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Bashali Chiefdom
Chiefdom
Chefferie de Bashali
A terraced tea plantation along the Nyanzale-Kitchanga axis
A terraced tea plantation along the Nyanzale-Kitchanga axis
Country Democratic Republic of the Congo
ProvinceNorth Kivu
TerritoryMasisi
CapitalKitchanga
Government
 • MwamiBashali Mokoto Nyanguba Sylvestre
Official languageFrench
National languageKiswahili

The Bashali Chiefdom (French: Chefferie de Bashali) is a chiefdom located in the Masisi Territory of North Kivu Province in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Topographically, it is delimited to the east by the Virunga National Park, to the north by the Bwito Chiefdom of Rutshuru Territory, to the northwest by Walikale Territory, to the south by the Bahunde Chiefdom, and to the west by the Osso sector.[1] Encompassing a total area of 1,582 square kilometers,[1] the chiefdom is the administrative and sociopolitical structure for the Hunde ethnic group and is administratively subdivided into two groupements: Bashali-Mokoto and Bashali-Kaembe. Kitchanga, the urban center and administrative capital of the Bashali-Mokoto groupement, is the most densely populated locality within the chiefdom.[2][3][4][5]

The region has been perennially beleaguered by incessant conflicts, leading to widespread violence and large-scale displacement.[6][7][8][9] Adjacent to Kitchanga, the Mungote and Kahe Internally Displaced Persons (IDP) camps accommodate a significant number of displaced people. As of 2015, the Kahe camp housed 5,760 displaced persons, including refugees from Rwanda, while the Mungote camp sheltered 14,599 people.[10]

Geography[edit]

The Bashali Chiefdom is strategically situated in the mountainous region of North Kivu Province, with an altitudinal range fluctuating between 1,500 and 2,000 meters. The region experiences a distinct pluvial season from September to April, succeeded by an arid season from May to August, which contributes to a climate conducive to a variety of essential agricultural activities.[11] The topography is characterized by its rugged nature, encompassing high mountains, extensive plains, plateaus, and hills.[11][12] This diverse topography defines the physical landscape and significantly influences anthropogenic activities and settlement patterns. The volcanic soil prevalent in the Bashali Chiefdom is fertile, enriched with a high humus content, making it highly amenable to agricultural use. Additionally, the substratum is replete with valuable mineral resources, such as tourmaline, columbo-tantalite, and cassiterite.[11][12]

A view of the Masisi hills landscape

The vegetative cover of the Bashali Chiefdom comprises a combination of dense forests and grassy savannahs. The hydrographic network includes numerous rivers and lakes that are indispensable for both the ecosystem and the local communities.[11][12] Notable rivers such as Osso (Luxoo), Mweso, Muhongozi, Lwama, Rusoma, Rwambi, Twaliba, Bushenge, Bushaala, Luwe, Lweti, Lwitwi, Katalandwa, Kihimba, and Katanda traverse the region. Four significant lakes, Mukoto, Ndalagha, Lukulu, Mbalukira, and Mbita, enrich the region's hydrography. These lakes, drained by the Muhongozi River originating from Kibachiro in the Muhanga locality of the Bashali-Mukoto groupement, are abundant in fish and hold substantial potential for enhancing the socio-economic development of the chiefdom through sustainable fishing practices.[11][13]

Administrative divisions[edit]

The Bashali Chiefdom is divided into smaller administrative units known as groupings (groupements), each overseen by traditional leaders called "mwamis." Each groupement is further subdivided into villages (localités) and governed by customary chiefs. The groupement leader is appointed by the paramount mwami and is typically a member of the royal lineage, who also appoints village chiefs to administer individual villages.[14] As of 2018, the Bashali Chiefdom comprises two groupements: Bashali-Mokoto and Bashali-Kaembe. Kitchanga serves as the capital of the chiefdom, consolidating a total of 23 localités, including sixteen in the Bashali-Mokoto groupement and seven in the Bashali-Kaembe groupement.[11][4]

Groupements and villages[edit]

The Bashali-Mokoto groupement consists of 16 localités:[11][4]

  • Kitchanga (the administrative center)
  • Muhanga
  • Lupfunda
  • Mweso
  • Kalembe
  • Pinga/Bushimoo
  • Bulende
  • Luhanga
  • Kirumbu
  • Lwama
  • Mulinde
  • Lukweti
  • Kalungu
  • Butale
  • Bibwe-Nyange
  • Kahira

Bashali-Kaembe groupement consists of 7 localités:[11][4]

  • Burungu
  • Nyamitaba
  • Lushangi/Burama
  • Busihi-Kalonge
  • Muxongati
  • Lubale-Tunda
  • Mutobo

History[edit]

Early history and Belgian colonial migration polities[edit]

The area was traditionally inhabited by the Hunde people.[15][11] During Belgian colonial rule, the Hunde community was reorganized into autonomous entities governed by traditional chiefs who enforced colonial statutes. This form of localized governance provided a facade of autonomy while ensuring the execution of authoritarian colonial mandates.[16][17]

In the 1930s, the Belgian colonial administration orchestrated a substantial migratory labor movement from the neighboring Ruanda-Urundi territory into the eastern regions of the then-Belgian Congo.[6] This migration was catalyzed by the development of colonial agricultural enterprises in the Belgian Congo and aimed at mitigating population pressures in the densely populated Ruanda-Urundi territory. By 1939, territories within Masisi were expropriated from Bahunde chieftains to resettle approximately 80,000 Hutu Banyarwanda agriculturalists. This influx was further compounded by spontaneous migrations of populations fleeing famine in Rwanda.[18][19][6][20][16]

In 1940, the colonial administration instituted the Gishari Chiefdom exclusively for the transplanted Banyarwanda populace, which engendered a distinct administrative enclave.[21][6][22] This maneuver sparked initial conflicts between the Banyarwanda and indigenous traditional chiefs over the governance of the Gishari enclave. Nonetheless, in 1957, the Belgian administration dissolved the Gishari Chiefdom and amalgamated it into the Bahunde Chiefdom, with Bweremana as its chief town.[11][23][24] Subsequent administrative reorganizations culminated in December 1977 with the creation of the contemporary Bashali Chiefdom, segmented into four divisions: Bahunde Chiefdom, Osso Sector, Katoyi Sector, and Bashali Chiefdom.[25][11]

Post-independence ethnic conflicts[edit]

Kanyarwanda War[edit]

See also: Kanyarwanda War

The disbandment of the Gishari Chiefdom resulted in the deprivation of traditional authority among the Banyarwanda of Masisi Territory, leading to a significant impact on their political representation.[26][27][28] Following Congo's independence, localized tensions crescendoed into the Kanyarwanda War from 1962 to 1965. During this period, Banyarwanda and indigenous political figures, notably the Nandes, vied for control over the redistribution of the Kivu-Maniéma province.[29][30] The crux of the conflict revolved around the governance structures of the future provincial assemblies in the newly constituted provinces of North Kivu and Central Kivu.[29] The nationality and political enfranchisement of the Banyarwanda emerged as contentious subjects, leading to powerful centrifugal forces. In September 1962, armed Banyarwanda attacked Hunde communities and police outposts, resulting in ten deaths and a severe military counteraction. The turmoil intensified in late 1963 with the influx of Tutsi herdsmen fleeing the Rwandan Revolution.[29]

The ensuing political purgation in November 1963, characterized by the replacement of Banyarwanda politicians with Hunde counterparts, further inflamed the discord Masisi and Rutshuru territories.[29] The legislative and provincial elections of May 1965, marred by irregularities favoring the Hunde, precipitated a dramatic escalation in violence. Hutu Banyarwanda and newly arrived Tutsi refugees clashed with indigenous populations and police forces, leading to widespread chaos, including looting, arson, and massacres.[29] Provincial authorities accused the Banyarwanda of abetting the Mulelist insurrection, prompting a brutal military crackdown by the Armée Nationale Congolaise (ANC).[29] In October 1965, the North Kivu provincial assembly sought to expel all Rwandans, alleging their collusion with Mulelist insurgents. However, this decree was never executed, leaving the underlying tensions unresolved. Although large-scale violence subsided in the ensuing years, localized conflicts over land dispossession and ethnic mistrust persisted.[29]

Intensification of tension (1972–1981)[edit]

Mobutu Sese Seko sporting a typical abacost in 1983.

Two critical developments between 1972 and 1981 intensified tensions in Masisi Territory. In 1972, Barthélemy Bisengimana Rwema, a Tutsi Zairean and head of president Mobutu Sese Seko's cabinet, influenced the enactment of the first Law on Nationality, granting Zairean nationality automatically to Rwandan migrants who had arrived in Kivu before independence.[6] The 1973 land act, part of the Zairianisation policy, conferred land law benefits to the Banyarwanda, enabling them to secure landholdings through new legal mechanisms. This law facilitated the usurpation of arable land and marginalized indigenous agricultural practices.[6] During this period, the Congolese government initiated a large-scale livestock farming program in North Kivu, supported by international institutions. The economic prospects of cattle farming attracted government officials, merchants, and affluent individuals to North Kivu, leading to a scramble for land that intensified the struggles faced by the crop-farming populations of Masisi.[6]

The Masisi War (1990–1993)[edit]

The Masisi War, which ensued from February 1990s to March 1993, was characterized by intense violence engulfing the Walikale Territory, Masisi Territory, and Rutshuru Territory, with a pronounced focus on the Bwito Chiefdom.[31][29][32] The declaration of democratization by Mobutu in April 1990, and the subsequent initiation of the Sovereign National Conference (CNS) in August 1991, reignited ethnic conflicts as Banyarwanda and indigenous factions clashed over representation.[29] The deferment of municipal elections in North and South Kivu, coupled with the "identification of nationals" operation in June 1991, designed to identify voters, encountered violent resistance from armed Hutu contingents who attacked administrative establishments in Masisi, obliterated population registers, and terrorized the teams responsible for the process.[29] These confrontations precipitated skirmishes with law enforcement, resulting in approximately thirty casualties and ultimately culminating in the collapse of the identification initiative. From 1991 to early 1993, large-scale violence abated, yet localized violent incidents persisted.[29]

Assassinations of traditional leaders, larceny of cattle, arson, and the destruction of infrastructure were rampant. Each ethnic group established "self-defense militias," which were armed and organized along ethnic lines. Social relations between Banyarwanda and indigenous people deteriorated further, exacerbated by calls for civil disobedience by Banyarwanda politicians and mutual societies.[29] These groups encouraged the people to withhold taxes from traditional Hunde leaders and manage land autonomously. This epoch also saw the expulsion of indigenous farmers by Banyarwanda neighbors, particularly in areas where they were a minority. Large farmers employed soldiers to guard pastures and herds.[29] On March 20, 1993, violence peaked when groups of young Hunde, Nyanga, and Tembo, likely organized by local politicians, perpetrated the first massacres of Hutu peasants at the Ntoto market in eastern Walikale Territory.[29] This atrocity quickly spread to surrounding villages, sparking a wave of reciprocal violence. Hutu groups from Masisi Territory retaliated by attacking Hunde communities, leading to a brutal cycle of massacres and counter-massacres. The ensuing conflict was characterized by indiscriminate violence, including massacres of civilians, theft of livestock, and the destruction of crops. Both sides aimed to eliminate the traditional leaders of the opposing group, causing massive displacements.[29] Over 200,000 people were forced to move to escape the violence, with many seeking refuge in areas where their ethnic group was in the majority. Estimates suggest that between 7,000 and 14,000 people were killed in six months of intense fighting.[29] The conflict obliterated social cohesion, with each ethnic group retreating into secure areas. Traditional leaders on both sides were targeted, with Hunde leaders fleeing to Goma and Banyarwanda leaders to Rutshuru.[29] Between November 1993 and August 1994, a brief respite in violence was achieved through military intervention by the Special Presidential Division (DSP) and extensive communication efforts involving official actors, civil society, and NGOs. These efforts culminated in a pacification agreement signed by community representatives from Bashali Chiefdom and Bwito Chiefdom.[29]

The aftermath of the Rwandan genocide and the First and Second Congo Wars[edit]

Further information: Rwandan Civil War, First Congo War, and Second Congo War
Refugee camp for displaced Rwandans in Kimbumba, 20 km from Goma, Zaire, following the 1994 Rwandan genocide
Kibumba refugee camp in Goma on August 3, 1994. Approximately 1.2 million Rwandan refugees fled to Zaire following the outbreak of the Rwandan Civil War.
Refugee camp near Goma, Zaire, 1994, providing shelter to those fleeing the Rwandan Civil War.

Following the Rwandan Civil War, an estimated 1.2 million Hutu refugees fled to Kivu, establishing extensive refugee encampments administrated by international humanitarian organizations.[33][34][35] These camps, predominantly sheltering Rwandan Hutus, served as operational epicenters for former génocidaires, Hutu civilians, and ex-personnel of the Rwandan Armed Forces.[36] Among these military refugees, some amalgamated into the Forces Démocratiques de Libération du Rwanda (FDLR).[6][37][38] The existence of these camps, compounded by cattle rustling from Tutsi livestock proprietors and targeted attacks on certain Hunde communities in proximity to the camps, sparked Masisi's second ethnic war in November 1994.[6][29] This conflict extended into adjacent Rutshuru and Walikale territories, intensifying violence against the long-integrated Tutsis in Kivu.[6][29]

Sake, Zaire refugees in 1996

Confronted with escalating security threats and the intensifying "manhunt" for Tutsis, an armed coalition comprising Banyamulenge insurgents and other factions opposed to the Mobutu regime coalesced into the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL) in 1996.[6] Supported by Rwanda and Uganda and driven by various economic interests, this coalition, under Laurent-Désiré Kabila, instigated the First Congo War, culminating in Kabila's ascension to the presidency in May 1997.[6] This period was characterized by egregious human rights violations, including massacres, rapes, and forced displacements, exacerbated by the massive influx of refugees and internally displaced persons.[6]

In 1998, the Second Congo War erupted when Laurent-Désiré Kabila endeavored to expel his Rwandan allies. This led to the eastern Congo coming under the control of the Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD), a rebel faction supported by Rwanda and Uganda.[39] During this epoch, Kitchanga evolved into a sanctuary for displaced individuals.[30] The RCD restructured local governance, supplanting traditional leaders with people aligned with their cause. For instance, the Mwami of the Bashali-Mokoto groupement was replaced by Kapenda Muhima, a prominent local Hunde aligned with the RCD.[30][40] This period witnessed political and military elites, predominantly Rwandophone Congolese, acquiring vast land concessions through semi-legal and often violent means. Kitchanga attained strategic significance in the RCD's "repatriation policy," with numerous Congolese Tutsi "returnees" from Rwanda settling around Kahe in 2002.[30]

Ethnic and political maneuvering[edit]

From late 2000, the RCD-Goma sought to bolster its popular base in North Kivu by appointing Eugène Serufuli Ngayabaseka, a Hutu Banyarwanda, as the provincial governor.[41] Serufuli endeavored to unify Tutsi and Hutu Banyarwanda under the concept of a "Rwandan-speaking" area. To weaken the alliance between the Mayi-Mayi, ex-FAR/Interahamwe, and Hutu armed groups within the FDLR, Serufuli offered the Mayi-Mayi a separate peace and recruited numerous Hutu Banyarwanda into the "Local Defence Forces," allied with the RCD/RPA soldiers.[41] Despite the failure of the FDLR's "Oracle of the Lord" operation against Rwanda in mid-2001 and the commencement of the withdrawal of Rwandan soldiers from the province in September 2002, the RCD-Goma's strategy did not yield the anticipated results.[41] Most Mayi-Mayi groups, encouraged by the Kinshasa government, refused to negotiate with the RCD-Goma and maintained their alliance with the FDLR. Consequently, the RCD-Goma attempted to fragment the Mayi-Mayi groups, offering leadership positions within the RCD-Goma to certain Mayi-Mayi leaders in exchange for their collaboration against FDLR-aligned factions.[41] Throughout this period, civilians remained targets of violence against a backdrop of widespread resource pillaging by various armed groups.[41]

Atrocities and human rights violations[edit]

The violence escalated precipitously, with numerous documented atrocities. In early November 2002, elements of the RCD-Goma massacred an indeterminate number of Hunde during an assault on the village of Bushimoo in the Bashali-Mokoto groupement.[41] On November 3, 2002, Mayi-Mayi forces under a Hunde leader incinerated several Nyanga villages in the Bashali-Mokoto groupement, resulting in numerous casualties. Between January 21 and 23, 2003, RCD-Goma forces executed an unknown number of Hunde civilians in the villages of Bushimoo, Kauli, and Binyungunyungu.[41] During these attacks, they opened fire on civilians, set fire to villages, and committed acts of rape.[41] On February 25, 2003, RCD-Goma elements killed at least 44 people in Bushimoo and Kailenge during a purported community meeting. In April 2003, the RCD-Goma killed five civilians and tortured two women near Walikale, accusing them of collaborating with the Mayi-Mayi. On June 26, 2003, RCD-Goma soldiers used bayonets to kill seven inhabitants of Lukweti, perceived as a Mayi-Mayi stronghold, and systematically pillaged the village.[41]

References[edit]

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  41. ^ a b c d e f g h i "Mapping Report: Towards Transition – North Kivu". Mapping-report.org. Retrieved June 20, 2024.
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