by figures such as Archbishop Lefebvre strongly criticized the council arguing that it defiled the sanctity of the Latin Mass, promoted religious indifferentism towards "false religions" and compromised orthodox Catholic dogma and tradition. A group positioned in between, represented by theologians such as Communio including Pope Benedict XVI, hold that the council was ultimately positive but there were abuses in interpretation.

The Church has consistently continued to uphold its own moral positions,[citation needed] contrary to those propagated by the sexual revolution and moral relativism, especially prevalent in western society since the 1960s.[citation needed] Various teachings of the popes, such as the encyclicals Humanae Vitae and Evangelium Vitae, have opposed contraception[153] and abortion respectively, describing them as part of a "culture of life".[154] Since the end of the 20th century, sex abuse by Catholic clergy has been the subject of media coverage, legal action, and public debate.[155] Pope John Paul II criticised the emergence of liberation theology among some clergy in South America, asserting that the Church should champion the poor without supporting radicalism or violence.[156] John Paul II canonised many saints and made Opus Dei his personal prelature. The Pope, since 2005 Benedict XVI, regularly receives heads of state[157] and as the representative of the Holy See has permanent observer status at the United Nations.[158]

  1. ^ a b Kreeft, p. 98, quote "The fundamental reason for being a Catholic is the historical fact that the Catholic Church was founded by Christ, was God's invention, not man's ...As the Father gave authority to Christ (Jn 5:22; Mt 28:18–20), Christ passed it on to his apostles (Lk 10:16), and they passed it on to the successors they appointed as bishops."
  2. ^ Paul VI, Pope (1964). "Lumen Gentium". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved 19 November 2009.
  3. ^ Barry, p. 46.
  4. ^ Franzen pp. 17–18.
  5. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia (and New Catholic Encyclopedia); articles on "Peter"
  6. ^ Orlandis, p. 11 quote "But Jesus not only founded a religion – Christianity; he founded a Church. ... The Church was grounded on the Apostle Peter to whom Christ promised the primacy – 'and on this rock I will build my Church (Mt 16:18)'".
  7. ^ Vidmar, pp. 39-40.
  8. ^ Kung, pp. 4–5
  9. ^ See, among others:
    • Bokenkotter, p. 30.
    • Kelly, p. 6.
    • Duffy, paperback edition p. 13, quote "There is no sure way to settle on a date by which the office of ruling bishop had emerged in Rome, and so to name the first Pope, but the process was certainly complete by the time of Anicetus in the mid-150s, when Polycarp, the aged Bishop of Smyrna, visited Rome, and he and Anicetus debated amicably the question of the date of Easter."
  10. ^ a b Bokenkotter, p. 18. Cite error: The named reference "Bokenkotter18" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  11. ^ a b Wilken, p. 281. Cite error: The named reference "Wilken281" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  12. ^ a b "Rome (early Christian)." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
  13. ^ White, p. 127.
  14. ^ McGrath, pp. 174–175.
  15. ^ Stark, Rodney (2003-07-01). "The Truth About the Catholic Church and Slavery". Christianity Today. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  16. ^ a b Wilken, p. 282.
  17. ^ a b Collins, p. 53–55.
  18. ^ a b Chadwick, Henry p. 361. Cite error: The named reference "McManners361" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  19. ^ a b Davidson, p. 169, p. 181. Cite error: The named reference "Davidson169" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  20. ^ a b Norman, pp. 27–28. Cite error: The named reference "Norman27" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  21. ^ a b c d Chadwick, Henry p. 371. Cite error: The named reference "McManners371" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  22. ^ a b Schatz, pp. 9–20. Cite error: The named reference "Schatz9" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  23. ^ a b Davidson, p. 341.
  24. ^ a b Wilken, p. 286.
  25. ^ M'Clintock and Strong's Cyclopedia, Volume 7, page 45a.
  26. ^ a b Herring, p. 60.
  27. ^ a b Wilken, p. 283. Cite error: The named reference "Hitchcock 283" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  28. ^ a b Collins, pp. 61–62. Cite error: The named reference "StoChris61" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
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