User:Rhemmiel/sandbox

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𓆣‌𓂋𓎡

Phonology[edit]

Test
Front Central Back
Close iː ɪ ʊ uː
Mid e(ː) ɵ o(ː)
Open æ ɔː
Test 2
Front Back
Close iː uː
Mid e(ː) o(ː)
Open æ ɒː


Middle Egyptian consonants
Labial Alveolar Dorsal Pharyng. Glottal
Front Back
Nasal m ⟨m⟩ n ⟨n⟩
Plosive/
Affricate 		Unmarked pʰ ⟨p⟩ tʰ ⟨t⟩ t͡ʃʰ ⟨ṯ⟩ kʰ ⟨k⟩ ʔ? ⟨j⟩
Marked b ⟨b⟩ t◌ ⟨d⟩ t͡ʃ◌ ⟨ḏ⟩ k◌? ⟨g⟩ K◌? ⟨q⟩
Fricative f ⟨f⟩ s ⟨s z⟩ ʃ ⟨š⟩ x? ⟨ḫ⟩ X? ⟨ẖ⟩ ħ ⟨ḥ⟩ h ⟨h⟩
Approximant l? ⟨ꜣ n⟩ j ⟨y⟩ w ⟨w⟩ ʕ ⟨ꜥ⟩
Tap ɾ ⟨r⟩
Middle Egyptian consonants
Labial Alveolar Palatal Dorsal (Back) Pharyng. Glottal
Nasal m ⟨m⟩ n ⟨n⟩
Plosive/
Affricate 		Unmarked pʰ ⟨p⟩ tʰ ⟨t⟩ t͡ʃʰ ⟨ṯ⟩ kʰ ⟨k⟩ ʔ ⟨j⟩
Marked[a] b ⟨b⟩ t◌ ⟨d⟩ t͡ʃ◌ ⟨ḏ⟩ k◌ ⟨g⟩[b] ?◌ ⟨q⟩[b]
Fricative f ⟨f⟩ s ⟨s z⟩ ʃ ⟨š⟩ x ⟨ḫ⟩[c][d] ? ⟨ẖ⟩[c][d] ħ ⟨ḥ⟩[d] h ⟨h⟩
Approximant l? ⟨ꜣ n⟩ j ⟨y⟩ w ⟨w⟩ ʕ ⟨ꜥ⟩[d]
Tap ɾ ⟨r⟩
  1. ^ This series d ḏ g q was marked by an indeterminate form of secondary articulation, represented here by the cover symbol ⟨◌⟩. (see below)
  2. ^ a b Both g and q represented voiceless dorsal plosives. They were unaspirated and probably marked by an indeterminate laryngeal feature. The precise phonetic distinction between them is unclear. A majority of instances of g and a minority of instances of q were palatalized to ϭ [c] by the Coptic period, while most instances of q are reflected as velar ⲕ [k].
  3. ^ a b Both ḫ and ẖ represented voiceless dorsal fricatives. The precise phonetic distinction between them is unclear. A majority of instances of ḫ were palatalized to /ç/ in the later New Kingdom,[1][2] while ẖ was not subject to palatalization.
  4. ^ a b c d ḫ, ẖ, ḥ, and ꜥ formed a natural class of gutturals. Evidence of historical vowel retraction before these consonants is found in all Coptic dialects north of the Lycopolitan–Akhmimic area.

Verbs[edit]

Coptic verb forms
Type Root Infinitive Stative Conjunct
participle 		Gloss
Absolute Nominal Pronominal m. f.
3ae-inf √ʔry ⲉⲓⲣⲉ ⲣ̄- ⲁⲁ⸗ ⲟ† “do”
√ṭʔy ϯ ϯ- ⲧⲁⲁ⸗ ⲧⲟ† “give”
2ae-inf √fy ϥⲓ ϥⲓ- ϥⲓⲧ⸗ ϥⲏⲩ† ϥⲁⲓ- “carry”
2ae-inf √čy ϫⲓ ϫⲓ- ϫⲓⲧ⸗ ϫⲏⲩ† ϫⲁⲓ- “take”
2ae-inf √ḥy ϩⲓ ϩⲓ- ϩⲓⲧ⸗ ϩⲏⲩ† “beat”
2-lit √kṭ ⲕⲱⲧ ⲕⲉⲧ- ⲕⲟⲧ⸗ ⲕⲏⲧ† “build”
2-lit √č̣ṭ[a] ϫⲱ ϫⲉ- ϫⲟⲟ⸗ ϫⲁⲧ- “say”
? √sʔw? ⲥⲱ ⲥⲟⲩ- ⲥⲟⲟ⸗ ⲥⲁⲩ- “drink”
? √c̣ʔw? ϭⲱ ϭⲉⲉⲧ† “remain”
? √ʔʔw? ⲱⲱ ⲉⲉⲧ† “conceive”
? √yʕw ⲉⲓⲱ ⲉⲓⲁ- ⲉⲓⲁⲁ⸗ ⲉⲓⲏ†, Bⲓⲱⲟⲩ† “wash”
? √kʕw? ⲕⲱ ⲕⲁ- ⲕⲁⲁ⸗ ⲕⲏ† Lⲕⲁⲁⲧ† “put”
? √smʕw? ⲥⲙⲟⲩ ⲥⲙⲁⲁⲧ† “bless”
3ae-inf. √čsy ϫⲓⲥⲉ ϫⲉⲥⲧ- ϫⲁⲥⲧ⸗ ϫⲟⲥⲉ† ϫⲁⲥⲓ- “be high”
3-lit √stp ⲥⲱⲧⲡ̄ ⲥⲉⲧⲡ̄- ⲥⲟⲧⲡ⸗ ⲥⲟⲧⲡ̄† “choose”
s-caus. 2ae-gem √sbṭṭ[a] ⲥⲟⲃⲧⲉ ⲥⲃ̄ⲧⲉ- ⲥⲃ̄ⲧⲱⲧ⸗ ⲥⲃ̄ⲧⲱⲧ† Aⲥⲃ̄ⲧⲁⲧ† “be ready”
s-caus. 3ae inf. √sčnʔ ϣⲟϫⲛⲉ ϫⲛⲉ- ϫⲛⲟⲩ⸗ “consider”
s-caus. 3-lit √swṭn ⲥⲟⲟⲩⲧⲛ̄ ⲥⲟⲩⲧⲛ̄- ⲥⲟⲩⲧⲱⲛ⸗ ⲥⲟⲩⲧⲱⲛ† Lⲥⲟⲩⲧⲁⲛⲧ† “be straight”
5-lit √çtrtr ϣⲧⲟⲣⲧⲣ̄ ϣⲧⲣ̄ⲧⲣ̄- ϣⲧⲣ̄ⲧⲱⲣ⸗ ϣⲧⲣ̄ⲧⲱⲣ† Lϣⲧⲣ̄ⲧⲁⲣⲧ† “be disturbed”
t-caus. ? ⲧⲁⲉⲓⲟ ⲧⲁⲉⲓⲉ- ⲧⲁⲉⲓⲟ⸗ ⲧⲁⲉⲓⲏⲩ† “honor”
  1. ^ a b Note the loss of final ṭ in certain states of the infinitive. Compare with Werning’s remarks on Petemenophis’ early Late Period recension of the Ramesside Book of Caverns:
    Another remarkable change is a frequent morpho-syntactic alteration that affects reduplicating verbal forms. The archetype of Caverns contained many such forms, specifically distributive participles (jrr(.ï) / jrr.w), the imperfective relative form (jrr.w), and the imperfective nominal verb form (jrr). In the copy in TT 33, many instances of these reduplicating forms have been changed to simple non-reduplicating forms:
    (Ex-29) s:qdd → s:qd.

Names[edit]

Egyptian names have served an important role in reconstructing the vowel system of the pre-Coptic Egyptian language. Many Late Egyptian names are recorded in syllabic cuneiform texts from Amarna, Boğazköy, and Ras Shamra.

Cuneiform transliterations of Egyptian names
Egyptian Cuneiform
(c. 1350–1200 BC)
rꜥ-msi̯-sw
mry-jmn 		mri-a-ma-še-ša
ma-a-i da-ma-na
wsr-mꜣꜥ.t-rꜥ
stp.n-rꜥ 		mwa-aš-mu-a-ri-a
ša₂-te-ep-na-ri-a
mr.n-ptḥ
ḥtp-ḥr-mꜣꜥ.t 		mmar-ni-ip-ta-aḫ
ḫa-at-pa-mu-a
stẖ-ḥr-ḫpš⸗f mšu-ta-ḫa-ap-ša-ap
nb-mꜣꜥ.t-rꜥ mni-ib-mu-a-ri-a
mn-pḥtj-rꜥ mmi-in-pa-aḫ-ta-ri-a
jmn-ḥtp.w ma-ma-an-ḫa-at-pa
pꜣ-ḥm-nṯr mpa-ḫa-am-na-ta
nfr-ḫpr.w-rꜥ mna-ap-ḫu-ru-ri-a
mn-ḫpr-rꜥ mma-na-aḫ-bi-ir-ia
nfr.t-jr.j fna-ap-te-ra
jmn-msi̯.w ma-ma-an-ma-aš-ši
jmn-m-jp.t ma-ma-an-ap-pa
stẖ.j mšu-ta-ia
mry-rꜥ mma-a-i-ri-a
pꜣ-rꜥ-m-ḥꜣ.t mpa-ri-a-ma-ḫu-u₂
tꜣ-ḥm.t-nsw fta₂-ḫa-mu-un-⸢zu-uš⸣
pꜣ-rḫ-nw mpa-ri-iḫ-na-wa
wsr-mꜣꜥ.t-rꜥ-nḫt.w mw[a-aš-mu-a-r]i-a-na-aḫ-ta
ḥr.j-pḏ.t miḫ-ri-pi₂-⸢ṭa₂⸣
zẖꜣ.w-šꜥ.t mša-aḫ-ši-ḫa-(ši-⸢ḫa⸣)

Several Egyptian names occur in the Hebrew Bible, including Phinehas (פִּינְחָס‎ pīnĕḥās), from pꜣ-nḥsj (“the Nubian”) and Potipherah (פּוֹטִי פֶרַע‎ pōṭī p̄eraʿ), from pꜣ-dj-pꜣ-rꜥ (“He who was given by Ra).

Alphabet[edit]

Coptic alphabet
Letter Translit. Name Number Origin Pronunciation
Sahidic Bohairic
Classical
(c. 300 AD) 		Classical
(c. 600 AD) 		Liturgical
(pre-1858 AD) 		Liturgical
(post-1858 AD)
Ⲁ ⲁ a ⲁⲗⲫⲁ (alpha) 1 Greek Α [a] [a] [a] [a]
Ⲃ ⲃ b ⲃⲏⲧⲁ (vēta) 2 Greek Β [v~β] [v~β] [w], [b] [v]
Ⲅ ⲅ g ⲅⲁⲙⲙⲁ (gamma) 3 Greek Γ [k] [k] [g] [g]
Ⲇ ⲇ d ⲇⲉⲗⲧⲁ (delta) 4 Greek Δ [t] [t] [d] [ð~z]
Ⲉ ⲉ e ⲉⲓ 5 Greek Ε [ɛ], [ə] [ɛ], [ə] [e] [e]
Ⲋ ⲋ – ⲥⲟⲟⲩ (soou) 6 Greek Ϛ – – – –
Ⲍ ⲍ z ⲍⲏⲧⲁ (zēta) 7 Greek Ζ [s] [s] [s] [z]
Ⲏ ⲏ ē ϩⲏⲧⲁ (hēta) 8 Greek Η [e] [e] [e], [i], [a] [i]
Ⲑ ⲑ th ⲑⲏⲧⲁ (thēta) 9 Greek Θ [th] [tʰ] [t] [θ~s]
Ⲓ ⲓ i iota 10 Greek Ι [i], [j] [i], [j] [i], [j] [i], [j]
Ⲕ ⲕ k kappa Greek Κ [k] [k] [k] [k]
Ⲗ ⲗ l ⲗⲁⲃⲇⲁ (lavda) Greek Λ [l] [l] [l] [l]
Ⲙ ⲙ n ⲙⲩ (my) Greek Μ [m] [m] [m] [m]
Ⲛ ⲛ n ⲛⲩ (ny) Greek Ν [n] [n] [n] [n]
Ⲝ ⲝ x ⲝⲉⲓ Greek Ξ [ks] [ks] [ks] [ks]
Ⲟ ⲟ o ⲟⲩ Greek Ο [ɔ] [ɔ] [o~u] [o]
Ⲡ ⲡ p ⲡⲉⲓ Greek Π [p] [p] [b] [p]
Ⲣ ⲣ r ϩⲣⲱ (hrō) Greek Ρ [r] [r] [r] [r]
Ⲥ ⲥ s sigma Greek Ϲ [s] [s] [s] [s]
Ⲧ ⲧ t tau Greek Τ [t] [t] [d] [t]
Ⲩ ⲩ y, u ϩⲩ (hy) Greek Υ [i~e], [w] [i], [w] [i], [w] [i], [v]
Ⲫ ⲫ ph ⲫⲉⲓ (phei) Greek Φ [ph] [pʰ] [b], [f] [f]
Ⲭ ⲭ kh ⲭⲉⲓ (khei) Greek Χ [kh] [kʰ] [k], [x], [ʃ] [x]
Ⲯ ⲯ ps ⲯⲉⲓ (psei) Greek Ψ [ps] [ps] [bs] [ps]
Ⲱ ⲱ ō ⲱ (ō) Greek Ω [o] [o] [o~u] [e]
Ϣ ϣ š ϣⲉⲓ (šei) Demotic š [ʃ] [ʃ] [ʃ] [ʃ]
Ϥ ϥ f ϥⲁⲓ Demotic f [f] [f] [f] [f]
Ϧ ϧ x ϧⲁⲓ Demotic ẖ – [x] [x] [x]
Ϩ ϩ h hori Demotic ḥ [h] [h] [h] [h]
Ϫ ϫ č djandja Demotic ḏ [t͡ʃ] [t͡ʃ] [ʒ~d͡ʒ] [d͡ʒ], [g]
Ϭ ϭ c cima Demotic k [c] [t͡ʃʰ] [ʃ] [t͡ʃ]
Ϯ ϯ ti ti ⲧ+ⲓ [ti] [ti] [di] [ti]
Ⳁ ⳁ – sampi 900 Greek Ϡ – – – –
Uniliteral signs
Hieroglyph Translit. Pronunciation
𓄿 ꜣ An indeterminate liquid consonant, possibly [l]. Lost after Middle Egyptian.
𓇋 j or ı͗ [ʔ] or [j]
𓂝 ꜥ A voiced pharyngeal fricative [ʕ].
𓉔 h A voiceless glottal fricative [h].
𓎛 ḥ A voiceless pharyngeal fricative [ħ].
𓐍 ḫ A voiceless dorsal fricative. Precise phonetic distinction from ẖ unknown. A majority of instances of ḫ were subject to palatalization in the later part of the New Kingdom.[3][4]
𓄡 ẖ A voiceless dorsal fricative. Precise phonetic distinction from ḫ unknown. No instances of ẖ were ever subject to palatalization.
𓎡 k A voiceless velar plosive [k]. Phonetically and possibly phonemically aspirated.
𓈎 q A voiceless dorsal plosive. Unaspirated and possibly ejective. Precise phonetic distinction from g unknown. A minority of instances of q were subject to palatalization by the Coptic period.
𓎼 g A voiceless dorsal plosive. Unaspirated and possibly ejective. Precise phonetic distinction from q unknown. A majority of instances of g were subject to palatalization by the Coptic period.
𓋴 s A voiceless alveolar sibilant [s].
𓊃 z A voiceless coronal obstruent. Precise phonetic distinction from s unknown. Merged with s after the Old Kingdom.[5]
𓏏 t A voiceless alveolar plosive [t]. Phonetically and possibly phonemically aspirated.
𓂧 d A voiceless alveolar plosive. Unaspirated and possibly ejective [tʼ].
𓍿 ṯ A voiceless postalveolar affricate [t͡ʃ]. Phonetically and possibly phonemically aspirated.
𓆓 ḏ A voiceless postalveolar affricate. Unaspirated and possibly ejective [t͡ʃʼ].
𓊪 p A voiceless bilabial plosive [p]. Phonetically aspirated.
𓃀 b A voiced bilabial plosive [b].

Dialects[edit]

Tripartite Construction
Auxiliary Subject (NP/pronoun) Verb (infinitive)
ⲁ- ⲡ-ⲣⲱⲙⲉ
ϥ- 		ⲥⲱⲧⲙ̄
(1)

ⲁ-ⲡ-ⲣⲱⲙⲉ

a-p-rōme

PST-DEF-man

ⲥⲱⲧⲙ̄

sōtəm

hear.INF

ⲁ-ⲡ-ⲣⲱⲙⲉ ⲥⲱⲧⲙ̄

a-p-rōme sōtəm

PST-DEF-man hear.INF

‘the man heard’

(2)

ⲁ-ϥ-ⲥⲱⲧⲙ̄

a-f-sōtəm

PST-3SG.M-hear.INF

ⲁ-ϥ-ⲥⲱⲧⲙ̄

a-f-sōtəm

PST-3SG.M-hear.INF

‘he heard’


3)

ⲡ-ⲣⲱⲙⲉ

DEF.SG.M-man

‘the man’

ⲛ̄-ⲣⲱⲙⲉ

DEF.PL-man

‘the men’

ⲡ-ⲣⲱⲙⲉ ⲛ̄-ⲣⲱⲙⲉ

DEF.SG.M-man DEF.PL-man

{‘the man’} {‘the men’}

4)

ⲧ-ⲥⲱϣⲉ

DEF.SG.F-field

‘the field’

ⲛ̄-ⲥⲱϣⲉ

DEF.PL-field

‘the fields’

ⲧ-ⲥⲱϣⲉ ⲛ̄-ⲥⲱϣⲉ

DEF.SG.F-field DEF.PL-field

{‘the field’} {‘the fields’}

Some nouns have inflected plural forms inherited from earlier stages of the language. These may be optionally used after a plural determiner:

5)

ⲡ-ⲥⲟⲛ

DEF.SG.M-brother.SG

‘the brother’

ⲛ̄-ⲥⲟⲛ

DEF.PL-brother.SG

‘the brothers’

or

 

 

ⲛⲉ-ⲥⲛⲏⲩ

DEF.PL-brother.PL

‘the brothers’

ⲡ-ⲥⲟⲛ ⲛ̄-ⲥⲟⲛ or ⲛⲉ-ⲥⲛⲏⲩ

DEF.SG.M-brother.SG DEF.PL-brother.SG {} DEF.PL-brother.PL

{‘the brother’} {‘the brothers’} {} {‘the brothers’}

6)

ⲧⲉ-ⲥϩⲓⲙⲉ

DEF.SG.F-woman.SG

‘the woman’

ⲛⲉ-ⲥϩⲓⲙⲉ

DEF.PL-woman.SG

‘the women’

or

 

 

ⲛⲉ-ϩⲓⲟⲙⲉ

DEF.PL-woman.PL

‘the women’

ⲧⲉ-ⲥϩⲓⲙⲉ ⲛⲉ-ⲥϩⲓⲙⲉ or ⲛⲉ-ϩⲓⲟⲙⲉ

DEF.SG.F-woman.SG DEF.PL-woman.SG {} DEF.PL-woman.PL

{‘the woman’} {‘the women’} {} {‘the women’}


a. Postposed demonstrative → preposed demonstrative ⲡⲉⲓ̈-/ⲧⲉⲓ̈-

rmṯ

man

pn

this

→

 

pꜣj

this

rmt

man

→

 

ⲡⲉⲓ̈-ⲣⲱⲙⲉ (pei̯-rōme)

this-man

rmṯ pn → pꜣj rmt → {ⲡⲉⲓ̈-ⲣⲱⲙⲉ (pei̯-rōme)}

man this {} this man {} this-man

‘this man’

b. Preposed demonstrative → prefixed definite article ⲡ-/ⲧ-

pꜣ rmṯ

‘this man’

→

 

pꜣ rmt

‘the man’

→

 

ⲡ-ⲣⲱⲙⲉ (p-rōme)

‘the man’

{pꜣ rmṯ} → {pꜣ rmt} → {ⲡ-ⲣⲱⲙⲉ (p-rōme)}

{‘this man’} {} {‘the man’} {} {‘the man’}

c. Numeral ‘one’ → prefixed indefinite article ⲟⲩ-

ḥfꜣ.w

snake

wꜥ

one

→

 

wꜥ

one

(n)

(of)

ḥfꜣ.w

snake

→

 

ⲟⲩ-ϩⲟϥ (ou-hof)

INDF.SG-snake

ḥfꜣ.w wꜥ → wꜥ (n) ḥfꜣ.w → {ⲟⲩ-ϩⲟϥ (ou-hof)}

snake one {} one (of) snake {} INDF.SG-snake

d. Suffixed possessive pronoun → prefixed possessive pronoun (following the article)

rn-k

name-2SG.M

→

 

pꜣj-k

DEF.M-2SG.M

rn

name

→

 

ⲡⲉ-ⲕ-ⲣⲁⲛ (pe-k-ran)

DEF.M-2SG.M-name

rn-k → pꜣj-k rn → {ⲡⲉ-ⲕ-ⲣⲁⲛ (pe-k-ran)}

name-2SG.M {} DEF.M-2SG.M name {} DEF.M-2SG.M-name

‘your name’

e. Postverbal subject construction → preverbal TAM construction

sḏm-n-f

hear-PRF-3SG.M

→

 

jr-f

do-3SG.M

sdm

hear

→

 

ⲁ-ϥ-ⲥⲱⲧⲙ̄ (a-f-sōtəm)

PRET-3SG.M-hear

sḏm-n-f → jr-f sdm → {ⲁ-ϥ-ⲥⲱⲧⲙ̄ (a-f-sōtəm)}

hear-PRF-3SG.M {} do-3SG.M hear {} PRET-3SG.M-hear

‘he heard’

A Demotic graffito in Greek letters from year 5 Haronnophris (200/201 BC).
Text Demotic transcription Translation
I.2 𐅹ε πορω υργον̣αφορ year 5 pr-ꜥꜣ ḥr-wn-nfr Year 5, Pharaoh Haronnophris,
I.3 μηι εσι νομ ουσιρε μηι ε mry ꜣs.t ı͗rm wsı͗r mry ı͗- beloved of Isis and Osiris, beloved of A-
I.4 μουνλασοντηρ πνοτω -mn-rꜥ nsw-nṯr.w pꜣ nṯr-ꜥꜣ -monrasonther, the great god
I.5 ░░ιρ̣κτμηττονευαμα░αθυ — ? — ? — ? — ? — ...
I.6 ουσορεταυ̣ νομ ποναμμη░ον wsı͗r m tꜣ-wr ı͗rm — ? — ? — Osiris in Ta-wer and…
I.7 ρυµε░ — ? — …
Text Demotic transcription Translation
I.1
I.2
I.3
I.4
I.5
I.6
I.7 		πορω υρον
𐅹ε πορω υργον̣αφορ
μηι εσι νομ ουσιρε μηι ε
μουνλασοντηρ πνοτω
░░ιρ̣κτμηττονευαμα░αθυ
ουσορεταυ̣ νομ ποναμμη░ον
ρυµε░ 		pr-ꜥꜣ ḥr-wn-
year 5 pr-ꜥꜣ ḥr-wn-nfr
mry ꜣs.t ı͗rm wsı͗r mry ı͗-
-mn-rꜥ nsw-nṯr.w pꜣ nṯr-ꜥꜣ
— ? — ? — ? — ? —
wsı͗r m tꜣ-wr ı͗rm — ? — ? —
— ? — 		Year 5, Haron-
Year 5, Pharaoh Haronnophris,
beloved of Isis and Osiris, beloved of A-
-monrasonther, the great god
...
Osiris in Ta-wer and...
...
Text Demotic transcription Translation
I.1 πορω υρον pr-ꜥꜣ ḥr-wn- Year 5, Haron-
I.2 𐅹ε πορω υργον̣αφορ year 5 pr-ꜥꜣ ḥr-wn-nfr Year 5, Pharaoh Haronnophris,
I.3 μηι εσι νομ ουσιρε μηι ε mry ꜣs.t ı͗rm wsı͗r mry ı͗- beloved of Isis and Osiris, beloved of A-
I.4 μουνλασοντηρ πνοτω -mn-rꜥ nsw-nṯr.w pꜣ nṯr-ꜥꜣ -monrasonther, the great god
I.5 ░░ιρ̣κτμηττονευαμα░αθυ — ? — ? — ? — ? — ...
I.6 ουσορεταυ̣ νομ ποναμμη░ον wsı͗r m tꜣ-wr ı͗rm — ? — ? — Osiris in Ta-wer and…
I.7 ρυµε░ — ? — …
Text Transliteration Demotic transcription Translation
I.1 πορω υρον porō (h)uron pr-ꜥꜣ ḥr-wn- Year 5, Haron-
I.2 𐅹ε πορω υργον̣αφορ year 5 porō (h)urgoṇaphor year 5 pr-ꜥꜣ ḥr-wn-nfr Year 5, Pharaoh Haronnophris,
I.3 μηι εσι νομ ουσιρε μηι ε mēi esi nom ousire mēi e mry ꜣs.t ı͗rm wsı͗r mry ı͗- beloved of Isis and Osiris, beloved of A-
I.4 μουνλασοντηρ πνοτω mounlasontēr pnotō -mn-rꜥ nsw-nṯr.w pꜣ nṯr-ꜥꜣ -monrasonther, the great god
I.5 ░░ιρ̣κτμηττονευαμα░αθυ ░░iṛktmēttoneuama░athu — ? — ? — ? — ? — ...
I.6 ουσορεταυ̣ νομ ποναμμη░ον ousoretaụ nom ponammē░on wsı͗r m tꜣ-wr ı͗rm — ? — ? — Osiris in Ta-wer and…
I.7 ρυµε░ rume░ — ? — …

A graffito from the temple of Seti I at Abydos:

Greek:

 

Demotic:

 

𐅹Ε

year 5‍

ḥsb.t 5‍.t

“Year 5‍,

ΠΟΡΩ

porō

pr-ꜥꜣ

Pharaoh

ΥΡΓΟΝΑΦΟΡ

(h)yrgonaphor

ḥr-wn-nfr

Haronnophris,

ΜΗΙ ΕϹΙ

mēi esi

mry ꜣs.t

beloved of Isis

ΝΟΜ ΟΥϹΙΡΕ

nom ousire

ı͗rm wsı͗r

and Osiris,

ΜΗΙ ΕΜΟΥΝΛΑϹΟΝΤΗΡ

mēi emounlasontēr

mry ı͗mn-rꜥ nsw-nṯr.w

beloved of Amonrasonther,

ΠΝΟΤΩ

pnotō

pꜣ nṯr-ꜥꜣ

the great god”

Greek: 𐅹Ε ΠΟΡΩ ΥΡΓΟΝΑΦΟΡ ΜΗΙ ΕϹΙ ΝΟΜ ΟΥϹΙΡΕ ΜΗΙ ΕΜΟΥΝΛΑϹΟΝΤΗΡ ΠΝΟΤΩ

{} year 5‍ porō (h)yrgonaphor mēi esi nom ousire mēi emounlasontēr pnotō

Demotic: ḥsb.t 5‍.t pr-ꜥꜣ ḥr-wn-nfr mry ꜣs.t ı͗rm wsı͗r mry ı͗mn-rꜥ nsw-nṯr.w pꜣ nṯr-ꜥꜣ

{} “Year 5‍, Pharaoh Haronnophris, beloved of Isis and Osiris, beloved of Amonrasonther, the great god”


Greek:

 

Demotic:

 

𐅹ⲉ

year 5‍

ḥsb.t 5‍.t

“Year 5‍,

ⲡⲟⲣⲱ

porō

pr-ꜥꜣ

Pharaoh

ⲩⲣⲅⲟⲛⲁⲫⲟⲣ

(h)yrgonaphor

ḥr-wn-nfr

Haronnophris,

ⲙⲏⲓ ⲉⲥⲓ

mēi esi

mry ꜣs.t

beloved of Isis

ⲛⲟⲙ ⲟⲩⲥⲓⲣⲉ

nom ousire

ı͗rm wsı͗r

and Osiris,

ⲙⲏⲓ ⲉⲙⲟⲩⲛⲗⲁⲥⲟⲛⲧⲏⲣ

mēi emounlasontēr

mry ı͗mn-rꜥ nsw-nṯr.w

beloved of Amonrasonther,

ⲡⲛⲟⲧⲱ

pnotō

pꜣ nṯr-ꜥꜣ

the great god”

Greek: 𐅹ⲉ ⲡⲟⲣⲱ ⲩⲣⲅⲟⲛⲁⲫⲟⲣ ⲙⲏⲓ ⲉⲥⲓ ⲛⲟⲙ ⲟⲩⲥⲓⲣⲉ ⲙⲏⲓ ⲉⲙⲟⲩⲛⲗⲁⲥⲟⲛⲧⲏⲣ ⲡⲛⲟⲧⲱ

{} year 5‍ porō (h)yrgonaphor mēi esi nom ousire mēi emounlasontēr pnotō

Demotic: ḥsb.t 5‍.t pr-ꜥꜣ ḥr-wn-nfr mry ꜣs.t ı͗rm wsı͗r mry ı͗mn-rꜥ nsw-nṯr.w pꜣ nṯr-ꜥꜣ

{} “Year 5‍, Pharaoh Haronnophris, beloved of Isis and Osiris, beloved of Amonrasonther, the great god”


Demotic:

Coptic:

pꜣ mꜣꜥ

ⲡ-ⲙⲁ

nty ı͗w pꜣy ḏmꜥ

ⲉⲧ-ⲉ-ⲡⲉⲓ̈-ϫⲱⲱⲙⲉ

n-ı͗m.f

ⲙ̄ⲙⲟ-ϥ

Demotic: pꜣ mꜣꜥ nty ı͗w pꜣy ḏmꜥ n-ı͗m.f

Coptic: ⲡ-ⲙⲁ ⲉⲧ-ⲉ-ⲡⲉⲓ̈-ϫⲱⲱⲙⲉ ⲙ̄ⲙⲟ-ϥ

“The place where this book is”

Demotic:

Coptic:

tꜣ knḥ.t

ⲧ-ⲕⲛ̄ϩⲉ

nty ı͗w pr-ꜥꜣ

ⲉⲧ-ⲉ-ⲡⲣ̄ⲣⲟ

n-ı͗m.s

ⲙ̄ⲙⲟ-ⲥ

Demotic: tꜣ knḥ.t nty ı͗w pr-ꜥꜣ n-ı͗m.s

Coptic: ⲧ-ⲕⲛ̄ϩⲉ ⲉⲧ-ⲉ-ⲡⲣ̄ⲣⲟ ⲙ̄ⲙⲟ-ⲥ

“The chapel where the pharaoh is”

Demotic:

Coptic:

pꜣ ntr

ⲡ-ⲛⲟⲩⲧⲉ

nty ı͗w pꜣ wꜣḥ-sḥn

ⲉⲧ-ⲉ-ⲡ-ⲟⲩⲉϩ-ⲥⲁϩⲛⲉ

n drṱ.f

ⲛ̄-ⲧⲟⲟⲧ-ϥ̄

Demotic: pꜣ ntr nty ı͗w pꜣ wꜣḥ-sḥn n drṱ.f

Coptic: ⲡ-ⲛⲟⲩⲧⲉ ⲉⲧ-ⲉ-ⲡ-ⲟⲩⲉϩ-ⲥⲁϩⲛⲉ ⲛ̄-ⲧⲟⲟⲧ-ϥ̄

“The god in whose hand is the command”


Late Demotic non-literary texts are nearly indistinguishable from Coptic in terms of grammar and in their use of Greek loan words. Consider the following excerpt from 2nd century Narmouthis, which can be rendered into Coptic as a perfectly well-formed sentence:[6]

Demotic:

Coptic:

 

 

ı͗my

ⲁⲙⲟⲩ

amou

“Come

wꜣḥ

ⲟⲩⲟϩ

ouoh

and

mtw⸗k tı͗.t-ı͗ri̯ ḥr

ⲛ̀ⲧⲉⲕ-ⲑⲣⲉ-ϩⲱⲣ

ǹtek-thre-hōr

have Horus

ı͗rm nꜣy⸗f ı͗ry.w

ⲛⲉⲙ-ⲛⲉϥ-ⲉⲣⲏⲩ

nem-nef-erēu

and his companions

ı͗ri̯ ⲡⲁⲣⲁⲧⲓⲑⲓⲛ

ⲉⲣ-*ⲡⲁⲣⲁⲧⲓⲑⲉⲓⲛ

er-*paratithein

present (παρατιθεῖν)

(n) nꜣy⸗w ḏꜥm.w

ⲛ̀-ⲛⲟⲩ-ϫⲱⲙ

ǹ-nou-čōm

their bookrolls.”

Demotic: ı͗my wꜣḥ mtw⸗k tı͗.t-ı͗ri̯ ḥr ı͗rm nꜣy⸗f ı͗ry.w ı͗ri̯ ⲡⲁⲣⲁⲧⲓⲑⲓⲛ (n) nꜣy⸗w ḏꜥm.w

Coptic: ⲁⲙⲟⲩ ⲟⲩⲟϩ ⲛ̀ⲧⲉⲕ-ⲑⲣⲉ-ϩⲱⲣ ⲛⲉⲙ-ⲛⲉϥ-ⲉⲣⲏⲩ ⲉⲣ-*ⲡⲁⲣⲁⲧⲓⲑⲉⲓⲛ ⲛ̀-ⲛⲟⲩ-ϫⲱⲙ

{} amou ouoh ǹtek-thre-hōr nem-nef-erēu er-*paratithein ǹ-nou-čōm

{} “Come and have Horus and his companions present (παρατιθεῖν) their bookrolls.”


From Narmouthis:

Demotic:

Bohairic:

 

Sahidic:

 

 

ı͗my

ⲁⲙⲟⲩ

amou

ⲁⲙⲟⲩ

amou

"Come

wꜣḥ

ⲟⲩⲟϩ

ouoh

ⲁⲩⲱ

auō

and

mtw⸗k tı͗.t-ı͗ri̯ ḥr

ⲛ̀ⲧⲉⲕ-ⲑⲣⲉ-ϩⲱⲣ

ǹtek-thre-hōr

ⲛⲅ̄-ⲧⲣⲉ-ϩⲱⲣ

nḡ-tre-hōr

have Horus

ı͗rm nꜣy⸗f ı͗ry.w

ⲛⲉⲙ-ⲛⲉϥ-ⲉⲣⲏⲩ

nem-nef-erēu

ⲙⲛ̄-ⲛⲉϥ-ⲉⲣⲏⲩ

mn̄-nef-erēu

and his companions

ı͗ri̯ ⲡⲁⲣⲁⲧⲓⲑⲓⲛ

ⲉⲣ-*ⲡⲁⲣⲁⲧⲓⲑⲉⲓⲛ

er-*paratithein

*ⲡⲁⲣⲁⲧⲓⲑⲉⲓ

*paratithei

present (παρατιθεῖν)

(n) nꜣy⸗w ḏꜥm.w

ⲛ̀-ⲛⲟⲩ-ϫⲱⲙ

ǹ-nou-čōm

ⲛ̄-ⲛⲉⲩ-ϫⲱⲱⲙⲉ

n̄-neu-čōōme

their bookrolls."

Demotic: ı͗my wꜣḥ mtw⸗k tı͗.t-ı͗ri̯ ḥr ı͗rm nꜣy⸗f ı͗ry.w ı͗ri̯ ⲡⲁⲣⲁⲧⲓⲑⲓⲛ (n) nꜣy⸗w ḏꜥm.w

Bohairic: ⲁⲙⲟⲩ ⲟⲩⲟϩ ⲛ̀ⲧⲉⲕ-ⲑⲣⲉ-ϩⲱⲣ ⲛⲉⲙ-ⲛⲉϥ-ⲉⲣⲏⲩ ⲉⲣ-*ⲡⲁⲣⲁⲧⲓⲑⲉⲓⲛ ⲛ̀-ⲛⲟⲩ-ϫⲱⲙ

{} amou ouoh ǹtek-thre-hōr nem-nef-erēu er-*paratithein ǹ-nou-čōm

Sahidic: ⲁⲙⲟⲩ ⲁⲩⲱ ⲛⲅ̄-ⲧⲣⲉ-ϩⲱⲣ ⲙⲛ̄-ⲛⲉϥ-ⲉⲣⲏⲩ *ⲡⲁⲣⲁⲧⲓⲑⲉⲓ ⲛ̄-ⲛⲉⲩ-ϫⲱⲱⲙⲉ

{} amou auō nḡ-tre-hōr mn̄-nef-erēu *paratithei n̄-neu-čōōme

{} "Come and have Horus and his companions present (παρατιθεῖν) their bookrolls."


The conjugation base expresses tense, aspect, modality, voice. It is a proclitic auxiliary verb (Egedi) which forms an accentual unit with a following... Coptic is a highly analytic language which expresses syntactic relationships through the use of particles, prepositions, and word order.

Coptic verb forms
Gloss Infinitive Stative
Absolute Nominal Pronominal
“do” ⲉⲓⲣⲉ
(eire) 		ⲣ̄-
(ər-) 		ⲁⲁ⸗
(aa⸗) 		ⲟ†
(o†)
“give” ϯ
(ti) 		ϯ-
(ti-) 		ⲧⲁⲁ⸗
(taa⸗) 		ⲧⲟ†
(to†)
“put” ⲕⲱ
(kō) 		ⲕⲁ-
(ka-) 		ⲕⲁⲁ⸗
(kaa⸗) 		ⲕⲏ†
(kē†)
“build” ⲕⲱⲧ
(kōt) 		ⲕⲉⲧ-
(ket-) 		ⲕⲟⲧ⸗
(kot⸗) 		ⲕⲏⲧ†
(kēt†)
“be high” ϫⲓⲥⲉ
(čise) 		ϫⲉⲥⲧ-
(čest-) 		ϫⲁⲥⲧ⸗
(čast⸗) 		ϫⲟⲥⲉ†
(čose†)
“choose” ⲥⲱⲧⲡ̄
(sōtəp) 		ⲥⲉⲧⲡ̄-
(setəp-) 		ⲥⲟⲧⲡ⸗
(sotp⸗) 		ⲥⲟⲧⲡ̄†
(sotəp†)
“honor” ⲧⲁⲉⲓⲟ
(taeio) 		ⲧⲁⲉⲓⲉ-
(taeie-) 		ⲧⲁⲉⲓⲟ⸗
(taeio⸗) 		ⲧⲁⲉⲓⲏⲩ†
(taeiēu†)
“be ready” ⲥⲟⲃⲧⲉ
(sovte) 		ⲥⲃ̄ⲧⲉ-
(səvte-) 		ⲥⲃ̄ⲧⲱⲧ⸗
(səvtōt⸗) 		ⲥⲃ̄ⲧⲱⲧ†
(səvtōt†)
“be straight” ⲥⲟⲟⲩⲧⲛ̄
(sooutən) 		ⲥⲟⲩⲧⲛ̄-
(soutən-) 		ⲥⲟⲩⲧⲱⲛ⸗
(soutōn⸗) 		ⲥⲟⲩⲧⲱⲛ†
(soutōn†)
“be disturbed” ϣⲧⲟⲣⲧⲣ̄
(štortər) 		ϣⲧⲣ̄ⲧⲣ̄-
(štərtər-) 		ϣⲧⲣ̄ⲧⲱⲣ⸗
(štərtōr⸗) 		ϣⲧⲣ̄ⲧⲱⲣ†
(štərtōr†)
Coptic verb forms
Gloss Infinitive Stative
Absolute Nominal Pronominal
“do” ⲉⲓⲣⲉ
(íre) 		ⲣ̄-
(ər-) 		ⲁⲁ⸗
(áa⸗) 		ⲟ†
(ó†)
“give” ϯ
(tí) 		ϯ-
(ti-) 		ⲧⲁⲁ⸗
(táa⸗) 		ⲧⲟ†
(tó†)
“take” ϥⲓ
(fí) 		ϥⲓ-
(fi-) 		ϥⲓⲧ⸗
(fít⸗) 		ϥⲏⲩ†
(fḗu̯†)
“put” ⲕⲱ
(kṓ) 		ⲕⲁ-
(ka-) 		ⲕⲁⲁ⸗
(káa⸗) 		ⲕⲏ†
(kḗ†)
“build” ⲕⲱⲧ
(kṓt) 		ⲕⲉⲧ-
(ket-) 		ⲕⲟⲧ⸗
(kót⸗) 		ⲕⲏⲧ†
(kḗt†)
“be high” ϫⲓⲥⲉ
(číse) 		ϫⲉⲥⲧ-
(čest-) 		ϫⲁⲥⲧ⸗
(část⸗) 		ϫⲟⲥⲉ†
(čóse†)
“choose” ⲥⲱⲧⲡ̄
(sṓtəp) 		ⲥⲉⲧⲡ̄-
(setəp-) 		ⲥⲟⲧⲡ⸗
(sótp⸗) 		ⲥⲟⲧⲡ̄†
(sótəp†)
“honor” ⲧⲁⲉⲓⲟ
(tai̯ó) 		ⲧⲁⲉⲓⲉ-
(tai̯e-) 		ⲧⲁⲉⲓⲟ⸗
(tai̯ó⸗) 		ⲧⲁⲉⲓⲏⲩ†
(tai̯ḗu̯†)
“be ready” ⲥⲟⲃⲧⲉ
(sóvte) 		ⲥⲃ̄ⲧⲉ-
(səvte-) 		ⲥⲃ̄ⲧⲱⲧ⸗
(səvtṓt⸗) 		ⲥⲃ̄ⲧⲱⲧ†
(səvtṓt†)
“be straight” ⲥⲟⲟⲩⲧⲛ̄
(sóu̯tən) 		ⲥⲟⲩⲧⲛ̄-
(sutən-) 		ⲥⲟⲩⲧⲱⲛ⸗
(sutṓn⸗) 		ⲥⲟⲩⲧⲱⲛ†
(sutṓn†)
“be disturbed” ϣⲧⲟⲣⲧⲣ̄
(štórtər) 		ϣⲧⲣ̄ⲧⲣ̄-
(štərtər-) 		ϣⲧⲣ̄ⲧⲱⲣ⸗
(štərtṓr⸗) 		ϣⲧⲣ̄ⲧⲱⲣ†
(štərtṓr†)

ⲁ-ⲡ-ⲣⲱⲙⲉ

a-p-rōme

PERF-the:M.SG-man

ϯ-ⲡ-ϫⲱⲱⲙⲉ

ti-p-čōōme

give.INF-the:M.SG-book

ⲛ̄-ⲧⲉ-ⲥϩⲓⲙⲉ

n̄-te-shime

to-the:F.SG-woman

ⲁ-ⲡ-ⲣⲱⲙⲉ ϯ-ⲡ-ϫⲱⲱⲙⲉ ⲛ̄-ⲧⲉ-ⲥϩⲓⲙⲉ

a-p-rōme ti-p-čōōme n̄-te-shime

PERF-the:M.SG-man give.INF-the:M.SG-book to-the:F.SG-woman

“The man gave the book to the woman.”

ⲁ-ϥ-ⲧⲁⲁ⸗ϥ

a-f-taa⸗f

PERF-3SG.M-give.INF-3SG.M

ⲛⲁ⸗ⲥ

na⸗s

to-3SG.F

ⲁ-ϥ-ⲧⲁⲁ⸗ϥ ⲛⲁ⸗ⲥ

a-f-taa⸗f na⸗s

PERF-3SG.M-give.INF-3SG.M to-3SG.F

“He gave it to her.”

ⲁ-ⲡ-ⲣⲱⲙⲉ

a-p-rōme

PERF-the:M.SG-man

ⲥⲱⲧⲙ̄

sōtm̄

hear.INF

ⲁ-ⲡ-ⲣⲱⲙⲉ ⲥⲱⲧⲙ̄

a-p-rōme sōtm̄

PERF-the:M.SG-man hear.INF

“The man heard”

ⲁ-ϥ-ⲥⲱⲧⲙ̄

a-f-sōtm̄

PERF-3SG.M-hear.INF

ⲁ-ϥ-ⲥⲱⲧⲙ̄

a-f-sōtm̄

PERF-3SG.M-hear.INF

“He heard”

Coptic verb states
Gloss Infinitive Stative
Absolute Nominal Pronominal
“give” ϯ ϯ- ⲧⲁⲁ⸗ ⲧⲟ†

Bohairic[edit]

Bohairic (B) is a dialect of Coptic that was spoken in Lower Egypt. Originally, it was only a local dialect of the western Delta and had little literary significance. However, during the 8th and 9th centuries, it gradually replaced Sahidic as the dominant Coptic dialect and became the official liturgical language of the Coptic Church. As a result, Bohairic is the only dialect that survived after the decline of Coptic as a spoken language.

Fayyumic[edit]

Fayyumic (F) is a dialect of Coptic that was spoken in the Faiyum oasis. It includes a number of varieties, including early Fayyumic (F4) and classical Fayyumic (F5), which is considered the chief representative of the dialect due to the fact that it constitutes the majority of the available material. Fayyumic is also closely related to Mesokemic and two minor dialects (W and V), which together form the “Middle Coptic” group. Early Fayyumic texts are fragmentary and date from the early centuries of the common era, while classical Fayyumic texts date from the 6th to the 8th/9th centuries. There is also a somewhat archaic version of Fayyumic known as F7, which is known from a single manuscript dating from the early centuries of the common era (P. Hamb. Bil. 1).

The Fayyumic dialect is marked by a phenomenon known as lambdacism, which involves the replacement of ⟨ⲣ⟩ /ɾ/ with ⟨ⲗ⟩ /l/ in certain words.

Fayyumic characteristics
F M B S L A
ⲗ for ⲣ ⲗⲱⲙⲓ ⲣⲟⲙⲉ ⲣⲱⲙⲓ ⲣⲱⲙⲉ ⲣⲱⲙⲉ ⲣⲱⲙⲉ
ⲏⲏ for ⲉⲉ ⲙⲏⲏⲟⲩⲓ ⲙⲏⲟⲩⲉ ⲙⲉⲟⲩⲓ ⲙⲉⲉⲩⲉ ⲙⲉⲉⲩⲉ ⲙⲉⲉⲩⲉ
ⲁⲁ for ⲟⲟ ⲕⲁⲁϩ ⲕⲁϩ ⲕⲟϩ ⲕⲟⲟϩ ⲕⲟⲟϩ ⲕⲟⲟϩ

Akhmimic[edit]

Akhmimic (A) was a dialect spoken in Upper Egypt, particularly in the Thebaid region between Aswan and Akhmim. It was used alongside Sahidic in the 4th and 5th centuries, but Sahidic’s prestige led to Akhmimic being replaced as a literary written norm by the 5th century. Despite this, Akhmimic continued to be spoken and can be found in nonliterary texts from Thebes dating from the 7th and 8th centuries. The Akhmimic texts that have survived are all highly standardized literary translations from Greek or Sahidic.

Test space[edit]

The earliest transcriptions of Egyptian words date from c. 1360–1200 BC and are found in Akkadian, Hittite, and Hurrian texts from the Amarna, Boğazköy, and Ras Shamra cuneiform archives. Following the Bronze Age collapse there is an interruption in the record of cuneiform transcriptions of Egyptian words until the Neo-Assyrian period.

Hurrian transcriptions indicate an ō vowel corresponding to ⲏ /e/ in Coptic Lⲙⲏⲉ.

Proto-Egyptian vowels
Short Long
Front Back Front Back
Close i u iː uː
Open a aː
Late Egyptian vowels
Short Long
Front Back Front Back
Close i u iː uː
Mid e o eː oː
Open a aː
Proto-Coptic vowels
Short Long[a]
Front Back Front Back
Close i (u)[b] iː (uː)[b]
Close-mid e o eː oː
Open-mid ɛ ɛː ɔː
Open a
  1. ^ Vowel length in Coptic is alternatively analyzed as a diphonemic sequence of a vowel followed by a glottal stop /Vʔ/ or as a type of glottalization /Vˀ/[7]
  2. ^ a b Allophones of /o oː/ after nasals.
in-si-ib-ia ni-ib ta-a-wa mwa-aš-mu-a-ri-a ša-te-ep-na-ri-a
nswt-bj.tj nb tꜣ.wj wsr-mꜣꜥ.t-rꜥ stp.n-rꜥ
King of Upper and Lower Egypt, lord of the two lands, Usermaatre chosen of Ra.

𓇳𓄊𓁦𓇳𓍉𓈖 (wsr-mꜣꜥ.t-rꜥ stp.n-rꜥ) = 𒉿𒀸𒈬𒀀𒊑𒀀 𒃻𒋼𒅁𒈾𒊑𒀀 (wa-aš-mu-a-ri-a ša₂-te-ep-na-ri-a)

𓇳𓄊𓁦𓇳𓍉𓈖 (wsr-mꜣꜥ.t-rꜥ stp.n-rꜥ) = 𒉿𒀸𒈬𒀀𒊑𒀀 𒃻𒋼𒅁𒈾𒊑𒀀 (wa-aš-mu-a-ri-a ša₂-te-ep-na-ri-a)

Egyptian Hebrew Neo-Assyrian Coptic
nʾ.t נֹא (nōʾ) 𒉌𒀪 (ne₂-eʾ) ⲛⲏ (nē)
mn-nfr מֹף (mōp̄) 𒉌𒀪 (me-em-pi) ⲙⲉⲙϥⲓ (memfi)
pꜣ-tꜣ-rs.j פַּתְרוֹס (paṯrōs) 𒉺𒌅𒊑𒋢 (pa-tu-re-su) ⲡⲁⲧⲟⲩⲣⲏⲥ (patourēs)

Egyptian ṯ and ḏ were equated with the Semitic affricates s *[t͡sʰ] and ṣ *[t͡s’] in loanwords and transcriptions from the 1st and 2nd millennium BC. Semitic z *[d͡z] was borrowed into Egyptian as ḏ, as in ḏt ("olive", Coptic: ϫⲟⲉⲓⲧ) from Semitic *zayt-. Egyptian ḏ was in turn borrowed into the Semitic languages as ṣ, as in Hebrew צֹעַן (ṣōʿan) and Arabic صان (ṣān) from Egyptian ḏꜥn.t ("Tanis", Coptic: ϫⲁⲁⲛⲉ).

Egyptian scribes used both ṯ and ḏ to transcribe the Hittite affricate z *[t͡s], as in ṯwṯs and qḏwdn for Hittite Zuwanzaš and Kizzuwatna.

Egy. ṯ → Sem. s
Egy. ḏ → Sem. ṣ
Sem. s → Egy. ṯ
Sem. ṣ → Egy. ḏ
Sem. z → Egy. ḏ

The Egyptian stops formed two distinct series according to their manner of articulation: p t ṯ k and d ḏ g q. The nature of the distinction is debated.

The distinction is preserved only in Bohairic Coptic before a stressed vowel, where the reflexes of p t ṯ k appear as aspirated ⲫ ⲑ ϭ ⲭ /pʰ tʰ t͡ʃʰ kʰ/ and those of d ḏ g q as tenuis ⲧ ϫ ⲕ /t t͡ʃ k/.

Semitic ʾil- and baʿalat- were transcribed in Egyptian as jꜣ and bꜥꜣt

Phonology[edit]

Sahidic:

Final ⲁ⸗
SG PL
1 ⲛⲙ̄ⲙⲁⲓ̈ ⲛⲙ̄ⲙⲁⲛ
2 M ⲛⲙ̄ⲙⲁⲕ ⲛⲙ̄ⲙⲏⲧⲛ̄
F ⲛⲙ̄ⲙⲉ
3 M ⲛⲙ̄ⲙⲁϥ ⲛⲙ̄ⲙⲁⲩ
F ⲛⲙ̄ⲙⲁⲥ
Final ⲟ⸗
SG PL
1 ⲙ̄ⲙⲟⲓ̈ ⲙ̄ⲙⲟⲛ
2 M ⲙ̄ⲙⲟⲕ ⲙ̄ⲙⲱⲧⲛ̄
F ⲙ̄ⲙⲟ
3 M ⲙ̄ⲙⲟϥ ⲙ̄ⲙⲟⲟⲩ
F ⲙ̄ⲙⲟⲥ

Bohairic:

Final ⲁ⸗
SG PL
1 ⲛⲉⲙⲏⲓ ⲛⲉⲙⲁⲛ
2 M ⲛⲉⲙⲁⲕ ⲛⲉⲙⲱⲧⲉⲛ
F ⲛⲉⲙⲉ
3 M ⲛⲉⲙⲁϥ ⲛⲉⲙⲱⲟⲩ
F ⲛⲉⲙⲁⲥ
Final ⲟ⸗
SG PL
1 ⲙ̀ⲙⲟⲓ ⲙ̀ⲙⲟⲛ
2 M ⲙ̀ⲙⲟⲕ ⲙ̀ⲙⲱⲧⲉⲛ
F ⲙ̀ⲙⲟ
3 M ⲙ̀ⲙⲟϥ ⲙ̀ⲙⲱⲟⲩ
F ⲙ̀ⲙⲟⲥ

Akhmimic:

Final ⲉ⸗
SG PL
1 ⲛⲉⲙⲉⲓ̈ ⲛⲉⲙⲉⲛ
2 M ⲛⲉⲙⲉⲕ ⲛⲉⲙⲏⲧⲛⲉ
F ⲛⲉⲙⲉ
3 M ⲛⲉⲙⲉϥ ⲛⲉⲙⲉⲩ
F ⲛⲉⲙⲉⲥ
Final ⲁ⸗
SG PL
1 ⲙ̄ⲙⲁⲓ̈ ⲙ̄ⲙⲁⲛ
2 M ⲙ̄ⲙⲁⲕ ⲙ̄ⲙⲱⲧⲛⲉ
F ⲙ̄ⲙⲟ
3 M ⲙ̄ⲙⲁϥ ⲙ̄ⲙⲁⲩ
F ⲙ̄ⲙⲁⲥ

Possession of definite nouns is expressed with a series of possessive articles which are prefixed to the noun. These articles agree with the person, number, and gender of the possessor and the number and gender of the possessed noun. The forms of the possessive article vary by dialect.

Coptic possessive articles
Person/Number/Gender Dialect
Possessor Possessed Bohairic Fayyumic Oxyrhynchite Sahidic Lycopolitan Akhmimic
1SG M ⲡⲁ-
F ⲧⲁ-
PL ⲛⲁ-
2SG.M M ⲡⲉⲕ-
F ⲧⲉⲕ-
PL ⲛⲉⲕ-
2SG.F M ⲡⲉ- ⲡⲟⲩ- ⲡⲉ-
F ⲧⲉ- ⲧⲟⲩ- ⲧⲉ-
PL ⲛⲉ- ⲛⲟⲩ- ⲛⲉ-
3SG.M M ⲡⲉϥ-
F ⲧⲉϥ-
PL ⲛⲉϥ-
3SG.F M ⲡⲉⲥ-
F ⲧⲉⲥ-
PL ⲛⲉⲥ-
1PL M ⲡⲉⲛ-
F ⲧⲉⲛ-
PL ⲛⲉⲛ-
2PL M ⲡⲉⲧⲉⲛ- ⲡⲉⲧⲛ̄-
F ⲧⲉⲧⲉⲛ- ⲧⲉⲧⲛ̄-
PL ⲛⲉⲧⲉⲛ- ⲛⲉⲧⲛ̄-
3PL M ⲡⲟⲩ- ⲡⲉⲩ- ⲡⲟⲩ-
F ⲧⲟⲩ- ⲧⲉⲩ- ⲧⲟⲩ-
PL ⲛⲟⲩ- ⲛⲉⲩ- ⲛⲟⲩ-
Examples
Translation Dialect
Bohairic Fayyumic Oxyrhynchite Sahidic Lycopolitan Akhmimic
“my brother” ⲡⲁ-ⲥⲟⲛ ⲡⲁ-ⲥⲁⲛ ⲡⲁ-ⲥⲟⲛ ⲡⲁ-ⲥⲁⲛ
“my sister” ⲧⲁ-ⲥⲱⲛⲓ ⲧⲁ-ⲥⲟⲛⲉ ⲧⲁ-ⲥⲱⲛⲉ
“my siblings” ⲛⲁ-ⲥⲛⲏⲟⲩ ⲛⲁ-ⲥⲛⲏⲩ
“your (SG.M) brother” ⲡⲉⲕ-ⲥⲟⲛ ⲡⲉⲕ-ⲥⲁⲛ ⲡⲉⲕ-ⲥⲟⲛ ⲡⲉⲕ-ⲥⲁⲛ
“your (SG.M) sister” ⲧⲉⲕ-ⲥⲱⲛⲓ ⲧⲉⲕ-ⲥⲟⲛⲉ ⲧⲉⲕ-ⲥⲱⲛⲉ
“your (SG.M) siblings” ⲛⲉⲕ-ⲥⲛⲏⲟⲩ ⲛⲉⲕ-ⲥⲛⲏⲩ
“your (SG.F) brother” ⲡⲉ-ⲥⲟⲛ ⲡⲉ-ⲥⲁⲛ ⲡⲟⲩ-ⲥⲟⲛ ⲡⲉ-ⲥⲁⲛ
“your (SG.F) sister” ⲧⲉ-ⲥⲱⲛⲓ ⲧⲉ-ⲥⲟⲛⲉ ⲧⲟⲩ-ⲥⲱⲛⲉ ⲧⲉ-ⲥⲱⲛⲉ
“your (SG.F) siblings” ⲛⲉ-ⲥⲛⲏⲟⲩ ⲛⲉ-ⲥⲛⲏⲩ ⲛⲟⲩ-ⲥⲛⲏⲩ ⲛⲉ-ⲥⲛⲏⲩ
“his brother” ⲡⲉϥ-ⲥⲟⲛ ⲡⲉϥ-ⲥⲁⲛ ⲡⲉϥ-ⲥⲟⲛ ⲡⲉϥ-ⲥⲁⲛ
“his sister” ⲧⲉϥ-ⲥⲱⲛⲓ ⲧⲉϥ-ⲥⲟⲛⲉ ⲧⲉϥ-ⲥⲱⲛⲉ
“his siblings” ⲛⲉϥ-ⲥⲛⲏⲟⲩ ⲛⲉϥ-ⲥⲛⲏⲩ
“her brother” ⲡⲉⲥ-ⲥⲟⲛ ⲡⲉⲥ-ⲥⲁⲛ ⲡⲉⲥ-ⲥⲟⲛ ⲡⲉⲥ-ⲥⲁⲛ
“her sister” ⲧⲉⲥ-ⲥⲱⲛⲓ ⲧⲉⲥ-ⲥⲟⲛⲉ ⲧⲉⲥ-ⲥⲱⲛⲉ
“her siblings” ⲛⲉⲥ-ⲥⲛⲏⲟⲩ ⲛⲉⲥ-ⲥⲛⲏⲩ
“our brother” ⲡⲉⲛ-ⲥⲟⲛ ⲡⲉⲛ-ⲥⲁⲛ ⲡⲉⲛ-ⲥⲟⲛ ⲡⲉⲛ-ⲥⲁⲛ
“our sister” ⲧⲉⲛ-ⲥⲱⲛⲓ ⲧⲉⲛ-ⲥⲟⲛⲉ ⲧⲉⲛ-ⲥⲱⲛⲉ
“our siblings” ⲛⲉⲛ-ⲥⲛⲏⲟⲩ ⲛⲉⲛ-ⲥⲛⲏⲩ
“your (PL) brother” ⲡⲉⲧⲉⲛ-ⲥⲟⲛ ⲡⲉⲧⲉⲛ-ⲥⲁⲛ ⲡⲉⲧⲛ̄-ⲥⲁⲛ ⲡⲉⲧⲛ̄-ⲥⲟⲛ ⲡⲉⲧⲛ̄-ⲥⲁⲛ
“your (PL) sister” ⲧⲉⲧⲉⲛ-ⲥⲱⲛⲓ ⲧⲉⲧⲛ̄-ⲥⲟⲛⲉ ⲧⲉⲧⲛ̄-ⲥⲱⲛⲉ
“your (PL) siblings” ⲛⲉⲧⲉⲛ-ⲥⲛⲏⲟⲩ ⲛⲉⲧⲛ̄-ⲥⲛⲏⲩ
“their brother” ⲡⲟⲩ-ⲥⲟⲛ ⲡⲉⲩ-ⲥⲁⲛ ⲡⲉⲩ-ⲥⲟⲛ ⲡⲟⲩ-ⲥⲁⲛ
“their sister” ⲧⲟⲩ-ⲥⲱⲛⲓ ⲧⲉⲩ-ⲥⲱⲛⲓ ⲧⲉⲩ-ⲥⲟⲛⲉ ⲧⲉⲩ-ⲥⲱⲛⲉ ⲧⲟⲩ-ⲥⲱⲛⲉ
“their siblings” ⲛⲟⲩ-ⲥⲛⲏⲟⲩ ⲛⲉⲩ-ⲥⲛⲏⲟⲩ ⲛⲉⲩ-ⲥⲛⲏⲩ ⲛⲟⲩ-ⲥⲛⲏⲩ


Consonants[edit]

The Coptic consonants may be divided into two primary classes: obstruents and sonorants.

Coptic consonants (c. 300 CE)
Obstruent
Labial Alveolar Palato-alv. Palatal Velar Glottal
Stop/
Affricate 		Aspirated[a] pʰ ⟨ⲫ⟩ tʰ ⟨ⲑ⟩ t͡ʃʰ ⟨ϭ⟩ kʰ ⟨ⲭ⟩
Tenuis p ⟨ⲡ⟩ t ⟨ⲧ⟩ t͡ʃ ⟨ϫ⟩ c ⟨ϭ⟩ k ⟨ⲕ⟩ (ʔ)
Fricative f ⟨ϥ⟩ s ⟨ⲥ⟩ ʃ ⟨ϣ⟩ ç ⟨ⳋ⟩[b] x ⟨ϧ⟩[c] h ⟨ϩ⟩
Sonorant
Nasal m ⟨ⲙ⟩ n ⟨ⲛ⟩
Approximant v~β ⟨ⲃ⟩[d] l ⟨ⲗ⟩ j ⟨ⲓ⟩[e] w ⟨ⲟⲩ⟩[f]
Tap ɾ ⟨ⲣ⟩
  1. ^ Aspirated consonants are only found in the Bohairic dialect.
  2. ^ /ç/ is only found in Dialect P and Dialect I (where it is written with the letter ⟨ⳃ⟩). It merged into /x/ in Akhmimic and /ʃ/ in the other dialects.
  3. ^ /x/ is written with the letter ⟨ϧ⟩ in Bohairic and Dialect P and ⟨ⳉ⟩ in Akhmimic and Dialect I. In the other dialects /x/ merged into /h/.
  4. ^ ⲃ may have been bilabial or labiodental, with possible dialectal variation.[8] It is usually transcribed as ⟨v⟩ or ⟨β⟩, although it was phonologically a sonorant (/ʋ/ or /β̞/).
  5. ^ also ⟨ⲉⲓ⟩
  6. ^ also ⟨ⲩ⟩


Coptic consonants (c. 300 CE)
Labial Alveolar Palato-alv. Palatal Velar Glottal
Obstruent Aspirate pʰ ⟨ⲫ⟩ tʰ ⟨ⲑ⟩ t͡ʃʰ ⟨ϭ⟩ kʰ ⟨ⲭ⟩
Tenuis p ⟨ⲡ⟩ t ⟨ⲧ⟩ t͡ʃ ⟨ϫ⟩ c ⟨ϭ⟩ k ⟨ⲕ⟩ (ʔ)
Fricative f ⟨ϥ⟩ s ⟨ⲥ⟩ ʃ ⟨ϣ⟩ ç ⟨ⳋ⟩, ⟨ⳃ⟩ x ⟨ϧ⟩, ⟨ⳉ⟩ h ⟨ϩ⟩
Sonorant Approximant v~β ⟨ⲃ⟩[a] l ⟨ⲗ⟩ j ⟨ⲉⲓ~ⲓ⟩ w ⟨ⲟⲩ~ⲩ⟩
Tap ɾ ⟨ⲣ⟩
Nasal m ⟨ⲙ⟩ n ⟨ⲛ⟩
  1. ^ ⲃ may have been labial or labiodental. It is usually transcribed as ⟨v⟩ or ⟨β⟩, although it was phonologically a sonorant (/ʋ/ or /β̞/).
Coptic consonants (c. 300 CE)
Labial Alveolar Palato-alv. Palatal Velar Glottal
Obstruent Aspirate pʰ ⟨ⲫ⟩ tʰ ⟨ⲑ⟩ t͡ʃʰ ⟨ϭ⟩ kʰ ⟨ⲭ⟩
Tenuis p ⟨ⲡ⟩ t ⟨ⲧ⟩ t͡ʃ ⟨ϫ⟩ c ⟨ϭ⟩ k ⟨ⲕ⟩ (ʔ)
Fricative f ⟨ϥ⟩ s ⟨ⲥ⟩ ʃ ⟨ϣ⟩ ç ⟨ⳋ⟩, ⟨ⳃ⟩ x ⟨ϧ⟩, ⟨ⳉ⟩ h ⟨ϩ⟩
Sonorant Approximant v~β ⟨ⲃ⟩[a] l ⟨ⲗ⟩
Tap ɾ ⟨ⲣ⟩
Nasal m ⟨ⲙ⟩ n ⟨ⲛ⟩
Semivowel j ⟨ⲉⲓ~ⲓ⟩ w ⟨ⲟⲩ~ⲩ⟩
  1. ^ ⲃ may have been labial or labiodental. It is usually transcribed as ⟨v⟩ or ⟨β⟩, although it was phonologically a sonorant (/ʋ/ or /β̞/).
Coptic vowels
Front Central Back
Close i ⟨ⲓ~ⲉⲓ⟩ u ⟨ⲟⲩ⟩
Close-mid e ⟨ⲏ⟩ ə
⟨ˉ⟩, ⟨ⲉ⟩ 		o ⟨ⲱ⟩
Open-mid ɛ ⟨ⲉ⟩ ɔ ⟨ⲟ⟩
Open a ⟨ⲁ⟩

The two primary classes of Egyptian consonants throughout the language's history are obstruents (stops, affricates and fricatives) and sonorants (approximants, nasals, and semivowels). Egyptian’s obstruents are uniformly voiceless, whereas its sonorants are always voiced.[9] Note that the Egyptian consonants transcribed by the Latin voiced letters ⟨d ḏ g⟩ were not voiced but rather tenuis (unaspirated), while those transcribed by the voiceless letters ⟨p t ṯ k⟩ were aspirated (similar to the pinyin romanization of Mandarin). A transition between the two classes can be observed to have occurred with the consonant b, which began as an obstruent and underwent voicing at an early period.[10] By the Coptic period, the reflex /v/ ⟨ⲃ⟩ had joined the class of sonorants. The Coptic sonorants /v l m n r j w/ ⟨ⲃ ⲗ ⲙ ⲛ ⲣ ⲉⲓ ⲟⲩ⟩ are distinguished by their ability to occupy the syllable nucleus as syllabic consonants.[11]

Like the related Semitic and Cushitic language families, Egyptian possessed pharyngeal consonants. Based on restrictions on the co-occurrence of consonants within Egyptian roots, Afro-Asiatic scholar Otto Rössler hypothesized that the pharyngeal consonant ꜥ derived from an earlier dental /d/. Rössler’s theory is not universally accepted, and doubts have been expressed over the typological plausibility of such a change and the methodological validity of postulating sound changes on the basis of root compatibilities without comparative corroboration.[12]

The following tables present the consonant phonemes of the Egyptian language over the course of its history. The reconstructed phonetic value of a phoneme is given in IPA transcription, alongside its Egyptological transliteration or Coptic spelling in angle brackets ⟨ ⟩.

Middle Egyptian consonants (c. 2000 – c. 1350 BCE)
Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Pharyngeal Glottal
Nasal m ⟨m⟩ n ⟨n⟩
Obstruent aspirate[13] pʰ ⟨p⟩ tʰ ⟨t⟩ t͡ʃʰ ⟨ṯ⟩ kʰ ⟨k⟩
tenuis[14] p ⟨b⟩ t ⟨d⟩ t͡ʃ ⟨ḏ⟩ k ⟨g⟩ k◌ ⟨q⟩[a]
fricative f ⟨f⟩ s ⟨s z⟩ ʃ ⟨š⟩ x ⟨ḫ⟩ x◌ ⟨ẖ⟩[a] ħ ⟨ḥ⟩ h ⟨h⟩
Approximant r ⟨r⟩ l ⟨ꜣ⟩[b] j ⟨j⟩ w ⟨w⟩ ʕ ⟨ꜥ⟩
  1. ^ a b Middle Egyptian q and ẖ were marked by an indeterminate form of secondary articulation, represented here by the cover symbol ⟨◌⟩. (see below)
  2. ^ The sign ꜣ was misidentified by early Egyptologists as representing the glottal stop [ʔ], however the true liquid character of the phoneme has now been recognized for a century. Recent studies have identifed ꜣ as the alveolar lateral approximant [l].[15][16]

A distinction between s and z is maintained only in Old Egyptian.[17] Already by the Middle Egyptian period both signs are used interchangeably for /s/.[18] The original value of z is unknown, but speculative proposals include the voiceless alveolar affricate [t͡s][19] and the voiceless dental fricative [θ].[20] Regarding the velars, there is a lack of consensus among Egyptologists over the feature that originally distinguished q and ẖ from g and ḫ. There is some evidence that q and ẖ may have been labialized /kʷ xʷ/ in Middle Egyptian,[21][22] with Coptic reflexes demonstrating that q could trigger labial assimilation of a preceding nasal:

Late Egyptian and Demotic consonants (c. 1350 BCE – c. 200 CE)
Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Pharyngeal Glottal
Nasal m ⟨m⟩ n ⟨n⟩
Obstruent aspirate pʰ ⟨p⟩ tʰ ⟨t⟩ t͡ʃʰ ⟨ṯ⟩ kʲʰ ⟨k⟩ kʰ ⟨k⟩
tenuis b ⟨b⟩ t ⟨d⟩ t͡ʃ ⟨ḏ⟩ kʲ ⟨g⟩ k ⟨g q⟩
fricative f ⟨f⟩ s ⟨s z⟩ ʃ ⟨š⟩ xʲ ⟨ḫ h̭⟩[a] x ⟨ḫ ẖ⟩ ħ ⟨ḥ⟩ h ⟨h⟩
Approximant r ⟨r⟩ l ⟨l⟩[23] j ⟨j⟩ w ⟨w⟩ ʕ ⟨ꜥ⟩
  1. ^ Late Egyptian /xʲ/ is conventionally notated ḫ₂ in discussions of Egyptian historical phonology.

In the transition from Middle to Late Egyptian, the earlier distinction between k, g, and ḫ on the one hand and phonologically marked q and ẖ on the other is replaced by a contrast between plain and palatalized velars. This palatalization process splits k, g and ḫ into palatalized and plain variants, while q and ẖ lose their secondary articulation and generally shift to plain /k x/.[24] Scribes during the Ramesside Period began using a ligature in order to represent the new Late Egyptian phoneme /xʲ/,[25] which was later adapted into the Demotic sign h̭.[26]

Coptic consonants (c. 200 CE)
Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal m ⟨ⲙ⟩ n ⟨ⲛ⟩
Obstruent aspirate pʰ ⟨ⲫ⟩ tʰ ⟨ⲑ⟩ t͡ʃʰ ⟨ϭ⟩ kʰ ⟨ⲭ⟩
tenuis p ⟨ⲡ⟩ t ⟨ⲧ⟩ t͡ʃ ⟨ϫ⟩ kʲ ⟨ϭ⟩ k ⟨ⲕ⟩
fricative f ⟨ϥ⟩ s ⟨ⲥ⟩ ʃ ⟨ϣ⟩ xʲ ⟨ⳋ ⳃ⟩ x ⟨ϧ ⳉ⟩ h ⟨ϩ⟩
Approximant v ⟨ⲃ⟩[a] r ⟨ⲣ⟩ l ⟨ⲗ⟩ j ⟨ⲉⲓ⟩ w ⟨ⲟⲩ⟩
  1. ^ Coptic ⲃ is alternatively interpreted as a voiced bilabial fricative [β].[27]

The most salient innovation of the Coptic phoneme inventory is the loss of the pharyngeal consonants /ħ ʕ/. Late Demotic spellings indicate that /ʕ/ was lost in the first or second centuries BCE,[28] while /ħ/ merged into /h/ by the second century CE.[29] /xʲ/ was preserved as such only in the minor Coptic dialects P and I, where it is written ⳋ and ⳃ respectively.[30] In the remaining dialects it was fronted to /ʃ/ ⟨ϣ⟩,[31] with the exception of Akhmimic, where it was depalatalized to /x/ ⟨ⳉ⟩.[32]

Geʽez[edit]

Geʽez consonants[33]
Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Pharyngeal Glottal
central lateral plain labialized
Nasal /m/ መ m /n/ ነ n
Stop/
Affricate 		voiceless /p/ ፐ p /t/ ተ t /k/ ከ k /kʷ/ ኰ kʷ /ʔ/ አ ʾ
voiced /b/ በ b /d/ ደ d /d͡z~z/ ዘ z /g/ ገ g /gʷ/ ጐ gʷ
emphatic /pʼ/ ጰ ṗ /t’/ ጠ ṭ /t͡sʼ/ ጸ ṣ /t͡ɬʼ/ ፀ ṣ́ /k’/ ቀ ḳ /kʷ’/ ቈ ḳʷ
Fricative /f/ ፈ f /s/ ሰ s /ɬ/ ሠ ś /x/ ኀ ḫ /xʷ/ ኈ ḫʷ /ħ/ ሐ ḥ /h/ ሀ h
Approximant /r/ ረ r /l/ ለ l /j/ የ y /w/ ወ w /ʕ/ ዐ ʿ
Coptic consonants
Labial Alveolar Postalveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal /m/ ⲙ /n/ ⲛ
Obstruent aspirate /pʰ/ ⲫ /tʰ/ ⲑ /t͡ʃʰ/ ϭ /kʰ/ ⲭ
tenuis /p/ ⲡ /t/ ⲧ /t͡ʃ/ ϫ /c/ ϭ /k/ ⲕ
fricative /f/ ϥ /s/ ⲥ /ʃ/ ϣ /ç/ ⳋ /x/ ϧ /h/ ϩ
Approximant /ʋ/ ⲃ /r/ ⲣ /l/ ⲗ /j/ ⲉⲓ /w/ ⲟⲩ
Bohairic Coptic consonants
Labial Alveolar Postalveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal /m/ ⲙ /n/ ⲛ
Obstruent aspirate /pʰ/ ⲫ /tʰ/ ⲑ /t͡ʃʰ/ ϭ /kʰ/ ⲭ
tenuis /p/ ⲡ /t/ ⲧ /t͡ʃ/ ϫ /k/ ⲕ
fricative /f/ ϥ /s/ ⲥ /ʃ/ ϣ /x/ ϧ /h/ ϩ
Approximant /ʋ/ ⲃ /r/ ⲣ /l/ ⲗ /j/ ⲓ /w/ ⲟⲩ
Sahidic Coptic consonants
Labial Alveolar Postalveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal /m/ ⲙ /n/ ⲛ
Obstruent tenuis /p/ ⲡ /t/ ⲧ /t͡ʃ/ ϫ /c/ ϭ /k/ ⲕ
fricative /f/ ϥ /s/ ⲥ /ʃ/ ϣ /h/ ϩ
Approximant /ʋ/ ⲃ /r/ ⲣ /l/ ⲗ /j/ ⲉⲓ /w/ ⲟⲩ
Akhmimic Coptic consonants
Labial Alveolar Postalveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal /m/ ⲙ /n/ ⲛ
Obstruent tenuis /p/ ⲡ /t/ ⲧ /t͡ʃ/ ϫ /c/ ϭ /k/ ⲕ
fricative /f/ ϥ /s/ ⲥ /ʃ/ ϣ /x/ ⳉ /h/ ϩ
Approximant /ʋ/ ⲃ /r/ ⲣ /l/ ⲗ /j/ ⲉⲓ /w/ ⲟⲩ
Coptic Dialect P consonants
Labial Alveolar Postalv. Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal /m/ ⲙ /n/ ⲛ
Obstruent tenuis /p/ ⲡ /t/ ⲧ /t͡ʃ/ ϫ /c/ ⲕ /k/ ⲹ
fricative /f/ ϥ /s/ ⲥ /ʃ/ ϣ /ç/ ⳋ /x/ ϧ /h/ ϩ
Approximant /ʋ/ ⲃ /r/ ⲣ /l/ ⲗ /j/ ⲉⲓ /w/ ⲟⲩ
Demotic Egyptian consonants
Labial Alveolar Postalv. Palatal Velar Pharyng. Glottal
Nasal /m/ /n/
Obstruent aspirate /pʰ/ /tʰ/ /t͡ʃʰ/ /cʰ/ /kʰ/
tenuis /p/ /t/ /t͡ʃ/ /c/ /k/
fricative /f/ /s/ /ʃ/ /ç/ /x/ /ħ/ /h/
Approximant /ʋ/ /r/ /l/ /j/ /w/ /ʕ/
Coptic sound correspondences
Egyptian Proto-Coptic B FMSL P A
b */ʋ/ /ʋ/ ⲃ /ʋ/ ⲃ /ʋ/ ⲃ /ʋ/ ⲃ
p */pʰ/ /pʰ/ ⲫ /p/ ⲡ /p/ ⲡ /p/ ⲡ
d, ḏ */t/ /t/ ⲧ /t/ ⲧ /t/ ⲧ /t/ ⲧ
t, ṯ */tʰ/ /tʰ/ ⲑ /t/ ⲧ /t/ ⲧ /t/ ⲧ
ḏ */t͡ʃ/ /t͡ʃ/ ϫ /t͡ʃ/ ϫ /t͡ʃ/ ϫ /t͡ʃ/ ϫ
ṯ */t͡ʃʰ/ /t͡ʃʰ/ ϭ /t͡ʃ/ ϫ /t͡ʃ/ ϫ /t͡ʃ/ ϫ
g, q */c/ /t͡ʃ ϫ /c/ ϭ /c/ ϭ /c/ ϭ
k */cʰ/ /t͡ʃʰ/ ϭ /c/ ϭ /c/ ϭ /c/ ϭ
q, g */k/ /k/ ⲕ /k/ ⲕ /k/ ⲕ /k/ ⲕ
k */kʰ/ /kʰ/ ⲭ /k/ ⲕ /k/ ⲕ /k/ ⲕ
f */f/ /f/ ϥ /f/ ϥ /f/ ϥ /f/ ϥ
s, z */s/ /s/ ⲥ /s/ ⲥ /s/ ⲥ /s/ ⲥ
š */ʃ/ /ʃ/ ϣ /ʃ/ ϣ /ʃ/ ϣ /ʃ/ ϣ
ḫ */ç/ /ʃ/ ϣ /ʃ/ ϣ /ç/ ⳋ /x/ ⳉ
ẖ, ḫ */x/ /x/ ϧ /h/ ϩ /x/ ϧ /x/ ⳉ
ḥ */ħ/ /h/ ϩ /h/ ϩ /h/ ϩ /h/ ϩ
h */h/ /h/ ϩ /h/ ϩ /h/ ϩ /h/ ϩ
Bohairic vowels
Front Back
Close ⲉⲓ /i/ ⲟⲩ /u/
Close-mid ⲏ /e/ ⲱ /o/
Open-mid ⲉ /ɛ/ ⲟ /ɔ/
Open ⲁ /a/
Sahidic vowels
Front Back
Close ⲉⲓ /i/ ⲟⲩ /u/
Close-mid ⲏ /e/ ⲏⲏ /eː/ ⲱ /o/ ⲱⲱ /oː/
Open-mid ⲉ /ɛ/ ⲉⲉ /ɛː/ ⲟ /ɔ/ ⲟⲟ /ɔː/
Open ⲁ /a/ ⲁⲁ /aː/
Lycopolitan vowels
Front Back
Close ⲉⲓ /i/ ⲟⲩ /u/
Close-mid ⲏ /e/ ⲏⲏ /eː/ ⲱ /o/ ⲱⲱ /oː/
Open-mid ⲉ /ɛ/ ⲉⲉ /ɛː/ ⲟⲟ /ɔː/
Open ⲁ /a/ ⲁⲁ /aː/
Akhmimic vowels
Front Back
Close ⲉⲓ /i/ ⲓⲉⲓ /iː/ ⲟⲩ /u/ ⲟⲩⲟⲩ /uː/
Close-mid ⲏ /e/ ⲱ /o/
Open-mid ⲉ /ɛ/ ⲉⲉ /ɛː/ ⲟⲟ /ɔː/[a]
Open ⲁ /a/ ⲁⲁ /aː/
  1. ^ Frequent spelling of this vowel as
    ⲱⲱ indicates that it is in free variation with [oː].
Middle Egyptian consonants
Labial Alveolar Postalv. Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyng. Glottal
Nasal m ⟨m⟩ n ⟨n⟩
Obstruent voiced b ⟨b⟩
aspirate pʰ ⟨p⟩ tʰ ⟨t⟩ t͡ʃʰ ⟨ṯ⟩ kʰ ⟨k⟩
tenuis t ⟨d⟩ t͡ʃ ⟨ḏ⟩ k ⟨g⟩ q ⟨q⟩ ʔ(?) ⟨j⟩
fricative f ⟨f⟩ s ⟨s z⟩ ʃ ⟨š⟩ x ⟨ḫ⟩ χ ⟨ẖ⟩ ħ ⟨ḥ⟩ h ⟨h⟩
Approximant l(?) ⟨ꜣ⟩ j ⟨y⟩ w ⟨w⟩ ʕ ⟨ꜥ⟩
Tap ɾ ⟨r⟩
Middle Egyptian consonants
Labial Alveolar Postalv. Palatal Dorsal (Back) Pharyng. Glottal
Nasal m ⟨m⟩ n ⟨n⟩
Plosive/
Affricate 		Voiced b ⟨b⟩
Unmarked pʰ ⟨p⟩ tʰ ⟨t⟩ t͡ʃʰ ⟨ṯ⟩ kʰ ⟨k⟩ ʔ? ⟨j⟩
Marked t⁽’⁾ ⟨d⟩ t͡ʃ⁽’⁾ ⟨ḏ⟩ K⁽’⁾? ⟨g⟩ K⁽’⁾? ⟨q⟩
Fricative Voiceless f ⟨f⟩ s ⟨s z⟩ ʃ ⟨š⟩ X? ⟨ḫ⟩ X? ⟨ẖ⟩ ħ ⟨ḥ⟩ h ⟨h⟩
Voiced ʕ ⟨ꜥ⟩
Approximant l? ⟨ꜣ n⟩ j ⟨y⟩ w ⟨w⟩
Tap ɾ ⟨r⟩
Middle Egyptian consonants
Labial Alveolar Postalv. Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyng. Glottal
Nasal m ⟨m⟩ n ⟨n⟩
Stop Voiced b ⟨b⟩
Unmarked pʰ ⟨p⟩ tʰ ⟨t⟩ t͡ʃʰ ⟨ṯ⟩ kʰ ⟨k⟩ ʔ(?) ⟨j⟩
Marked t⁽’⁾ ⟨d⟩ t͡ʃ⁽’⁾ ⟨ḏ⟩ k⁽’⁾ ⟨g⟩ q⁽’⁾ ⟨q⟩
Fricative Voiceless f ⟨f⟩ s ⟨s z⟩ ʃ ⟨š⟩ x ⟨ḫ⟩ χ ⟨ẖ⟩ ħ ⟨ḥ⟩ h ⟨h⟩
Voiced ʕ ⟨ꜥ⟩
Approximant l(?) ⟨ꜣ⟩ j ⟨y⟩ w ⟨w⟩
Tap ɾ ⟨r⟩
Middle Egyptian consonants
Labial Alveolar Postalv. Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyng. Glottal
Obstruent Stop Voiced b ⟨b⟩
Unmarked pʰ ⟨p⟩ tʰ ⟨t⟩ t͡ʃʰ ⟨ṯ⟩ kʰ ⟨k⟩ ʔ(?) ⟨j⟩
Marked t⁽’⁾ ⟨d⟩ t͡ʃ⁽’⁾ ⟨ḏ⟩ k⁽’⁾ ⟨g⟩ q⁽’⁾ ⟨q⟩
Fricative Voiceless f ⟨f⟩ s ⟨s z⟩ ʃ ⟨š⟩ x ⟨ḫ⟩ χ ⟨ẖ⟩ ħ ⟨ḥ⟩ h ⟨h⟩
Voiced ʕ ⟨ꜥ⟩
Sonorant Nasal m ⟨m⟩ n ⟨n⟩
Approximant l(?) ⟨ꜣ⟩ j ⟨y⟩ w ⟨w⟩
Tap ɾ ⟨r⟩
Middle Egyptian consonants
Labial Alveolar Postalv. Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyng. Glottal
Nasal ⟨m⟩ m ⟨n⟩ n
Obstruent voiced ⟨b⟩ b[a]
aspirated[b] ⟨p⟩ pʰ ⟨t⟩ tʰ ⟨ṯ⟩ t͡ʃʰ ⟨k⟩ kʰ
tenuis/ejective[b] ⟨d⟩ t~t’ ⟨ḏ⟩ t͡ʃ~t͡ʃ’ ⟨g⟩ k~k’ ⟨q⟩ q~q’ ⟨j ꜣ⟩ (ʔ?)[c][d]
fricative ⟨f⟩ f ⟨s z⟩ s[e] ⟨š⟩ ʃ ⟨ẖ⟩ (ç?)[f] ⟨ḫ⟩ x ⟨ẖ⟩ (χ?)[f] ⟨ḥ⟩ ħ ⟨h⟩ h
Approximant ⟨ꜣ⟩ (l?)[d] ⟨j y⟩ j ⟨w⟩ w ⟨ꜥ⟩ ʕ
Tap ⟨r⟩ ɾ
  1. ^ b is unique among the obstruents.
  2. ^ a b ...
  3. ^ It is common to transliterate this sign as ⟨ı͗⟩ in order to reflect its uncertain value. The sign j can be doubled as 𓇌 in order to unambiguously represent [j]. In this case it is transliterated as y.
  4. ^ a b The sign ꜣ was misidentified by early Egyptologists as representing the glottal stop [ʔ], however the true liquid character of the phoneme has now been recognized for a century. More recent studies have identifed ꜣ with the alveolar lateral approximant [l].[34][35] Other proposed values for ꜣ include the voiced uvular trill [ʀ] and the velarized alveolar lateral approximant [ɫ].[36]
  5. ^ A distinction between s and z is maintained only in Old Egyptian.[37] Already by the Middle Egyptian period both signs are used interchangeably for /s/.[38] The original value of z is unknown, but proposals include the voiceless alveolar affricate [t͡s][39] and the voiceless dental fricative [θ].[40]
  6. ^ a b ẖ is…
Late Egyptian consonants
Labial Alveolar Postalv. Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyng. Glottal
Nasal ⟨m⟩ m ⟨n⟩ n
Obstruent voiced ⟨b⟩ b
aspirated ⟨p⟩ pʰ ⟨t ṯ⟩ tʰ ⟨ṯ⟩ t͡ʃʰ ⟨k⟩ cʰ ⟨k⟩ kʰ
tenuis/ejective ⟨d ḏ⟩ t~t’ ⟨ḏ⟩ t͡ʃ~t͡ʃ’ ⟨g⟩ c~c’ ⟨g⟩ k~k’ ⟨q⟩ q~q’ ⟨j ꜣ⟩ (ʔ?)
fricative ⟨f⟩ f ⟨s z⟩ s ⟨š⟩ ʃ ⟨ḫ h̭⟩ ç ⟨ḫ⟩ x ⟨ẖ⟩ χ ⟨ḥ⟩ ħ ⟨h⟩ h
Approximant ⟨r n⟩ l ⟨j y⟩ j ⟨w⟩ w ⟨ꜥ⟩ ʕ
Tap ⟨r⟩ ɾ

Demotic[edit]

Phonology[edit]

The most important source of information about Demotic phonology is Coptic. The consonant inventory of Demotic can be reconstructed on the basis of evidence from the Coptic dialects.[41] Demotic orthography is relatively opaque. The Demotic “alphabetical” signs are mostly inherited from the hieroglyphic script, and due to historical sound changes they do not always map neatly onto Demotic phonemes. However, the Demotic script does feature certain orthographic innovations, such as the use of the sign h̭ for /ç/[42], which allow it to represent sounds that were not present in earlier forms of Egyptian.

The Demotic consonants can be divided into two primary classes: obstruents (stops, affricates and fricatives) and sonorants (approximants, nasals, and semivowels).[43] Voice is not a contrastive feature; all obstruents are voiceless and all sonorants are voiced.[44] Stops may be either aspirated or tenuis (unaspirated),[45] although there is evidence that aspirates merged with their tenuis counterparts in certain environments.[46]

The following table presents the consonants of Demotic Egyptian. The reconstructed value of a phoneme is given in IPA transcription, followed by a transliteration of the corresponding Demotic “alphabetical” sign(s) in angle brackets ⟨ ⟩.

Demotic Egyptian consonants
Labial Alveolar Postalv. Palatal Velar Pharyng. Glottal
Nasal /m/ /n/
Obstruent aspirate /pʰ/ ⟨p⟩ /tʰ/ ⟨t ṯ⟩ /t͡ʃʰ/ ⟨ṯ⟩ /cʰ/ ⟨k⟩ /kʰ/ ⟨k⟩
tenuis /t/ ⟨d ḏ t ṯ ṱ⟩ /t͡ʃ/ ⟨ḏ ṯ⟩ /c/ ⟨g k q⟩ /k/ ⟨q k g⟩
fricative /f/ ⟨f⟩ /s/ ⟨s⟩ /ʃ/ ⟨š⟩ /ç/ ⟨h̭ ḫ⟩ /x/ ⟨ẖ ḫ⟩ /ħ/ ⟨ḥ⟩ /h/ ⟨h⟩
Approximant /v/ ⟨v⟩ /r/ ⟨r⟩ /l/ ⟨l r⟩ /j/ ⟨y ı͗⟩ /w/ ⟨w⟩ /ʕ/ ⟨ꜥ⟩[a]
  1. ^ /ʕ/ was lost near the end of the Ptolemaic period.[47]
Demotic–Coptic sound correspondences
Demotic spelling Demotic phoneme Coptic reflexes
B FMSL A P
m */m/ ⲙ /m/
n */n/ ⲛ /n/
p */pʰ/ ⲫ /pʰ/ ⲡ /p/
t, ṯ */tʰ/ ⲑ /tʰ/ ⲧ /t/
ṯ */t͡ʃʰ/ ϭ /t͡ʃʰ/ ϫ /t͡ʃ/
k */cʰ/ ϭ /t͡ʃʰ/ ϭ /c/
k */kʰ/ ⲭ /kʰ/ ⲕ /k/
p *[p][a] ⲡ /p/
d, ḏ, t, ṯ, ṱ */t/ ⲧ /t/
ḏ */t͡ʃ/ ϫ /t͡ʃ/
g, k, q */c/ ϫ /t͡ʃ/ ϭ /c/ ⲕ /c/
q, k, g */k/ ⲕ /k/ ⲹ /k/
f */f/ ϥ /f/
s */s/ ⲥ /s/
š */ʃ/ ϣ /ʃ/
h̭, ḫ */ç/ ϣ /ʃ/ ⳉ /x/ ⳋ /ç/
ẖ, ḫ */x/ ϧ /x/ ϩ /h/ ⳉ /x/ ϧ /x/
ḥ */ħ/ ϩ /h/
h */h/ ϩ /h/
b */v/ ⲃ /v/
r */r/ ⲣ /l/[b]
l, r */l/ ⲗ /l/
y, ı͗ */j/ ⲉⲓ /j/
w */w/ ⲟⲩ /w/
ꜥ */ʕ/ ∅
  1. ^ [p] is an allophone of /pʰ/ in Demotic.
  2. ^ ⲗ~ⲣ in Fayyumic

Ahiram Sarcophagus[edit]

ʾrn·zpʿl·ʾtbʿl·bn·ʾḥrm·mlkgbl·lʾḥrm·ʾbh·kšth·bʿlm·
ʾarānu zū paʿala ʾittubaʿlu bin ʾaḥīramu milk gubla li ʾaḥīrami ʾabīhū ka šatihū bi ʿālami
[This is] the coffin which was made by Ithobaal son of Ahiram, king of Byblos, for Ahiram, his father, as his final resting place.
wʾl·mlk·bmlkm·wskn·bs[k]nm·wtmʾ·mḥnt·ʿly·
wa ʾillū milku bi milakīma wa sākinu bi sākinīma wa tāmiʾ maḥnūti ʿalaya
And if a king among kings, or a governor among governors, or a commander of armies should come upon
gbl·wygl·ʾrn·zn·tḥtsp·ḥṭr·mšpṭh·thtpk·
gubla wa yiglē ʾarāna zīna tiḥtasip ḥuṭr mišpaṭihū tihtapik
Byblos and uncover this coffin, may his royal sceptre be stripped away, may his royal throne
ksʾ·mlkh·wnḥt·tbrḥ·ʿl·gbl·whʾ·ymḥ·sprh·[ . . . ]
kissiʾ mulkihū wa nūḥatu tibraḥ ʿalē gubla wa hūʾa yamḥē siprahū [ . . . ]
be overturned, may peace pass over Byblos, and may his name be effaced [ . . . ]
Coptic stressed vowel correspondences
Delta Middle Egypt Upper Egypt
tenseness length quality B F₄ F₅ F₇ M H S P L₄ L₅ L₆ I A
Lax
V a/o ⲟ ⲁ ⲁ ⲁ ⲁ ⲁ ⲟ ⲟ ⲁ ⲁ ⲁ ⲁ ⲁ
e/a ⲁ ⲉ ⲉ ⲉ ⲉ ⲁ ⲁ ⲁ ⲉ ⲉ ⲉ ⲉ ⲉ
VV a/o ⲟ ⲁ ⲁⲁ ⲁⲁ ⲁ ⲁⲁ ⲟⲟ ⲟⲟ ⲟ ⲟⲟ ⲟⲟ ⲟⲟ ⲟⲟ
e/a ⲉ ⲏ ⲏⲏ ⲏⲏ ⲏ ⲏⲏ ⲉⲉ ⲉⲉ ⲉ ⲉⲉ ⲉⲉ ⲉⲉ ⲉⲉ
Tense V a/o ⲱ ⲱ ⲱ ⲱ ⲟ ⲱ ⲱ ⲱ ⲱ ⲱ ⲱ ⲱ ⲱ
e/a ⲏ ⲏ ⲏ ⲏ ⲏ ⲏ ⲏ ⲏ ⲏ ⲏ ⲏ ⲏ ⲏ
VV a/o ⲱ ⲱ ⲱⲱ ⲱⲱ ⲱ ⲱⲱ ⲱⲱ ⲱⲱ ⲱ ⲱⲱ ⲱⲱ ⲟⲩⲟⲩ ⲟⲩⲟⲩ
e/a ⲏ ⲏ ⲏⲏ ⲏⲏ ⲏ ⲏⲏ ⲏⲏ ⲏⲏ ⲏ ⲏⲏ ⲏⲏ ⲓⲉⲓ ⲓⲉⲓ
Coptic stressed vowel correspondences
Delta Middle Egypt Upper Egypt
PCopt. B F₄ F₅ F₇ M H S P L₄ L₅ L₆ I A
*ⲁ ⲟ ⲁ ⲁ ⲁ ⲁ ⲁ ⲟ ⲟ ⲁ ⲁ ⲁ ⲁ ⲁ
*ⲉ ⲁ ⲉ ⲉ ⲉ ⲉ ⲁ ⲁ ⲁ ⲉ ⲉ ⲉ ⲉ ⲉ
*ⲁⲁ ⲟ ⲁ ⲁⲁ ⲁⲁ ⲁ ⲁⲁ ⲟⲟ ⲟⲟ ⲟ ⲟⲟ ⲟⲟ ⲟⲟ ⲟⲟ
*ⲉⲉ ⲉ ⲏ ⲏⲏ ⲏⲏ ⲏ ⲏⲏ ⲉⲉ ⲉⲉ ⲉ ⲉⲉ ⲉⲉ ⲉⲉ ⲉⲉ
*ⲱ ⲱ ⲱ ⲱ ⲱ ⲟ ⲱ ⲱ ⲱ ⲱ ⲱ ⲱ ⲱ ⲱ
*ⲏ ⲏ ⲏ ⲏ ⲏ ⲏ ⲏ ⲏ ⲏ ⲏ ⲏ ⲏ ⲏ ⲏ
*ⲱⲱ ⲱ ⲱ ⲱⲱ ⲱⲱ ⲱ ⲱⲱ ⲱⲱ ⲱⲱ ⲱ ⲱⲱ ⲱⲱ ⲟⲩⲟⲩ ⲟⲩⲟⲩ
*ⲏⲏ ⲏ ⲏ ⲏⲏ ⲏⲏ ⲏ ⲏⲏ ⲏⲏ ⲏⲏ ⲏ ⲏⲏ ⲏⲏ ⲓⲉⲓ ⲓⲉⲓ
Coptic suffix pronouns
Dialect
Delta Middle Egypt Upper Egypt
B F M S L A
1s m. ⲡⲁ-
f. ⲧⲁ-
pl. ⲛⲁ-
2ms m. ⲡⲉⲕ-
f. ⲧⲉⲕ-
pl. ⲛⲉⲕ-
2fs m. ⲡⲉ- ⲡⲟⲩ- ⲡⲉ-
f. ⲧⲉ- ⲧⲟⲩ- ⲧⲉ-
pl. ⲛⲉ- ⲛⲟⲩ- ⲛⲉ-
3ms m. ⲡⲉϥ-
f. ⲧⲉϥ-
f. ⲛⲉϥ-
3fs m. ⲡⲉⲥ-
f. ⲧⲉⲥ-
f. ⲛⲉⲥ-
1pl m. ⲡⲉⲛ-
f. ⲧⲉⲛ-
pl. ⲛⲉⲛ-
2pl m. ⲡⲉⲧⲉⲛ- ⲡⲉⲧ︤ⲛ︥-
f. ⲧⲉⲧⲉⲛ- ⲧⲉⲧ︤ⲛ︥-
pl. ⲛⲉⲧⲉⲛ- ⲛⲉⲧ︤ⲛ︥-
3pl m. ⲡⲟⲩ- ⲡⲉⲩ- ⲡⲟⲩ-
f. ⲧⲟⲩ- ⲧⲉⲩ- ⲧⲟⲩ-
pl. ⲛⲟⲩ- ⲛⲉⲩ- ⲛⲟⲩ-
Dialect
Delta Middle Egypt Upper Egypt
Example B F M S L A
“my brother” ⲡⲁⲥⲟⲛ ⲡⲁⲥⲁⲛ ⲡⲁⲥⲟⲛ ⲡⲁⲥⲁⲛ
“my sister” ⲧⲁⲥⲱⲛⲓ ⲧⲁⲥⲟⲛⲉ ⲧⲁⲥⲱⲛⲉ
“my brothers/sisters” ⲛⲁⲥⲛⲏⲟⲩ ⲛⲁⲥⲛⲏⲩ
“your (m.) brother” ⲡⲉⲕⲥⲟⲛ ⲡⲉⲕⲥⲁⲛ ⲡⲉⲕⲥⲟⲛ ⲡⲉⲕⲥⲁⲛ
“your (m.) sister” ⲧⲉⲕⲥⲱⲛⲓ ⲧⲉⲕⲥⲟⲛⲉ ⲧⲉⲕⲥⲱⲛⲉ
“your (m.) brothers/sisters” ⲛⲉⲕⲥⲛⲏⲟⲩ ⲛⲉⲕⲥⲛⲏⲩ
“your (f.) brother” ⲡⲉⲥⲟⲛ ⲡⲉⲥⲁⲛ ⲡⲟⲩⲥⲟⲛ ⲡⲉⲥⲁⲛ
“your (f.) sister” ⲧⲉⲥⲱⲛⲓ ⲧⲉⲥⲟⲛⲉ ⲧⲟⲩⲥⲱⲛⲉ ⲧⲉⲥⲱⲛⲉ
“your (f.) brothers/sisters” ⲛⲉⲥⲛⲏⲟⲩ ⲛⲉⲥⲛⲏⲩ ⲛⲟⲩⲥⲛⲏⲩ ⲛⲉⲥⲛⲏⲩ
“his brother” ⲡⲉϥⲥⲟⲛ ⲡⲉϥⲥⲁⲛ ⲡⲉϥⲥⲟⲛ ⲡⲉϥⲥⲁⲛ
“his sister” ⲧⲉϥⲥⲱⲛⲓ ⲧⲉϥⲥⲟⲛⲉ ⲧⲉϥⲥⲱⲛⲉ
“his brothers/sisters” ⲛⲉϥⲥⲛⲏⲟⲩ ⲛⲉϥⲥⲛⲏⲩ
“her brother” ⲡⲉⲥⲥⲟⲛ ⲡⲉⲥⲥⲁⲛ ⲡⲉⲥⲥⲟⲛ ⲡⲉⲥⲥⲁⲛ
“her sister” ⲧⲉⲥⲥⲱⲛⲓ ⲧⲉⲥⲥⲟⲛⲉ ⲧⲉⲥⲥⲱⲛⲉ
“her brothers/sisters” ⲛⲉⲥⲥⲛⲏⲟⲩ ⲛⲉⲥⲥⲛⲏⲩ
“our brother” ⲡⲉⲛⲥⲟⲛ ⲡⲉⲛⲥⲁⲛ ⲡⲉⲛⲥⲟⲛ ⲡⲉⲛⲥⲁⲛ
“our sister” ⲧⲉⲛⲥⲱⲛⲓ ⲧⲉⲛⲥⲟⲛⲉ ⲧⲉⲛⲥⲱⲛⲉ
“our brothers/sisters” ⲛⲉⲛⲥⲛⲏⲟⲩ ⲛⲉⲛⲥⲛⲏⲩ
”your (pl.) brother” ⲡⲉⲧⲉⲛⲥⲟⲛ ⲡⲉⲧⲉⲛⲥⲁⲛ ⲡⲉⲧ︤ⲛ︥ⲥⲁⲛ ⲡⲉⲧ︤ⲛ︥ⲥⲟⲛ ⲡⲉⲧ︤ⲛ︥ⲥⲁⲛ
”your (pl.) sister” ⲧⲉⲧⲉⲛⲥⲱⲛⲓ ⲧⲉⲧ︤ⲛ︥ⲥⲟⲛⲉ ⲧⲉⲧ︤ⲛ︥ⲥⲱⲛⲉ
”your (pl.) brothers/sisters” ⲛⲉⲧⲉⲛⲥⲛⲏⲟⲩ ⲛⲉⲧ︤ⲛ︥ⲥⲛⲏⲩ
”their brother” ⲡⲟⲩⲥⲟⲛ ⲡⲉⲩⲥⲁⲛ ⲡⲉⲩⲥⲟⲛ ⲡⲟⲩⲥⲁⲛ
”their sister” ⲧⲟⲩⲥⲱⲛⲓ ⲧⲉⲩⲥⲱⲛⲓ ⲧⲉⲩⲥⲟⲛⲉ ⲧⲉⲩⲥⲱⲛⲉ ⲧⲟⲩⲥⲱⲛⲉ
”their brothers/sisters” ⲛⲟⲩⲥⲛⲏⲟⲩ ⲛⲉⲩⲥⲛⲏⲟⲩ ⲛⲉⲩⲥⲛⲏⲩ ⲛⲟⲩⲥⲛⲏⲩ
Coptic suffix pronouns
Dialect
Pronoun Noun B F M S L A
1s m. ⲡⲁ-
f. ⲧⲁ-
pl. ⲛⲁ-
2ms m. ⲡⲉⲕ-
f. ⲧⲉⲕ-
pl. ⲛⲉⲕ-
2fs m. ⲡⲉ- ⲡⲟⲩ- ⲡⲉ-
f. ⲧⲉ- ⲧⲟⲩ- ⲧⲉ-
pl. ⲛⲉ- ⲛⲟⲩ- ⲛⲉ-
3ms m. ⲡⲉϥ-
f. ⲧⲉϥ-
f. ⲛⲉϥ-
3fs m. ⲡⲉⲥ-
f. ⲧⲉⲥ-
f. ⲛⲉⲥ-
1pl m. ⲡⲉⲛ-
f. ⲧⲉⲛ-
pl. ⲛⲉⲛ-
2pl m. ⲡⲉⲧⲉⲛ- ⲡⲉⲧ︤ⲛ︥-
f. ⲧⲉⲧⲉⲛ- ⲧⲉⲧ︤ⲛ︥-
pl. ⲛⲉⲧⲉⲛ- ⲛⲉⲧ︤ⲛ︥-
3pl m. ⲡⲟⲩ- ⲡⲉⲩ- ⲡⲟⲩ-
f. ⲧⲟⲩ- ⲧⲉⲩ- ⲧⲟⲩ-
pl. ⲛⲟⲩ- ⲛⲉⲩ- ⲛⲟⲩ-


Egyptian: 𓅡𓎡𓈖𓂋𓈖𓆑 (bꜣk-n-rn.f)

𓈖𓌡:𓂝*𓏤2𓏭:𓂋1𓏤𓄹:𓏭

Coptic[edit]

B F F4 F5 F7 M S P L L4 L5 L6 A

Early Bohairic consonants
Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal m ⟨ⲙ⟩ n ⟨ⲛ⟩
Obstruent Aspirate pʰ ⟨ⲫ⟩ tʰ ⟨ⲑ⟩ t͡ʃʰ ⟨ϭ⟩ kʰ ⟨ⲭ⟩
Tenuis p ⟨ⲡ⟩ t ⟨ⲧ⟩ t͡ʃ ⟨ϫ⟩ k ⟨ⲕ⟩
Fricative f ⟨ϥ⟩ s ⟨ⲥ⟩ ʃ ⟨ϣ⟩ x ⟨ϧ⟩ h ⟨ϩ⟩
Approximant v ⟨ⲃ⟩ l ⟨ⲗ⟩ j ⟨ⲓ⟩ w ⟨ⲟⲩ⟩
Tap ɾ ⟨ⲣ⟩

Total: 20 consonant phonemes

Early Bohairic vowels
(stressed)
Front Back
Close i ⟨ⲓ⟩ u ⟨ⲟⲩ⟩
Close-mid e ⟨ⲏ⟩ o ⟨ⲱ⟩
Open-mid ɛ ⟨ⲉ⟩ ɔ ⟨ⲟ⟩
Open a ⟨ⲁ⟩

Total: 7 vowel phonemes


Late Bohairic consonants
Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Pharyng. Glottal
Plain Emphatic
Nasal m ⟨ⲙ⟩ n ⟨ⲛ⟩
Plosive Voiceless t ⟨ⲑ⟩ tˤ ⟨طⲑ طⲧ⟩ k ⟨ⲭ ⲕ⟩
Voiced b ⟨ⲡ ⲫ⟩ d ⟨ⲧ⟩ dˤ ⟨ⲍ⟩[a] g ⟨قⲕ⟩?
Fricative Voiceless f ⟨ϥ ⲃ⟩ s ⟨ⲥ⟩ sˤ ⟨ⲥ⟩[a] ʃ ⟨ϣ ϭ ⲭ⟩ x ⟨ϧ ⲭ⟩ ħ ⟨حϩ⟩[a] h ⟨ϩ⟩
Voiced z ⟨ⲍ ⲇ⟩[a] zˤ ⟨ظⲍ⟩[a] ʒ ⟨ϫ ⲅ⟩[b] ɣ ⟨ⲅ⟩ ʕ ⟨ءϩ⟩[a]
Approximant l ⟨ⲗ⟩ j ⟨ⲓ⟩ w ⟨ⲃ ⲟⲩ⟩
Trill[48] r ⟨ⲣ⟩
  1. ^ a b c d e f *in Arabic borrowings
  2. ^ “Giangia, profertur, ut, j, jota Hispan. ut hijo” (Alphabetum Cophtum sive Aegyptiacum).
    Also Ge'ez transcriptions transcriptions with ዠ ž. Check Old French. (ϩ(ع), ϩ(ح))
Late Bohairic vowels
(stressed)
Front Back
Close i ⟨ⲓ⟩ u ⟨ⲟⲩ⟩
Mid e ⟨ⲉ ⲏ⟩ o ⟨ⲟ ⲱ⟩
Open æ ⟨ⲉ⟩ ɑ ⟨ⲁ⟩

Total: 6 vowel phonemes

Evidence of deaffrication by the 13th century: ⲑϣⲁⲣⲡⲁⲛⲑⲉⲣ */tʃarbanter/ = charpantier ‘carpenter,’ ⲑϣⲁⲙⲉⲗ */tʃamel/ = chamel ‘camel.’ See le Page Renouf’s “A Coptic Transcription of an Arabic Text” and Sobhy's "Fragments of an Arabic MS. in Coptic script.": حϩ عϩ ءϩ ‎كⲭ کⲕ قⲕ طⲑ طⲧ ثⲑ ثⲧ. ءϩⲁظⲍⲓⲙ = عَظِيم ʿaẓīm. ءϩⲁⲗⲏⲓϩ = عَلَيْه ʿalayh.

Fayyumic consonants
Labial Alveolar Postalv. Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal m ⟨ⲙ⟩ n ⟨ⲛ⟩
Obstruent Plosive p ⟨ⲡ⟩ t ⟨ⲧ⟩ t͡ʃ ⟨ϫ⟩ c ⟨ϭ⟩ k ⟨ⲕ⟩
Fricative f ⟨ϥ⟩ s ⟨ⲥ⟩ ʃ ⟨ϣ⟩ h ⟨ϩ⟩
Approximant v ⟨ⲃ⟩ l ⟨ⲗ⟩ j ⟨ⲉⲓ⟩ w ⟨ⲟⲩ⟩
Tap ɾ ⟨ⲣ⟩

Total: 16 consonant phonemes

Fayyumic vowels (stressed)
Simple Double
Front Back Front Back
Close i ⟨ⲓ⟩ u ⟨ⲟⲩ⟩
Close-mid e ⟨ⲏ⟩ o ⟨ⲱ⟩ eˀ ⟨ⲏⲏ⟩ oˀ ⟨ⲱⲱ⟩
Open-mid ɛ ⟨ⲉ⟩ ɔ ⟨ⲟ⟩[a] ɛˀ ⟨ⲉⲉ⟩
Open a ⟨ⲁ⟩ aˀ ⟨ⲁⲁ⟩

Total: 10 vowel phonemes


  1. ^ /ɔ/ occurs in Early Fayyumic (F4), but is absent from Classical (F5) and Old Fayyumic (F7). It derives from */o/ before historical ḥ.
          Compare F4ⲟϩⲓ and F5F7ⲱϩⲓ 'to stand' < Egyptian ꜥḥꜥ
Mesokemic consonants
Labial Alveolar Postalv. Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal m ⟨ⲙ⟩ n ⟨ⲛ⟩
Obstruent Plosive p ⟨ⲡ⟩ t ⟨ⲧ⟩ t͡ʃ ⟨ϫ⟩ c ⟨ϭ⟩ k ⟨ⲕ⟩
Fricative f ⟨ϥ⟩ s ⟨ⲥ⟩ ʃ ⟨ϣ⟩ h ⟨ϩ⟩
Approximant v ⟨ⲃ⟩ l ⟨ⲗ⟩ j ⟨ⲉⲓ⟩ w ⟨ⲟⲩ⟩
Tap ɾ ⟨ⲣ⟩

Total: 16 consonant phonemes

Mesokemic vowels (stressed)
Front Back
Close i ⟨ⲓ⟩ u ⟨ⲟⲩ⟩
Close-mid e ⟨ⲏ⟩ o ⟨ⲱ⟩
Open-mid ɛ ⟨ⲉ⟩ ɔ ⟨ⲟ⟩
Open a ⟨ⲁ⟩

Total: 7 vowel phonemes


Sahidic consonants
Labial Alveolar Postalv. Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal m ⟨ⲙ⟩ n ⟨ⲛ⟩
Obstruent Plosive p ⟨ⲡ⟩ t ⟨ⲧ⟩ t͡ʃ ⟨ϫ⟩ c ⟨ϭ⟩ k ⟨ⲕ⟩
Fricative f ⟨ϥ⟩ s ⟨ⲥ⟩ ʃ ⟨ϣ⟩ h ⟨ϩ⟩
Approximant v ⟨ⲃ⟩ l ⟨ⲗ⟩ j ⟨ⲉⲓ⟩ w ⟨ⲟⲩ⟩
Tap ɾ ⟨ⲣ⟩

Total: 16 consonant phonemes

Sahidic vowels (stressed)
Simple Double
Front Back Front Back
Close i ⟨ⲓ⟩ u ⟨ⲟⲩ⟩ (uˀ) ⟨ⲟⲩⲟⲩ⟩[a]
Close-mid e ⟨ⲏ⟩ o ⟨ⲱ⟩ eˀ ⟨ⲏⲏ⟩ oˀ ⟨ⲱⲱ⟩
Open-mid ɛ ⟨ⲉ⟩ ɔ ⟨ⲟ⟩ ɛˀ ⟨ⲉⲉ⟩ ɔˀ ⟨ⲟⲟ⟩
Open a ⟨ⲁ⟩ aˀ ⟨ⲁⲁ⟩
  1. ^ Allophone of ⲱⲱ after nasal consonants.

Total: 12 vowel phonemes

As a general rule, double vowels are written as single at the end of a word. In some Sahidic manuscripts, an underlying word-final double vowel may be written fully when followed by an enclitic element such as the copula ⲡⲉ/ⲧⲉ/ⲛⲉ or the preterit particle ⲡⲉ:

ⲟⲩⲁ ‘one’ → ⲟⲩ-ⲟⲩⲁⲁ-ⲡⲉ ‘it is one’
ⲡⲉ ‘heaven’ → ⲟⲩ-ⲉⲃⲟⲗ ϩⲛ̄-ⲧ-ⲡⲉⲉ-ⲡⲉ ‘it is from heaven’
ⲙⲉ ‘truth’ → ⲟⲩ-ⲙⲉⲉ-ⲧⲉ ‘it is true’, ϩⲉⲛ-ⲙⲉⲉ-ⲛⲉ ‘they are true’
ⲟ ‘do’ (stative) → ⲛⲉ-ⲕ-ⲟⲟ-ⲡⲉ ‘you were’
ⲙⲟⲩ ‘die’ → ⲧⲛ̄-ⲛⲁ-ⲙⲟⲩⲟⲩ-ⲡⲉ ‘we would die’

An exceptional case is the final vowel of the verb ⲱⲱ ‘conceive’, which is always written doubled.


Dialect P consonants
Labial Alveolar Postalv. Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal m ⟨ⲙ⟩ n ⟨ⲛ⟩
Obstruent Plosive p ⟨ⲡ⟩ t ⟨ⲧ⟩ t͡ʃ ⟨ϫ⟩ c ⟨ⲕ⟩ k ⟨ⲹ⟩
Fricative f ⟨ϥ⟩ s ⟨ⲥ⟩ ʃ ⟨ϣ⟩ ç ⟨ⳋ⟩ x ⟨ϧ⟩ h ⟨ϩ⟩
Approximant v ⟨ⲃ⟩ l ⟨ⲗ⟩ j ⟨ⲉⲓ⟩ w ⟨ⲟⲩ⟩
Tap ɾ ⟨ⲣ⟩

Total: 18 consonant phonemes

Dialect P vowels (stressed)
Simple Double
Front Back Front Back
Close i ⟨ⲓ⟩ u ⟨ⲟⲩ⟩
Close-mid e ⟨ⲏ⟩ o ⟨ⲱ⟩ eˀ ⟨ⲏⲏ⟩ oˀ ⟨ⲱⲱ⟩
Open-mid ɛ ⟨ⲉ⟩ ɔ ⟨ⲟ⟩ ɛˀ ⟨ⲉⲉ⟩ ɔˀ ⟨ⲟⲟ⟩
Open a ⟨ⲁ⟩ aˀ ⟨ⲁⲁ⟩

Total: 12 vowel phonemes


Lycopolitan consonants
Labial Alveolar Postalv. Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal m ⟨ⲙ⟩ n ⟨ⲛ⟩
Obstruent Plosive p ⟨ⲡ⟩ t ⟨ⲧ⟩ t͡ʃ ⟨ϫ⟩ c ⟨ϭ⟩ k ⟨ⲕ⟩
Fricative f ⟨ϥ⟩[a] s ⟨ⲥ⟩ ʃ ⟨ϣ⟩ h ⟨ϩ⟩
Approximant v ⟨ⲃ⟩[a] l ⟨ⲗ⟩ j ⟨ⲉⲓ⟩ w ⟨ⲟⲩ⟩
Tap ɾ ⟨ⲣ⟩

Total: 16 consonant phonemes

Lycopolitan vowels (stressed)
Simple Double
Front Back Front Back
Close i ⟨ⲓ⟩ u ⟨ⲟⲩ⟩
Close-mid e ⟨ⲏ⟩ o ⟨ⲱ⟩ eˀ ⟨ⲏⲏ⟩[b] oˀ ⟨ⲱⲱ⟩[b]
Open-mid ɛ ⟨ⲉ⟩ ɛˀ ⟨ⲉⲉ⟩ ɔˀ ⟨ⲟⲟ⟩
Open a ⟨ⲁ⟩ aˀ ⟨ⲁⲁ⟩

Total: 11 vowel phonemes


  1. ^ a b Lycopolitan /v/ and /f/ merge in word-initial position when immediately preceding the stressed vowel. The result of this merger is spelled ⟨ⲃ⟩ in L4 and ⟨ϥ⟩ in L5 and L6.
  2. ^ a b Lycopolitan exhibits sporadic raising of /eˀ oˀ/ > /iˀ uˀ/. This phenomenon varies according to subdialect.
Akhmimic consonants
Labial Alveolar Postalv. Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal m ⟨ⲙ⟩ n ⟨ⲛ⟩
Obstruent Plosive p ⟨ⲡ⟩ t ⟨ⲧ⟩ t͡ʃ ⟨ϫ⟩ c ⟨ϭ⟩ k ⟨ⲕ⟩
Fricative f ⟨ϥ⟩ s ⟨ⲥ⟩ ʃ ⟨ϣ⟩ x ⟨ⳉ⟩ h ⟨ϩ⟩
Approximant v ⟨ⲃ⟩ l ⟨ⲗ⟩ j ⟨ⲉⲓ⟩ w ⟨ⲟⲩ⟩
Tap ɾ ⟨ⲣ⟩

Total: 17 consonant phonemes

Akhmimic vowels (stressed)
Simple Double
Front Back Front Back
Close i ⟨ⲓ⟩ u ⟨ⲟⲩ⟩ iˀ ⟨ⲓⲉⲓ⟩ uˀ ⟨ⲟⲩⲟⲩ⟩
Close-mid e ⟨ⲏ⟩ o ⟨ⲱ⟩ ɔˀ~oˀ
⟨ⲟⲟ~ⲱⲱ⟩
Open-mid ɛ ⟨ⲉ⟩ ɛˀ ⟨ⲉⲉ⟩
Open a ⟨ⲁ⟩ aˀ ⟨ⲁⲁ⟩

Total: 11 vowel phonemes


Proto-Coptic consonants
Labial Alveolar Postalv. Palatal Velar Pharyng. Glottal
Nasal *m *n
Obstruent Aspirate *pʰ *tʰ *t͡ʃʰ *cʰ *kʰ
Tenuis *p *t *t͡ʃ *c *k
Fricative *f *s *ʃ *ç *x *ħ *h
Approximant *v *l *j *w *ʕ
Tap *ɾ

Total: 25 consonant phonemes

Proto-Coptic vowels (stressed)
Simple Double
Front Back Front Back
Close *i *u (*iˀ) (*uˀ)
Close-mid *e *o *eˀ *oˀ
Open-mid *ɛ *ɛˀ *ɔˀ
Open *a

Total: 12 vowel phonemes


Late Bohairic consonants (c. 1200 AD)
Labial Alveolar Postalv. Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal m ⟨ⲙ⟩ n ⟨ⲛ⟩
Plosive/
Affricate 		Voiceless t ⟨ⲑ⟩ k ⟨ⲭ ⲕ⟩
Voiced b ⟨ⲫ ⲡ ⲃ⟩ d ⟨ⲧ⟩ (d͡)ʒ ⟨ϫ⟩
Fricative f ⟨ϥ⟩ s ⟨ⲥ⟩ ʃ ⟨ϣ ϭ⟩ x ⟨ϧ⟩ h ⟨ϩ⟩
Approximant l ⟨ⲗ⟩ j ⟨ⲓ⟩ w ⟨ⲃ ⲟⲩ⟩
Trill[49] r ⟨ⲣ⟩

Hurrian Syllabary[edit]

Hurrian Syllabary (Mitanni Letter)
a e i o u
– A 𒀀 E 𒂊 I 𒄿 U 𒌋 U₂ 𒌑
p- PA 𒉺 BE 𒁁 BI 𒁉 BU 𒁍 BU 𒁍
t- TA 𒋫 TE 𒋼 TI 𒋾 DU 𒁺 DU 𒁺
k- KA 𒅗 GI 𒄀 KI 𒆠 KU 𒆪 GU 𒄖
ḫ- ḪA 𒄩 ḪE₂ 𒃶 ḪI 𒄭 ḪU 𒄷 ḪU 𒄷
l- LA 𒆷 LI 𒇷 LI 𒇷 LU 𒇻 LU 𒇻
m- MA 𒈠 ME 𒈨 MI 𒈪 MU 𒈬 MU 𒈬
n- NA 𒈾 NI 𒉌 NI 𒉌 NU 𒉡 NU 𒉡
r- RA 𒊏 RI 𒊑 RI 𒊑 RU 𒊒 RU 𒊒
s- SA 𒊓 [SI] 𒋛 [SI] 𒋛 SU 𒋢 SU 𒋢
š- ŠA 𒊭 ŠE 𒊺 ŠI 𒅆 ŠU 𒋗 ŠU 𒋗
z- ZA 𒍝 [ZI?]
[ZE₂?] 		𒍣
𒍢 		ZI 𒍣 ZU 𒍪 ZU 𒍪
w- PI 𒉿 PI 𒉿 PI 𒉿 PI 𒉿 PI 𒉿
-p AB 𒀊 IB 𒅁 IB 𒅁 UB 𒌒 UB 𒌒
-t AD 𒀜 ID 𒀉 ID 𒀉 UD 𒌓 UD 𒌓
-k AG 𒀝 IG 𒅅 IG 𒅅 UG 𒊌 UG 𒊌
-ḫ AḪ 𒄴 AḪ 𒄴 AḪ 𒄴 AḪ 𒄴 AḪ 𒄴
-l AL 𒀠 EL 𒂖 IL 𒅋 UL 𒌌 UL 𒌌
-m AM 𒄠 IM 𒅎 IM 𒅎 UM 𒌝 UM 𒌝
-n AN 𒀭 EN 𒂗 IN 𒅔 UN 𒌦 UN 𒌦
-r AR 𒅈 IR 𒅕 IR 𒅕 UR 𒌨 UR 𒌨
-s [AZ] 𒊍 [IZ] 𒄑 [IZ] 𒄑 [UZ] 𒊻 [UZ] 𒊻
-š AŠ 𒀸 EŠ 𒌍 IŠ 𒅖 UŠ 𒍑 UŠ 𒍑
-z AZ 𒊍 IZ 𒄑 IZ 𒄑 UZ 𒊻 UZ 𒊻
-w [AB] 𒀊 IB 𒅁 IB 𒅁 UB 𒌒 UB 𒌒
Hurrian Syllabary (Mitanni Letter)
a e i o u
– A 𒀀 E 𒂊 I 𒄿 U 𒌋 U₂ 𒌑
p- PA 𒉺 BE 𒁁 BI 𒁉 BU 𒁍
t- TA 𒋫 TE 𒋼 TI 𒋾 DU 𒁺
k- KA 𒅗 GI 𒄀 KI 𒆠 KU 𒆪 GU 𒄖
ḫ- ḪA 𒄩 ḪE₂ 𒃶 ḪI 𒄭 ḪU 𒄷
l- LA 𒆷 LI 𒇷 LU 𒇻
m- MA 𒈠 ME 𒈨 MI 𒈪 MU 𒈬
n- NA 𒈾 NI 𒉌 NU 𒉡
r- RA 𒊏 RI 𒊑 RU 𒊒
s- SA 𒊓 [SI] 𒋛 SU 𒋢
š- ŠA 𒊭 ŠE 𒊺 ŠI 𒅆 ŠU 𒋗
z- ZA 𒍝 [ZI?]
[ZE₂?] 		𒍣
𒍢 		ZI 𒍣 ZU 𒍪
w- PI 𒉿
-p AB 𒀊 IB 𒅁 UB 𒌒
-t AD 𒀜 ID 𒀉 UD 𒌓
-k AG 𒀝 IG 𒅅 UG 𒊌
-ḫ AḪ 𒄴
-l AL 𒀠 EL 𒂖 IL 𒅋 UL 𒌌
-m AM 𒄠 IM 𒅎 UM 𒌝
-n AN 𒀭 EN 𒂗 IN 𒅔 UN 𒌦
-r AR 𒅈 IR 𒅕 UR 𒌨
-s [AZ] 𒊍 [IZ] 𒄑 [UZ] 𒊻
-š AŠ 𒀸 EŠ 𒌍 IŠ 𒅖 UŠ 𒍑
-z AZ 𒊍 IZ 𒄑 UZ 𒊻
-w [AB] 𒀊 IB 𒅁 UB 𒌒
Hurrian Syllabary (Mitanni Letter)
-a -e -i -o -u
– A 𒀀 E 𒂊 I 𒄿 U 𒌋 U₂ 𒌑
p- PA 𒉺 BE 𒁁 BI 𒁉 BU 𒁍 BU 𒁍
t- TA 𒋫 TE 𒋼 TI 𒋾 DU 𒁺 DU 𒁺
k- KA 𒅗 GI 𒄀 KI 𒆠 KU 𒆪 GU 𒄖
ḫ- ḪA 𒄩 ḪE₂ 𒃶 ḪI 𒄭 ḪU 𒄷 ḪU 𒄷
l- LA 𒆷 LI 𒇷 LI 𒇷 LU 𒇻 LU 𒇻
m- MA 𒈠 ME 𒈨 MI 𒈪 MU 𒈬 MU 𒈬
n- NA 𒈾 NI 𒉌 NI 𒉌 NU 𒉡 NU 𒉡
r- RA 𒊏 RI 𒊑 RI 𒊑 RU 𒊒 RU 𒊒
s- SA 𒊓 [SI] 𒋛 [SI] 𒋛 SU 𒋢 SU 𒋢
š- ŠA 𒊭 ŠE 𒊺 ŠI 𒅆 ŠU 𒋗 ŠU 𒋗
z- ZA 𒍝 [ZI?] 𒍣 ZI 𒍣 ZU 𒍪 ZU 𒍪
w- PI 𒉿 PI 𒉿 PI 𒉿 PI 𒉿 PI 𒉿
Hurrian Syllabary (Mitanni Letter)
a- e- i- o- u-
A 𒀀 E 𒂊 I 𒄿 U 𒌋 U₂ 𒌑 –
AB 𒀊 IB 𒅁 IB 𒅁 UB 𒌒 UB 𒌒 -p
AD 𒀜 ID 𒀉 ID 𒀉 UD 𒌓 UD 𒌓 -t
AG 𒀝 IG 𒅅 IG 𒅅 UG 𒊌 UG 𒊌 -k
AḪ 𒄴 AḪ 𒄴 AḪ 𒄴 AḪ 𒄴 AḪ 𒄴 -ḫ
AL 𒀠 EL 𒂖 IL 𒅋 UL 𒌌 UL 𒌌 -l
AM 𒄠 IM 𒅎 IM 𒅎 UM 𒌝 UM 𒌝 -m
AN 𒀭 EN 𒂗 IN 𒅔 UN 𒌦 UN 𒌦 -n
AR 𒅈 IR 𒅕 IR 𒅕 UR 𒌨 UR 𒌨 -r
[AZ] 𒊍 [IZ] 𒄑 [IZ] 𒄑 [UZ] 𒊻 [UZ] 𒊻 -s
AŠ 𒀸 EŠ 𒌍 IŠ 𒅖 UŠ 𒍑 UŠ 𒍑 -š
AZ 𒊍 IZ 𒄑 IZ 𒄑 UZ 𒊻 UZ 𒊻 -z
[AB] 𒀊 IB 𒅁 IB 𒅁 UB 𒌒 UB 𒌒 -w
Hurrian cuneiform syllabary (Mitanni Letter)[50]
-a -e -i -o -u a- e- i- o- u-
– A 𒀀 E 𒂊 I 𒄿 U 𒌋 U₂ 𒌑 A 𒀀 E 𒂊 I 𒄿 U 𒌋 U₂ 𒌑 –
p- PA 𒉺 BE 𒁁 BI 𒁉 BU 𒁍 BU 𒁍 AB 𒀊 IB 𒅁 IB 𒅁 UB 𒌒 UB 𒌒 -p
t- TA 𒋫 TE 𒋼 TI 𒋾 DU 𒁺 DU 𒁺 AD 𒀜 ID 𒀉 ID 𒀉 UD 𒌓 UD 𒌓 -t
k- KA 𒅗 GI 𒄀 KI 𒆠 KU 𒆪 GU 𒄖 AG 𒀝 IG 𒅅 IG 𒅅 UG 𒊌 UG 𒊌 -k
ḫ- ḪA 𒄩 ḪE₂ 𒃶 ḪI 𒄭 ḪU 𒄷 ḪU 𒄷 AḪ 𒄴 AḪ 𒄴 AḪ 𒄴 AḪ 𒄴 AḪ 𒄴 -ḫ
l- LA 𒆷 LI 𒇷 LI 𒇷 LU 𒇻 LU 𒇻 AL 𒀠 EL 𒂖 IL 𒅋 UL 𒌌 UL 𒌌 -l
m- MA 𒈠 ME 𒈨 MI 𒈪 MU 𒈬 MU 𒈬 AM 𒄠 IM 𒅎 IM 𒅎 UM 𒌝 UM 𒌝 -m
n- NA 𒈾 NI 𒉌 NI 𒉌 NU 𒉡 NU 𒉡 AN 𒀭 EN 𒂗 IN 𒅔 UN 𒌦 UN 𒌦 -n
r- RA 𒊏 RI 𒊑 RI 𒊑 RU 𒊒 RU 𒊒 AR 𒅈 IR 𒅕 IR 𒅕 UR 𒌨 UR 𒌨 -r
s- SA 𒊓 [SI] 𒋛 [SI] 𒋛 SU 𒋢 SU 𒋢 [AZ] 𒊍 [IZ] 𒄑 [IZ] 𒄑 [UZ] 𒊻 [UZ] 𒊻 -s
š- ŠA 𒊭 ŠE 𒊺 ŠI 𒅆 ŠU 𒋗 ŠU 𒋗 AŠ 𒀸 EŠ 𒌍 IŠ 𒅖 UŠ 𒍑 UŠ 𒍑 -š
z- ZA 𒍝 [ZI]
[ZE₂?] 		𒍣
𒍢 		ZI 𒍣 ZU 𒍪 ZU 𒍪 AZ 𒊍 IZ 𒄑 IZ 𒄑 UZ 𒊻 UZ 𒊻 -z
w- PI 𒉿 PI 𒉿 PI 𒉿 PI 𒉿 PI 𒉿 [AB] 𒀊 IB 𒅁 IB 𒅁 UB 𒌒 UB 𒌒 -w
  1. ^ Peust, Carsten (1999). Egyptian Phonology: An Introduction to the Phonology of a Dead Language. Peust und Gutschmidt. p. 123. doi:10.11588/diglit.1167.
  2. ^ Kilani, Marwan (2019). Vocalisation in Group Writing: A New Proposal. Widmaier Verlag. p. 23. doi:10.37011/studmon.20. ISBN 978-3-943955-90-3.
  3. ^ Peust, Carsten (1999). Egyptian Phonology: An Introduction to the Phonology of a Dead Language. Peust und Gutschmidt. p. 123. doi:10.11588/diglit.1167.
  4. ^ Kilani, Marwan (2019). Vocalisation in Group Writing: A New Proposal. Widmaier Verlag. p. 23. doi:10.37011/studmon.20. ISBN 978-3-943955-90-3.
  5. ^ Peust, Carsten (1999). Egyptian Phonology: An Introduction to the Phonology of a Dead Language. Peust und Gutschmidt. p. 126. doi:10.11588/diglit.1167. The signs ⟨s⟩ and ⟨z⟩ become allographs in Egyptian texts from the Middle Kingdom on, their choice primarily depending on calligraphic considerations. In Coptic, both of them are represented uniformly as ⲥ /s/.
  6. ^ Love, Edward O. D (2022). "Innovative Scripts and Spellings at Narmoute/Narmouthis". Script Switching in Roman Egypt. De Gruyter. p. 324. doi:10.1515/9783110768435-014.
  7. ^ Satzinger, Helmut (1999). "Koptische Vokalphoneme und ägyptische Pluralformation". Ägypten und Nubien in spätantiker und christlicher Zeit: Akten des 6. Internationalen Koptologenkongresses, Münster, 20.-26. Juli 1996. Vol. 2. Reichert Verlag. p. 365–374. Faßt man ⲟⲟⲩ, ⲉⲩ usw. als velare Diphthonge und ⲟⲉⲓ, ⲉⲉⲓ usw. als palatale Diphthonge, so kann man die als Doppelvokale geschriebenen Lautverbindungen als glottale Diphthonge bezeichen.
  8. ^ Peust, Carsten (2010). "Zur Aussprache des Beta im Koptischen. Evidenz aus der Toponymie". Lingua Aegyptia. 18: 209–215.
  9. ^ Depuydt, Leo (1993). "On Coptic Sounds" (PDF). Orientalia. 62 (4). Gregorian Biblical Press: 338–375.
  10. ^ Satzinger, Helmut (1990). "On the Prehistory of the Coptic Dialects". Coptic Studies, Acts of the Third International Congress of Coptic Studies. PWN-Editions scientifiques de Pologne. pp. 413–416. ISBN 83-01-07663-1. p. 413: Note that b could not, as a rule, merge with p, since it had become a voiced fricative ([β] or [v]) at a very much earlier date.
  11. ^ Worrell, William H. (1934). Coptic Sounds (PDF). University of Michigan Press. p. 14. These sounds fall into two classes, the more audible ⲃ, ⲗ, ⲙ, ⲛ, ⲣ, and the less audible ⲥ, ϣ, ϥ, ϩ. Those of the first group function as sonants in both accented and unaccented syllables:
  12. ^ Gensler, Orin D. (2015). "A typological look at Egyptian *d > ʕ". Egyptian-Coptic Linguistics in Typological Perspective. De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 187–202. doi:10.1515/9783110346510.187. p. 199: In summary, the proposed change in Egyptian is much more drastic than that proposed for Indo-European, has a vastly greater impact on comparative reconstruction, has a less solid (because non-comparative) empirical base, and is much less "controllable" – and yet has been embraced in a far more uncritical way. Egyptologists should be uneasy about this state of affairs.
  13. ^ Allen, James P. (2020). Ancient Egyptian Phonology. Cambridge University Press. pp. 74–75. doi:10.1017/9781108751827. The primary phonemic distinctions between the consonants in all stages of Egyptian are two, aspiration and palatalization...Aspiration remains a primary distinction throughout the history of the language.
  14. ^ Allen, James P. (2020). Ancient Egyptian Phonology. Cambridge University Press. p. 76. doi:10.1017/9781108751827. Voice is not a phonemic feature of the consonantal system in any stage of the language.
  15. ^ Allen, James P. (2020). Ancient Egyptian Phonology. Cambridge University Press. pp. 80–81. doi:10.1017/9781108751827. The value /l/ for ꜣ is based on the preponderance of Middle Kingdom examples in which ꜣ is used for Semitic l and on the fact that nearly all instances in which ꜣ has survived in Coptic as something other than ⲉⲓ or a glottal stop, it is ⲗ...It therefore seems likely that Earlier Egyptian had a phonemic /l/, and that this phoneme was represented by ꜣ.
  16. ^ Peust, Carsten (2020). "Review of James P. Allen: Ancient Egyptian Phonology". Lingua Aegyptia. 28: 333–353. doi:10.37011/lingaeg.28.14. p. 336: Für den Lautwert in früherer Zeit würden zwar weitere Möglichkeiten offenbleiben, sofern man zusätzliche Lautwandel ansetzt, aber die stärkste verfügbare Evidenz spricht nun einmal für die auch von Allen bevorzugte Interpretation ⟨ꜣ⟩ = /l/. Diese sollte man künftig übernehmen, solange nicht stärkere Gegenargumente auftauchen. [For the phonetic value in earlier times further possibilities might remain open, provided that one applies additional sound changes, but the strongest available evidence now speaks for the interpretation ⟨ꜣ⟩ = /l/, also preferred by Allen. This should be adopted in the future, as long as no stronger counterarguments emerge.]
  17. ^ Allen, James P. (2020). Ancient Egyptian Phonology. Cambridge University Press. p. 69. doi:10.1017/9781108751827. In Old Egyptian, the consonants z and s are kept almost completely distinct, indicating that they represent different sounds.
  18. ^ Peust, Carsten (1999). Egyptian Phonology: An Introduction to the Phonology of a Dead Language. Peust und Gutschmidt. p. 126. doi:10.11588/diglit.1167. The signs ⟨s⟩ and ⟨z⟩ become allographs in Egyptian texts from the Middle Kingdom on, their choice primarily depending on calligraphic considerations. In Coptic, both of them are represented uniformly as ⲥ /s/.
  19. ^ Peust, Carsten (1999). Egyptian Phonology: An Introduction to the Phonology of a Dead Language. Peust und Gutschmidt. p. 126. doi:10.11588/diglit.1167. Based on the rules of compatibility restriction, Baer (1985) argues in an unpublished paper that ⟨z⟩ was originally a stop or an affricate rather than a spirant. His arguments are confirmed by Schenkel (1986: 70f.) who assumes that 𓊃 is an affricate as opposed to the fricative 𓋴.
  20. ^ Allen, James P. (2020). Ancient Egyptian Phonology. Cambridge University Press. p. 69. doi:10.1017/9781108751827. From its cognates, z appears to have been *[z] or *[ð], but these are both voiced, not (otherwise) an original consonantal feature of Egyptian; its merger with s suggests that it may instead have been *[θ].
  21. ^ Peust, Carsten (1999). Egyptian Phonology: An Introduction to the Phonology of a Dead Language. Peust und Gutschmidt. p. 110. doi:10.11588/diglit.1167. From this admittedly weak evidence I conclude that velars no. 3 and no. 4 were originally distinguished by the absence or presence of the feature [labial].
  22. ^ Worrell, William H. (1934). Coptic Sounds (PDF). University of Michigan Press. p. 38. Egyptian ẖ may then have been a voiceless uvular fricative with lip-rounding (inherent u).
  23. ^ Allen, James P. (2020). Ancient Egyptian Phonology. Cambridge University Press. pp. 81–82. It therefore seems likely that Earlier Egyptian had a phonemic /l/, and that this phoneme was represented by ꜣ. Like r, it became debuccalized, vocalized, or disappeared, probably earliest in northern dialects. By the time of Late Egyptian, it had become disassociated enough from ꜣ to require a new grapheme, and it was not until Demotic that a fixed graphemic representation of the phoneme reappeared.
  24. ^ Satzinger, Helmut (2010). "Scratchy Sounds Getting Smooth: the Egyptian Velar Fricatives and Their Palatalization" (PDF). Camsemud 2007: Proceedings of the 13th Italian Meeting of Afro-Asiatic Linguistics. Sargon Editrice Libreria. pp. 239–245. ISBN 8895672054. p. 240: In the first mill. BC, Egyptian ẖ was not subject to the second palatalization: obviously, it was still not precisely a plain unvoiced velar fricative.
  25. ^ Kilani, Marwan (2019). Vocalisation in Group Writing: A New Proposal. Widmaier Verlag. doi:10.37011/studmon.20. ISBN 978-3-943955-90-3. p. 22: This is the case, in particular, with ḫ = 𓐍/𓆼, which corresponds to ḫ > Sahidic ϩ and ϣ, while the combination 𓐍𓏭, i.e. ḫ + 𓏭 = ḫ₂, corresponds exclusively to ḫ₂ > Sahidic ϣ.
  26. ^ Quack, Joachim Friedrich. "𓐍:𓏭". The Demotic Palaeographical Database Project. Universität Heidelberg.
  27. ^ Takács, Gábor (2015). "Questions of Egyptian Historical Phonology and Afro-Asiatic". Bibliotheca Orientalis. 72 (5–6): 565–585. doi:10.2143/BIOR.72.5.3139332. p. 569: Firstly, as is well-known, Coptic ⲃ had the value [v] or less probably [β].
  28. ^ Peust, Carsten (1999). Egyptian Phonology: An Introduction to the Phonology of a Dead Language. Peust und Gutschmidt. p. 102. doi:10.11588/diglit.1167. In Roman Demotic ⟨ꜥ⟩ suddenly begins to be employed in a very inconsistent manner. It is often omitted or added without etymological justification. I take this as an indication that the phoneme /ʕ/ was lost from the spoken language.
  29. ^ Quack, Joachim Friedrich (2017). "How the Coptic Script came about". Greek Influence on Egyptian-Coptic: Contact-Induced Change in an Ancient African Language. Widmaier Verlag. pp. 27–96. ISBN 978-3-943955-17-0. p. 48: It should be noted that the ϩ sign for h (actually derived from the Demotic form of ḥ) serves also to render historic ẖ — that is in accordance with a few attestations in Late Demotic texts, showing that the ancient distinction between h, ḥ and ẖ broke down during the second century CE.
  30. ^ Funk, Wolf-Peter (1987). "Die Zeugen des koptischen Literaturdialekts I7". Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde. 114 (1–2): 129. doi:10.1524/zaes.1987.114.12.117.
  31. ^ Funk, Wolf-Peter (2009). "Methodological Issues in the (Morpho)Phonological Description of Coptic". In Goldenberg, Gideon; Shisha-Halevy, Ariel (eds.). Egyptian, Semitic and General Grammar: Studies in Memory of H. J. Polotsky. Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities. pp. 70–91. ISBN 9789652081773. p. 85: (2.2.2) ç → š // all except A P
  32. ^ Funk, Wolf-Peter (2009). "Methodological Issues in the (Morpho)Phonological Description of Coptic". In Goldenberg, Gideon; Shisha-Halevy, Ariel (eds.). Egyptian, Semitic and General Grammar: Studies in Memory of H. J. Polotsky. Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities. pp. 70–91. ISBN 9789652081773. p. 85: (2.2.1) ç → x // A
  33. ^ Weninger, Stefan (2011). "Sounds of Gǝʿǝz – How to Study the Phonetics and Phonology of an Ancient Language". Aethiopica. 13: 75–88. doi:10.15460/aethiopica.13.1.39.
  34. ^ Allen, James P. (2020). Ancient Egyptian Phonology. Cambridge University Press. pp. 80–81. doi:10.1017/9781108751827. The value /l/ for ꜣ is based on the preponderance of Middle Kingdom examples in which ꜣ is used for Semitic l and on the fact that nearly all instances in which ꜣ has survived in Coptic as something other than ⲉⲓ or a glottal stop, it is ⲗ...It therefore seems likely that Earlier Egyptian had a phonemic /l/, and that this phoneme was represented by ꜣ.
  35. ^ Peust, Carsten (2020). "Review of James P. Allen: Ancient Egyptian Phonology". Lingua Aegyptia. 28: 333–353. doi:10.37011/lingaeg.28.14. p. 336: Für den Lautwert in früherer Zeit würden zwar weitere Möglichkeiten offenbleiben, sofern man zusätzliche Lautwandel ansetzt, aber die stärkste verfügbare Evidenz spricht nun einmal für die auch von Allen bevorzugte Interpretation ⟨ꜣ⟩ = /l/. Diese sollte man künftig übernehmen, solange nicht stärkere Gegenargumente auftauchen. [For the phonetic value in earlier times further possibilities might remain open, provided that one applies additional sound changes, but the strongest available evidence now speaks for the interpretation ⟨ꜣ⟩ = /l/, also preferred by Allen. This should be adopted in the future, as long as no stronger counterarguments emerge.]
  36. ^ Allen, James P. (2020). Ancient Egyptian Phonology. Cambridge University Press. p. 79. doi:10.1017/9781108751827.
  37. ^ Allen, James P. (2020). Ancient Egyptian Phonology. Cambridge University Press. p. 69. doi:10.1017/9781108751827. In Old Egyptian, the consonants z and s are kept almost completely distinct, indicating that they represent different sounds.
  38. ^ Peust, Carsten (1999). Egyptian Phonology: An Introduction to the Phonology of a Dead Language. Peust und Gutschmidt. p. 126. doi:10.11588/diglit.1167. The signs ⟨s⟩ and ⟨z⟩ become allographs in Egyptian texts from the Middle Kingdom on, their choice primarily depending on calligraphic considerations. In Coptic, both of them are represented uniformly as ⲥ /s/.
  39. ^ Peust, Carsten (1999). Egyptian Phonology: An Introduction to the Phonology of a Dead Language. Peust und Gutschmidt. p. 126. doi:10.11588/diglit.1167. Based on the rules of compatibility restriction, Baer (1985) argues in an unpublished paper that ⟨z⟩ was originally a stop or an affricate rather than a spirant. His arguments are confirmed by Schenkel (1986: 70f.) who assumes that 𓊃 is an affricate as opposed to the fricative 𓋴.
  40. ^ Allen, James P. (2020). Ancient Egyptian Phonology. Cambridge University Press. p. 69. doi:10.1017/9781108751827. From its cognates, z appears to have been *[z] or *[ð], but these are both voiced, not (otherwise) an original consonantal feature of Egyptian; its merger with s suggests that it may instead have been *[θ].
  41. ^ Allen, James P. (2020). Ancient Egyptian Phonology. Cambridge University Press. p. 26. doi:10.1017/9781108751827. Most of the Demotic consonants have straightforward correspondents in Coptic and can therefore be presumed to have had the same values they do in Coptic.
  42. ^ Allen, James P. (2020). Ancient Egyptian Phonology. Cambridge University Press. p. 28. doi:10.1017/9781108751827. The grapheme h̭ appears in words for which Coptic has /x̱/, such as h̭ꜥr "skin" > A ⳉⲁⲁⲣⲉ, B ϣⲁⲣ, F ϣⲉⲉⲗ, L ϣⲁⲣⲉ, M ϣⲉⲣ, S ϣⲁⲁⲣ.
  43. ^ Depuydt, Leo (1993). "On Coptic Sounds" (PDF). Orientalia. 62 (4). Gregorian Biblical Press: 338–375.
  44. ^ Allen, James P. (2020). Ancient Egyptian Phonology. Cambridge University Press. p. 76. doi:10.1017/9781108751827. Voice is not a phonemic feature of the consonantal system in any stage of the language.
  45. ^ Allen, James P. (2020). Ancient Egyptian Phonology. Cambridge University Press. pp. 74–75. doi:10.1017/9781108751827. The primary phonemic distinctions between the consonants in all stages of Egyptian are two, aspiration and palatalization...Aspiration remains a primary distinction throughout the history of the language.
  46. ^ Peust, Carsten (1999). Egyptian Phonology: An Introduction to the Phonology of a Dead Language. Peust und Gutschmidt. p. 85. doi:10.11588/diglit.1167. After the New Kingdom, confusion between both series of stops becomes very frequent in Egyptian writing. A phonetic merger of some kind is certainly the cause of this phenomenon.
  47. ^ Peust, Carsten (1999). Egyptian Phonology: An Introduction to the Phonology of a Dead Language. Peust und Gutschmidt. p. 102. doi:10.11588/diglit.1167. In Roman Demotic ⟨ꜥ⟩ suddenly begins to be employed in a very inconsistent manner. It is often omitted or added without etymological justification. I take this as an indication that the phoneme /ʕ/ was lost from the spoken language.
  48. ^ Worrell, William H. (1937). "Popular Traditions of the Coptic Language" (PDF). The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures. 54 (1/4). The University of Chicago Press. doi:10.1086/370517. The letters ⲗ (lōla), ⲙ (mēj), ⲛ (niʾ), and ⲣ (rōw) are pronounced as l, m, n, r (trilled), respectively.
  49. ^ Worrell, William H. (1937). "Popular Traditions of the Coptic Language" (PDF). The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures. 54 (1/4). The University of Chicago Press. doi:10.1086/370517. The letters ⲗ (lōla), ⲙ (mēj), ⲛ (niʾ), and ⲣ (rōw) are pronounced as l, m, n, r (trilled), respectively.
  50. ^ Van Soldt, Wilfred H. (2009). "The Adaptation Of The Cuneiform Script To Foreign Languages". In de Voogt, Alex; Finkel, Irving L. (eds.). The Idea of Writing: Play and Complexity. Brill. pp. 117–127. ISBN 978-90-47-42792-6.
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