Draft:1914 collapse of Albania

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The collapse of the Principality of Albania (sometimes described as a civil war[1][2]) refers to the period of violent political fragmentation within the aforementioned state which began in early 1914.

An independent, but deeply unstable Albanian state had been established in the aftermath of the Balkan Wars and was set to transition to a monarchy as a result of the arrangements of the European Great Powers. The collapse began with the debilitating mass conflict in the country that erupted immediately after Albania formally became a monarchy under Prince Wilhelm of Wied in February 1914.[3][4] His failure to keep control led to his departure from Albania that September, resulting in a political vacuum and the end of any remaining central authority.[5]

The chaos involved various factions that asserted control as the country split along religious and ethnic lines; the outbreak of World War I that same year also saw various belligerent countries intervene and occupy the recognized territory of Albania.[6][7] The country's fragmented situation would not be resolved until after the end of the war.

Background[edit]

Albanian gains independence[edit]

The First Balkan War (1912-1913), which pitted the Balkan League (Greece, Bulgaria, Montenegro, and Serbia) against the Ottoman Empire, resulted in the defeat of the latter and its withdrawal from most of the Balkans. During this time, Albanian nationalists, who sought to form an independent Albania and resist any partition at the hands of the Balkan League,[8] convened the All-Albanian Congress in Vlorë on 28 November 1912. The result was the declaration of an independent provisional Albanian state (Independent Albania) that same day under the leadership of Ismail Qemali, which only controlled a small region that included Vlorë (designated as the capital), Berat, and Lushnjë.[9] The rest of the territory within the modern Albanian borders was occupied by Greek, Serbian, and Montenegrin forces.[8]

The Treaty of London (1913), enforced by the Great Powers, delineated the present borders of Albania, resulting in a much more reduced territory compared to that which had been claimed by Qemali's government.[10] The treaty also established the International Control Commission (ICC) to supervise Albania and provide security. Finally, the Great Powers decided that Albania would become a monarchy, and began looking for a prince.[11]

Descent into instability and establishment of monarchy[edit]

A power struggle[12] began in October 1913 when Essad Pasha Toptani, an ambitious local commander and politician, established a rival administration (the Republic of Central Albania) in central Albania, a largely Muslim region.[13] Toptani sought to challenge Qemali's government and characterized it as the undemocratic "personal creation of a number of men".[11] The Republic of Central Albania was supported by the local Muslim nobles as well as by Serbia.[14] Toptani's seizure of central Albania also resulted in the Catholic population of northern Albania being cut off from Qemali's administration; however, the Catholics had never been eager to submit to any central Albanian government anyways.[15] Meanwhile, Serbian and Montenegrin troops finalized their withdrawal from Albania's recognized territory in November 1913.[16]

This unfavorable situation was further compounded by a plot, spearheaded by Bekir Fikri, to establish an Albanian-Ottoman alliance and install a Turkish ruler (Ahmet Izzit Pasha)in Albania. The ICC uncovered the plot in January 1914 and raided Vlorë, discovering more than 200 Ottoman soldiers which had infiltrated the country.[17] Qemali, who had supported the plot, was forced to resign.[11] Toptani was subsequently also made to disband his administration and step aside in February 1914, as by that time Prince Wilhelm of Wied, a German, had agreed to become the monarch of Albania.[11] The new Principality of Albania, with Wilhelm as prince, was then proclaimed on 21 February 1914.

Course of events[edit]

Wilhelm's assumption of power and Northern Epirote revolt[edit]

Main articles: Wilhelm, Prince of Albania; Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus; and Protocol of Corfu

On 21 February 1914, the Principality of Albania was formally established as an Albanian delegation arrived in Neuwied, Germany to ceremonially transfer the power to Wilhelm.[16] The Great Powers allowed Toptani to lead this delegation as compensation for his displacement from power.[11] The Catholic tribes decided to support Wilhelm and swore loyalty to him.[18]

That same day, the Great Powers asked for the withdrawal of the Greek army, which was still occupying territory in southern Albania (Northern Epirus) assigned to be within Albanian borders.[16] The ethnic Greek majority of Northern Epirus, unwilling to come under Albanian administration, revolted and established the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus on 28 February as the Greek army withdrew south. This state was led by Georgios Christakis-Zografos. Fighting erupted between the Northern Epirotes and Albanian forces, and lasted throughout the spring.

Wilhelm finally arrived in Albania's new capital of Durrës a month later on 7 March 1914, with his wife and a small royal household.[3] His six-month reign would be characterized as largely incompetent,[19][20] with the Great Powers continuously intervening in his affairs via their representatives in the ICC.[21] A new government was formed, led by Turhan Përmeti serving as prime minister. The power-hungry Toptani gained an influential position as the new minister of war and minister of the interior, from which he constantly undermined the government.[22] From an organizational point of view, aside from the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the rest of the cabinet was dysfunctional.[23]

Albanian forces and Northern Epirote separatists continued fighting until May, when the Albanian government decide to negotiate with Northern Epirus as they were unable to suppress the revolt. Toptani discreetly aided the Northern Epirotes by preventing 20,000 Albanian reinforcements from being deployed to fight them.[24] The result of the negotiations was the Protocol of Corfu, signed on 17 May 1914, in which it was agreed to that the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus would continue to exist as a self-governing entity within Albania.

Outbreak of Muslim revolt and exile of Toptani[edit]

Main article: Peasant Revolt (Albania)

Meanwhile, Prince Wilhelm's arrival in Albania had caused immediate anger and unrest among the Muslims of central Albania, who were influenced by Ottoman propaganda which portrayed the new regime as a tool of the Christian powers and the large landowners.[25][26] By early May 1914,[27] the discontent had evolved into a general revolt led by Haxhi Qamili and other Muslim clerics. The aim of the rebels was to restore Ottoman rule over Albania,[28] and they violently rejected Albanian nationalism and secularism.[29] The preferred method of organization of the rebels was the formation of local councils for directing and expanding the rebellion.[30]

There are differing accounts as to the exact nature of Toptani's involvement in the uprising. Some sources indicate that he had a leading role in the uprising from the beginning,[31][32] yet others describe the rebels as explicitly anti-Toptani.[33][34] In any case, and regardless of whether he actually enjoyed widespread support among the rebels, Toptani wanted to take advantage of the chaos to oust Prince Wilhelm and seize power for himself, and was backed by Italy,[35][36] which viewed Wilhelm as too pro-Austrian.[37]Dutch officers led by Lodewijk Thomson who were stationed in Albania as part of the ICC ultimately decided to have Toptani arrested,[32] despite Wilhelm remaining indecisive on the matter.[38] On 19 May, Toptani's house was raided by government forces and he surrendered; the following day he was exiled to Italy.[39][40]

Expanding conflict and first siege of Durrës[edit]

Toptani's departure had little effect on the expanding insurgency in central Albania,[41] which continued throughout the summer of 1914. The Catholic Albanian tribes, once more cut off from the rest of the country, remained loyal to Wilhelm and did not support the Muslim revolt.[42] They sent troops under the command of Prenk Bib Doda and Isa Boletini to participate in a joint operation with Dutch forces to defeat the Muslim rebels. They engaged the rebels at Shijak near Durrës on 23 May, but this attack failed. In the aftermath of the battle, fearing that the triumphant rebels were about to enter Durrës, Prince Wilhelm and his family briefly fled and took refuge on an Italian ship off the coast.[43] They later returned that evening as the rebels had maintained their positions.[44] That same day, the rebels captured Tirana.[45]

On 3 June, the first central political body of the Muslim insurgency, the "General Council", was elected following an assembly of councils at Shijak. By now, while there appeared to be factions who were in favor of Toptani and factions who were opposed to him, they had all firmly united in order to reach their common goal of ousting Prince Wilhelm.[46]

The Principality of Albania now only de facto controlled Durrës and its outskirts,[47][48] with Thomson leading the defense of the city. The Muslim insurgents continued to siege the city, and Thomson was killed on 15 June during a rebel attack.[49]

Northern Epirus also took advantage of the situation to finish consolidating its territory, seizing Korçë on 8 July and Tepelenë later that month.[50]

More ICC reinforcements from Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Romania arrived in Durrës in early July, but failed to prevent successive victories of the Muslim rebels, most notably the capture of Berat and Vlorë from the ICC on 12 July and 21 August, respectively. Owing to negative public opinion in the Netherlands, the Dutch military mission in Albania was formally terminated on 27 July.[51] One day later (28 July), World War I broke out.

Departure of Prince Wilhelm[edit]

The attention of the Great Powers quickly turned towards the new European war and away from the chaos in Albania.[52] The Austro-Hungarians and Germans began leaving the besieged Durrës on 2 August 1914. This was followed by the departure of the Dutch two days later. The ICC's multinational force left the country on 23 August.[53] Nonetheless, Austria-Hungary demanded that Prince Wilhelm send Albanian troops to fight with the Central Powers. When Wilhelm refused, stating that the Treaty of London had required Albania to remain neutral, his remuneration was cut off.[54]

On 1 September 1914, the Muslim insurgents notified the ICC that they demanded that Wilhelm leave Albania or they would begin a renewed bombardment of Durrës until it surrendered.[55] Under overwhelming pressure, Wilhelm finally decided it would indeed be best to leave the country, departing on 3 September 1914 on the same Italian yacht that he had briefly fled to earlier in May after the battle at Shijak.[56] He issued a proclamation to the Albanian people that "he deemed it necessary to absent himself temporarily",[57] and went on to join the Imperial German Army on the eastern front.[58] The ICC briefly assumed full control of the Albanian government before disbanding itself on 6 September. The next day, Durrës finally fell to the Muslim rebels.[59]

With these events, remaining central authority crumbled and any sense of national unity in Albania evaporated.[60]

Emergence of the Senate of Central Albania and return of Toptani[edit]

The "Senate of Central Albania" was the polity that was formed by the Muslim insurgents after their capture of Durrës on 7 September. Inside the city, the victorious rebels hoisted the Ottoman flag, began imprisoning supporters of Wilhelm, and declared that they would seek to install a Muslim prince.[61][62] Prince Şehzade Mehmed Burhaneddin, a son of the former Ottoman sultan Abdul Hamid II, was invited to take up this position,[63][64] but this proposal never materialized. Conflict broke out between the Senate of Central Albania and Northern Epirus after the latter attacked Berat.[65]

The Senate apparently dropped its plans for a "Muslim prince" and invited Toptani to return to Albania and take over as leader.[66] Toptani had been in France when World War I broke out and immediately left for Albania, seeking to take power and align Albania with the Entente Powers.[67] Along the way, he stopped at Serbia and signed the Treaty of Niš with the Serbian prime minister Nikola Pašić on 17 September. The treaty envisioned a Serb-Albanian alliance that would be implemented with Toptani returning to Albania and being elected as leader. On 19 September,[68] with full Serbian support, Toptani returned to Albania. He went to the Dibër region, where he gathered a force of 4,000 volunteers, and peacefully entered Durrës at the beginning of October 1914.[69] On 5 October, with the backing of the Senate, Toptani proclaimed himself as prime minister and president,[70] setting up the Toptani Government, considered the 3rd ruling government of Albania. Immediately afterwards, he declared war on Austria-Hungary to show he was on the side of the Entente.[71][72]

Toptani was aware that the vast majority of the population governed by the Senate of Central Albania remained pro-Ottoman (the Ottoman Empire was neutral at this point in the war). Therefore, he did not question the Senate's pro-Ottoman policy nor its nominal declaration that the Ottoman sultan (Mehmed V) had suzerainty over Albania.[73]

Northern Albania rejects Toptani[edit]

In the meantime, the Catholic tribes of northern Albania, which had been loyal to Prince Wilhelm, reverted to autonomous self-rule and rejected the authority of the Senate of Central Albania. Shortly after Prince Wilhelm's departure, Shkodër, the main city of the region, formed a local administration in the form of a council, under the supervision of the Entente.[74]

In October 1914, Toptani informed the Serbian government of his intention to launch an operation against the Catholic tribes in order to gain control of northern Albania; this never came to fruition.[75]

Montenegrin, Greek, and Italian interventions of late 1914[edit]

During the latter part of 1914, Montenegro, Greece, and Italy initiated the first foreign military interventions in Albania since the start of World War I. Because the Great Powers were already preoccupied with the war, they were in much less of a state to actively guarantee any protection of Albanian territory.[76]

In mid-September 1914 troops from Montenegro began limited incursions into the Kelmendi region in northwestern Albania, seizing control of a few villages.[77]

Greek prime minister Eleftherios Venizelos, concerned about the fighting between Northern Epirus and Central Albania,[78] decided to launch a military intervention in late October 1914 after receiving approval from the Great Powers. The Greek army entered southern Albania and reoccupied all of it except Vlorë by 27 October.[79][80] The government of Northern Epirus then proceeded to dissolve itself, with the objective of incorporation into Greece achieved.[81]

On 31 October, Italy occupied the island of Sazan off the coast of Vlorë, which had been recognized as part of Albania but was claimed by Italy.[82] Later the Italians began an occupation of Vlorë itself, which is variously described as having begun in November[83] or December 1914,[84] on account of its strategic importance in the Adriatic Sea.[85]

Krujë revolt against Toptani and second siege of Durrës[edit]

The Ottoman Empire declared war against the Entente on 31 October 1914. This shattered Toptani's balance between his pro-Entente administration and his overtures to the pro-Ottoman majority of Central Albania. Emboldened especially by the Ottoman declaration of jihad against the Entente (14 November), a Muslim revolt occurred once more in the Krujë area. These rebels were extremely anti-Serbian and influenced by Ottoman propaganda which branded Toptani as a traitor to Islam and called for the reconquest of Kosovo from Serbia.[86]

These Krujë rebels significantly jeopardized Toptani's position. Many of his followers, swayed by the rebels' rhetoric, defected over to their side. The Central Powers actively supported them, with Ottoman officers arriving in the region to command rebel forces, and Austria-Hungary regularly supplying the rebels with money, weapons, and ammunition.[87] The Krujë rebels also began conducting cross-border raids into Serbia alongside Bulgarian irregulars.[88]

The Krujë rebels continued to expand their territorial gains at the expense of the Senate of Central Albania. Under significant pressure, Toptani requested multiple times for both Serbia and Greece to come to his aid.[89] Seeking to placate Greece, he recognized Greek control of Northern Epirus in a secret agreement.[90] Serbia finally ordered preparations for an intervention in support of the Senate to be made in December 1914, but this was delayed significantly by the concerns of fellow Entente member Russia that operations in Albania might distract from the Austro-Hungarian front and appear to challenge the Italian interests in the country.[91] By then, the Senate- just like Prince Wilhelm's administration before it- had been stripped of all territorial control outside of Durrës, which was under constant siege by the Krujë rebels.[92][93] Only the Italian navy, present in the adjacent bay, was helping defend Durrës from the rebels.[94]

Serbian defeat of Krujë rebels[edit]

After months of delay, the Serbian intervention finally got underway at the beginning of June 1915. The Serbs organized a massive three-pronged offensive into Albania and successfully crushed the insurgency, relieving Toptani. A special "Albanian Detachment" was set up by the Serbs to completely pacify Albania and consolidate Toptani's authority. However, the Mirdita region in northern Albania remained outside of the control of Serbian forces.[95]

The Montenegrin army, capitalizing on the situation, moved in from the north to capture Shkodër.[96] While there were some failed attempts to repel them on the part of the locals, the Entente-supervised administration of the city did not itself resist the Montenegrins.[97]







References[edit]

  1. ^ "ALBANIA'S LONG WORLD WAR I (1912-1925) - ProQuest". www.proquest.com. ProQuest 1724503382. Retrieved 2023-12-06. In early fall 1914, the "Sixth Month Kingdom" was wiped away and civil war broke out between factions within Albania... an ongoing civil war shattered the burgeoning state.
  2. ^ "ALBANIAN CIVIL WAR". Bendigo Advertiser. 1914-05-26. Retrieved 2023-12-06.
  3. ^ a b Frantz, Eva Anne (8 October 2014). "Wied, Wilhelm, Prinz zu". 1914-1918-online: International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
  4. ^ "Prince Wilhelm I of Albania". Kingsley Collection. Retrieved 26 November 2023.
  5. ^ "Constitutional history of Albania". ConstitutionNet. Retrieved 2023-11-26.
  6. ^ Blumi, Isa (8 October 2014). "Albania". 1914-1918 online: International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
  7. ^ "ALBANIA'S LONG WORLD WAR I (1912-1925) - ProQuest". www.proquest.com. ProQuest 1724503382. Retrieved 2023-11-26. ... William of Wied returned to Germany, leaving Albania in a state of tumult. The resulting power vacuum was filled by internal and external forces.
  8. ^ a b "History of Albania". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2023-11-26. Albania's Balkan neighbours, who had already made plans to partition the region, declared war on Turkey in October 1912, and Greek, Serbian, and Montenegrin armies advanced into Albanian territories. To prevent the annihilation of the country, Albanian national delegates met at a congress in Vlorë.
  9. ^ Pavlowitch, Stevan K. (1999). A History of the Balkans, 1804-1945. Longman. ISBN 978-0-582-04585-9. The contested authority of Qemal's government was limited to a triangle of territory between Vlore, Berat and Lushnje
  10. ^ Vickers, Miranda (1999). The Albanians: A Modern History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-86064-541-9. ... the Conference nevertheless awarded the Balkan allies large areas of Albanian-claimed territory... leaving the Albanian state reduced to the central regions...
  11. ^ a b c d e "1919 | Essad Pasha Toptani: Memorandum on Albania". www.albanianhistory.net. Retrieved 2023-11-26.
  12. ^ "Essad pasha Toptani: The Man, the War, the Power – Tirana Times". Retrieved 2023-11-26.
  13. ^ Daniel, Odile (1990). "The historical role of the Muslim community in Albania". Central Asian Survey. 9 (3): 1–28. doi:10.1080/02634939008400712. ISSN 0263-4937.
  14. ^ Batakovic, Dusan T. (1992). "Serbian Government and Essad Pasha Toptani". balkania.tripod.com. Retrieved 2023-11-26.
  15. ^ Vickers, Miranda (1999). The Albanians: A Modern History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-86064-541-9. Isolated Kemal government would not been able to rely for support upon majority of the north, predominantly Catholic population, who... remained jealous of their independence and were unwilling to surrender to national government as they had been to do so to the Porte.
  16. ^ a b c "13. Albania (1913-present)". uca.edu. Retrieved 2023-11-27.
  17. ^ Tutuncu, Mehmet. "Grebeneli Bekir Fikri Bey Albay Thomson'a karsi: 1914 Avlonya Olayi". Düşünce ve Tarih. 3 (31).
  18. ^ History, Robert Elsie: Texts and Documents of Albanian. "1920 | Sejfi Vllamasi: Political Confrontation in Albania". www.albanianhistory.net. Retrieved 2023-12-17. The Catholics supported Wied... under Monsignor Serreqi, the Archbishop of Shkodra, [they] were the first to go to Durrës and swear allegiance to Prince Wied.
  19. ^ Frantz, Eva Anne (8 October 2014). "Wied, Wilhelm, Prinz zu". 1914-1918 Online: International Encyclopedia of the First World War. He was accused of ignorance and indecision, while others argued that Wied's reign was doomed to fail from the start. Even if the circumstances did not allow him to conduct a resolute policy, Wied failed to utilise the relatively strong position the Albanian constitution of 1914 offered him... Wied seems to have been easily influenced, scared of making decisions, and generally fearful.
  20. ^ "Albania: A Country Study" (PDF). April 1992. ... Prince Wilhelm, who was unversed in Albanian affairs, intrigue, or diplomacy...
  21. ^ Frantz, Eva Anne (8 October 2014). "Wied, Wilhelm, Prinz zu". 1914-1918 Online: International Encyclopedia of the First World War. Via their representatives in the International Commission of Control, the Great Powers continuously interfered in Wied's affairs, while Wied tried in vain to operate independently.
  22. ^ "Essad Paşa (Toptani) | Ottoman Empire, Albanian Nationalism, Diplomat | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2023-12-01.
  23. ^ Krasniqi, Afrim (2009). Sistemet Politike në Shqipëri 1912-2009. Tirana: UFO Press. p. 390. ISBN 978-99956-19-36-7.
  24. ^ "Robert Elsie: The Photo Collection of the Dutch Military Mission in Albania". 2011-07-17. Archived from the original on 2011-07-17. Retrieved 2023-12-03. Essad Pasha had promised to muster 20,000 reservists to march against the Greeks, but being himself in close contact with Greek rebel leaders, he did not keep his word.
  25. ^ "Albania: A Country Study" (PDF). April 1992. Ottoman propaganda, which appealed to uneducated peasants loyal to Islam and Islamic spiritual leaders, attacked the Albanian regime as a puppet of the large landowners and Europe's Christian powers.
  26. ^ Jelavich, Barbara (1983-07-29). History of the Balkans: Volume 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-27459-3. peasants..willing listeners to Ottoman propaganda... attached the new regime as a tool of the beys and Christian powers
  27. ^ "1914 | Duncan Heaton-Armstrong: An Uprising in the Six-Month Kingdom". 2011-07-23. Archived from the original on 2011-07-23. Retrieved 2023-12-03.
  28. ^ "Robert Elsie: The Photo Collection of the Dutch Military Mission in Albania". 2011-07-17. Archived from the original on 2011-07-17. Retrieved 2023-12-03. The rebels released Jan Sar that evening and sent him to Durrës to present their demands, among which were a total amnesty and the restoration of the sultan.
  29. ^ "NOA Lajme - Agjencia Kombëtare e Lajmeve". noa.al (in Albanian). Retrieved 2023-12-01.
  30. ^ History, Robert Elsie: Texts and Documents of Albanian. "1920 | Sejfi Vllamasi: Political Confrontation in Albania". www.albanianhistory.net. Retrieved 2023-12-17. In the towns and villages where they had power, the rebels formed local councils to further and lead the uprising.
  31. ^ Vickers, Miranda (1999). The Albanians: A Modern History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-86064-541-9. He [Toptani] gathered round him a group of discontented Muslim priests ... and proclaimed himself the savior of Albania and the Champion of Islam.
  32. ^ a b "Robert Elsie: The Photo Collection of the Dutch Military Mission in Albania". 2011-07-17. Archived from the original on 2011-07-17. Retrieved 2023-12-03. In early May 1914, Essad Pasha withdrew discreetly to his country estate near Tirana, and soon thereafter rumours spread of an armed rebellion in Shijak and Kruja. It was obvious to Wied and the Dutch officers that Essad Pasha had his hand in the unrest.
  33. ^ "1914 | Duncan Heaton-Armstrong: An Uprising in the Six-Month Kingdom". 2011-07-23. Archived from the original on 2011-07-23. Retrieved 2023-12-03. ... these rebels were no army of Essad Pasha's. In fact many of them appeared to be out for his blood, as "they wanted to do away with him and all other landlords, whose sole occupation was that of taking the peasants' money and then beating them!"
  34. ^ History, Robert Elsie: Texts and Documents of Albanian. "1920 | Sejfi Vllamasi: Political Confrontation in Albania". www.albanianhistory.net. Retrieved 2023-12-17. Later, when Essad went to Germany to pay homage to Prince Wied, all of the Muslims... turned against him.
  35. ^ "Albania: A Country Study" (PDF). April 1992. Italy plotted with Esad Pasha to overthrow the new prince.
  36. ^ "1914 | Duncan Heaton-Armstrong: An Uprising in the Six-Month Kingdom". 2011-07-23. Archived from the original on 2011-07-23. Retrieved 2023-12-03. ... Essad Pasha was hand in glove with the Italian government...
  37. ^ Swire, Joseph (1971). Albania: The Rise of a Kingdom. Arno Press. p. 167. ISBN 978-0-405-02777-2.
  38. ^ "1914 | Duncan Heaton-Armstrong: An Uprising in the Six-Month Kingdom". 2011-07-23. Archived from the original on 2011-07-23. Retrieved 2023-12-03. ... he [Wilhelm] did not now know what to do with him; he could not even make up his mind whether he was to arrest him formally or not.
  39. ^ "1914 | Duncan Heaton-Armstrong: An Uprising in the Six-Month Kingdom". 2011-07-23. Archived from the original on 2011-07-23. Retrieved 2023-12-03. ... we were told next day that the Italians had prevailed and that Essad would be sent into exile, without a trial.
  40. ^ "Robert Elsie: The Photo Collection of the Dutch Military Mission in Albania". 2011-07-17. Archived from the original on 2011-07-17. Retrieved 2023-12-03. The Italian ambassador Baron Carlo Alberto Aliotti, however, persuaded Wied not to press charges and to exile Essad Pasha to Italy...
  41. ^ "Robert Elsie: The Photo Collection of the Dutch Military Mission in Albania". 2011-07-17. Archived from the original on 2011-07-17. Retrieved 2023-12-03. Essad Pasha was gone, but unrest in central Albania continued.
  42. ^ "ALBANIA'S LONG WORLD WAR I (1912-1925) - ProQuest". www.proquest.com. ProQuest 1724503382. Retrieved 2023-12-03. Most of the Catholic areas of northern Albania did not support the Peasant Rebellion.
  43. ^ "Robert Elsie: The Photo Collection of the Dutch Military Mission in Albania". 2011-07-17. Archived from the original on 2011-07-17. Retrieved 2023-12-03.
  44. ^ "13. Albania (1913-present)". uca.edu. Retrieved 2023-12-04. ... Prince William of Albania and his family fled to the Italian yacht Misurata, although he returned to the palace that evening.
  45. ^ History, Robert Elsie: Texts and Documents of Albanian. "1920 | Sejfi Vllamasi: Political Confrontation in Albania". www.albanianhistory.net. Retrieved 2023-12-17. On 23 May, Tirana fell to the rebels.
  46. ^ History, Robert Elsie: Texts and Documents of Albanian. "1920 | Sejfi Vllamasi: Political Confrontation in Albania". www.albanianhistory.net. Retrieved 2023-12-17. On 3 June, before taking all of central Albania, the councils held an assembly in Shijak at which a first General Council was elected with the following figures: president Mustafa Ndroqi (an Essadist), vice-president Xhenabi Adili (a Young Turk), a Turkish army major, and Qamil Haxhi Feza, a Turkophile from Elbasan as their general commander. This coalition shows that all sides were ready to compromise in order to reach their common objective, i.e. to expel Wied and overthrow the government.
  47. ^ "Robert Elsie: The Photo Collection of the Dutch Military Mission in Albania". 2011-07-17. Archived from the original on 2011-07-17. Retrieved 2023-12-04. The newly created Principality of Albania had in reality now been reduced to a modest few kilometres of territory in and around Durrës.
  48. ^ "1919 | Essad Pasha Toptani: Memorandum on Albania". www.albanianhistory.net. Retrieved 2023-12-04. Durrës was under siege and was cut off from the rest of Albania, and the authority of the Prince extended no farther than two or three kilometres from Durrës.
  49. ^ "13. Albania (1913-present)". uca.edu. Retrieved 2023-12-04. Albanian insurgents attacked Durazzo (Durrës) on June 15, 1914, resulting in the death of the more than 100 insurgents and government soldiers (including the Dutch military commander in the town, Colonel Lodewijk Thomson).
  50. ^ "The Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus". The National Herald. 25 February 2023. Eventually, on July 8, Korçë came under the control of the Northern Epirote administration after an assault. In the same month, Tepelenë also came under the control of the temporary government.
  51. ^ "Robert Elsie: The Photo Collection of the Dutch Military Mission in Albania". 2011-07-17. Archived from the original on 2011-07-17. Retrieved 2023-12-04.
  52. ^ "ALBANIA'S LONG WORLD WAR I (1912-1925) - ProQuest". www.proquest.com. ProQuest 1724503382. Retrieved 2023-12-06. The infighting within Albania, however, was quickly eclipsed as the Balkans were engulfed by the First World War.
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  55. ^ Gurakuqi, Romeo (2022-11-20). "Albania 1911–1914". Medium. Retrieved 2023-12-11. On September 1st, 1914, the insurgents of Central Albania sent a letter to the representatives of the Great Powers in Albania making it clear that they were awaiting the immediate removal of the King from the country and that if this request was not fulfilled they would bomb Durres until the city surrendered.
  56. ^ "13. Albania (1913-present)". uca.edu. Retrieved 2023-12-06. As a result of an Albanian insurgent attack against Durazzo (Durrës) on May 23, 1914, Prince William of Albania and his family fled to the Italian yacht Misurata... Prince William of Albania fled the country aboard the Italian yacht Misurata on September 3, 1914...
  57. ^ Miller, William (1966). The Ottoman Empire and Its Successors, 1801-1927. CUP Archive. On September 3, 1914, Prince William had ended his inglorious six months' reign with proclamation, informing his people that 'he deemed it necessary to absent himself temporarily.'
  58. ^ "Albania: A Country Study" (PDF). April 1992. ... [Wilhelm] subsequently joined the German army and served on the Eastern Front.
  59. ^ "13. Albania (1913-present)". uca.edu. Retrieved 2023-12-06. ... the ICC assumed control of the Albanian government on September 4, 1914. The ICC disbanded on September 6, 1914. Albanian insurgents captured Durazzo (Durrës) on September 7, 1914.
  60. ^ "ALBANIA'S LONG WORLD WAR I (1912-1925) - ProQuest". www.proquest.com. ProQuest 1724503382. Retrieved 2023-12-06. ... Willem of Wied fled Albania in September, 1914. With his departure, the Provisional Government and any sense of national unity evaporated.
  61. ^ Vickers, Miranda (2009). The Albanians: a modern history (Reprint ed.). London New York: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-86064-541-9. The rebels raised Ottoman flag, imprisoned Wied's supporters and called for, upon other things, a Muslim prince...
  62. ^ "Albania: A Country Study" (PDF). April 1992. The Albanian people split along religious and tribal lines after the prince's departure. Muslims demanded a Muslim prince and looked to Turkey as the protector of the privileges they had enjoyed.
  63. ^ Gurakuqi, Romeo (2022-11-20). "Albania 1911–1914". Medium. Retrieved 2023-12-11. ... the Senate... invited the 29-year-old Prince Muhamet Burhan Eddine Effendi, the son of Abdul Hamid, to be their leader...
  64. ^ History, Robert Elsie: Texts and Documents of Albanian. "1920 | Sejfi Vllamasi: Political Confrontation in Albania". www.albanianhistory.net. Retrieved 2023-12-17. ... the Turkophiles such as Musa Qazimi, the mufti of Tirana, and Qamil Haxhi Feza of Elbasan who wanted... to elect Burhanedin, the son of Sultan Hamid, as Albania's monarch.
  65. ^ Leon, George B. (1970). "Greece and the Albanian Question at the Outbreak of the First World War". Institute for Balkan Studies.
  66. ^ Batakovic, Dusan. "The Kosovo Chronicles (Part 2e)". balkania.tripod.com. Retrieved 2023-12-10. The senate of free towns in central Albania invited Essad Pasha to take over power.
  67. ^ "1919 | Essad Pasha Toptani: Memorandum on Albania". www.albanianhistory.net. Retrieved 2023-12-10. I [Toptani] was in France at the time. Realising that my country would be called upon to play a major role in the hostilities, and knowing it would fall under influences of which I disapproved, I... returned to Albania... giving proof of the position I was to adopt towards the Central Powers...The country was divided into two camps at that time: on the one hand were the supporters of Austria and on the other were those in favour of the return of Turkey. I actively opposed both sides... My conduct was dictated by the spontaneous decision I had taken in the first days of the war, the decision to link my country's fate to that of the Allied Powers who had solemnly recognized the right of small nations to run their own affairs.
  68. ^ "13. Albania (1913-present)". uca.edu. Retrieved 2023-12-10. Essad Pasha Toptani returned to the country on September 19, 1914...
  69. ^ Batakovic, Dusan. "The Kosovo Chronicles (Part 2e)". balkania.tripod.com. Retrieved 2023-12-10. With over 4,000 volunteers mustered in the vicinity of Debar, Essad Pasha marched peacefully into Durazzo at the beginning of October 1914
  70. ^ "13. Albania (1913-present)". uca.edu. Retrieved 2023-12-10. ... he [Toptani] proclaimed himself as president and prime minister of Albania on October 5, 1914.
  71. ^ Gurakuqi, Romeo (2022-11-20). "Albania 1911–1914". Medium. Retrieved 2023-12-11. Essad Pasha took control of the royal palace in Durres and immediately declared war on Austria-Hungary in order to show that he was on the side of the Entente.
  72. ^ "1919 | Essad Pasha Toptani: Memorandum on Albania". www.albanianhistory.net. Retrieved 2023-12-11. I [Toptani] declared war on Austria on behalf of the government I was heading.
  73. ^ Batakovic, Dusan. "The Kosovo Chronicles (Part 2e)". balkania.tripod.com. Retrieved 2023-12-10. He did not question the ties with Constantinople, and the consent in principle to the sovereignty of the sultan over Albania. As the lord of central, particularly Muslim parts of the country, Essad Pasha was compelled to approve of the pro-Turkish beylics who had invited him to take over power.
  74. ^ Chekrezi, Constantine A. (April 1919). Albania: Past and Present. Macmillan. p. 156. ... Northern Albania... relapsed again into its peculiar system of local self- government... the city of Scutari... was governed by a council of its notables under the supervision of the consuls of the Entente Allies.
  75. ^ Batakovic, Dusan. "The Kosovo Chronicles (Part 2e)". balkania.tripod.com. Retrieved 2023-12-11. He [Toptani] informed the Serbian government of his move on the Catholic tribes to subdue Scutari and capture Albanian leaders Isa Boljetinac, Bairam Cur and Hasan Pristina who were in hiding in the northern parts of Has region.
  76. ^ Cana, Jaho; Sala, Kozeta (2013). "Italian Invasion of South Albania 1914-1920" (PDF). International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR). The outburst of the war put an end to the protection that the Greatest Powers warranted the Albanian government through the law status approved by the Ambassadors Conference of London.
  77. ^ Gurakuqi, Romeo (2022-11-20). "Albania 1911–1914". Medium. Retrieved 2023-12-11. Beginning in the middle of September, Montenegrin troops ventured into the region of Kelmendi (Clementi), violating the neutrality that had been guaranteed to Albania.
  78. ^ Cassavety, N. J. (1919). "The Question of Epirus". The Journal of Race Development. 9 (3): 230–246. doi:10.2307/29738295. JSTOR 29738295. Mr. Venizelos fearing for the fate of the Epirotes... beseeched the great powers to allow the Greek troops to reoccupy Northern Epirus.
  79. ^ G., C. H. (1946). "Greek Claims in Southern Albania". The World Today. 2 (10): 488–494. ISSN 0043-9134. JSTOR 40391891. Early in the war [World War I] the Allies authorized Greece (then neutral) to reoccupy much of "Northern Epirus".
  80. ^ Guy, Nicola (2007-02-22). "The Albanian Question in British Policy and the Italian Intervention, August 1914–April 1915". Diplomacy & Statecraft. 18 (1): 109–131. doi:10.1080/09592290601163035. ISSN 0959-2296. Greek troops crossed the southern Albanian border at the end of October 1914, officially reoccupying all of southern Albania, exclusive of Vlorë, and establishing a military administration by 27 October 1914
  81. ^ Miller, William; III, William Miller (1966-09-09). The Ottoman Empire and Its Successors, 1801-1927. Psychology Press. p. 522. ISBN 978-0-7146-1974-3.
  82. ^ "Italy Occupies Saseno". The New York Sun. 1 November 1914. p. 1. The island of Saseno... was occupied yesterday by an Italian force... The possession of the island has been a matter of dispute between Italy and Albania for some time.
  83. ^ Cana, Jaho; Sala, Kozeta (2013). "Italian Invasion of South Albania 1914-1920" (PDF). International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR). In 29th of November 1914, Italians pretending they were protecting Albanian territories from the Greek invasion, by sending many naval units in the Bay of Vlore and invaded it. [sic]
  84. ^ "ALBANIA'S LONG WORLD WAR I (1912-1925) - ProQuest". www.proquest.com. ProQuest 1724503382. Retrieved 2023-12-13. Later in December, Italian forces occupied Vlorë.
  85. ^ Shuka, Xhilda (July 2016). "Italy and War of Vlora during 1920" (PDF). Academic Journal of Business, Administration, Law and Social Sciences. 2 (2). Italy played special attention to the province of Vlora during World War I, because of its great strategic importance in the Adriatic Sea. Italy had deployed in October 1914 in Sazan and had occupied Vlore since December 1914.
  86. ^ Batakovic, Dusan. "The Kosovo Chronicles (Part 2e)". balkania.tripod.com. Retrieved 2023-12-11. In early November 1914, Turkey engaged in a war with the Central powers, and included among the enemies of Islam Essad Pasha Toptani, as an ally to Serbia and therefore the Entente. The declaration of jihad stirred up a new pro-Turk insurrection of the Muslim population. The "Board for Uniting Islam" from Constantinople called for another conquest of Kosovo... The entire movement gained an expressly anti-Serbian character: demands were made that regions Serbia had liberated in the first Balkan war be annexed to autonomous Albania under Turkish sovereignty.
  87. ^ Batakovic, Dusan. "The Kosovo Chronicles (Part 2e)". balkania.tripod.com. Retrieved 2023-12-11. The illiterate Albanian mob was easily fanaticized with pro-Turk and pan-Islamic slogans, thus the insurgents succeeded in winning over part of Essad Pasha's followers. With regular supplies of money, arms and ammunition from Austria-Hungary, the insurgents, commanded by Young Turk officers, posed an increasing threat to Essad Pasha's territory.
  88. ^ Bjelajac, Mile (22 March 2016). "War Aims and War Aims Discussions (South East Europe)". 1914-1918 online: International Encyclopedia of the First World War. The situation in Albania worsened after the Ottoman Empire entered the war in November 1914. The clans in the north (Krujë) jeopardized the position of Essad Pasha and with the assistance of the Bulgarian irregulars had instigated disturbances across the border.
  89. ^ Batakovic, Dusan. "The Kosovo Chronicles(Part 2e)". balkania.tripod.com. Retrieved 2023-12-13. Essad Pasha's position in Durazzo continuously deteriorated. Pressured by the success of the insurgents, he called the Serbian government more than once to intervene in Albania... Not only did he request guns from Greece, but demanded that its troops encroach upon those regions where his enemies mustered.
  90. ^ Leon, George B. (1990). Greece and the First World War: From Neutrality to Intervention, 1917-1918. East European Monographs. ISBN 978-0-88033-181-4. In return, Essad reconfirmed a promise he had made in the fall of 1914 to support Greece's annexation of North Epirus... he was willing to come to a secret agreement with the Greek government on this question...
  91. ^ Batakovic, Dusan. "The Kosovo Chronicles (Part 2e)". balkania.tripod.com. Retrieved 2023-12-13. The Serbian government ordered in December 1914 that preparations begin for a military intervention in Albania... Legate Miroslav Spalajkovic from St Petersburg informed in early January 1915 that the Russian diplomacy was not opposed to a Serbian intervention in Albania as long as it did not affect the course and scope of operations against Austro-Hungarian troops... The Russian diplomacy advised Serbia to... refrain from actions that Italy might regard as measures directed against its interests.
  92. ^ Chekrezi, Constantine A. (April 1919). Albania: Past and Present. Macmillan. p. 157. Thenceforth, the dominion over which the "Government of Central Albania" ruled was confined to the small peninsula which is occupied by the city of Durazzo.
  93. ^ Batakovic, Dusan. "The Kosovo Chronicles (Part 2e)". balkania.tripod.com. Retrieved 2023-12-30. The insurgents besieged Essad Pasha in Durazzo...
  94. ^ Chekrezi, Constantine A. (April 1919). Albania: Past and Present. Macmillan. p. 157. They [the Krujë rebels] attacked Durazzo, in the same old way, but the Pasha [Essad Toptani] found shelter under the protecting fire of the Italian Navy, which rushed to his aid, and which alone was able to check the advance of the rebels and to save Essad Pasha and his capital... The rebels remained encamped at the gates of the besieged city, and the Italian squadron was constantly moored in the Bay of Durazzo, ready for action against them.
  95. ^ Batakovic, Dusan. "The Kosovo Chronicles (Part 2e)". balkania.tripod.com. Retrieved 2023-12-30. In late May, 1915... Pasic decided on a military intervention.15 Over 20,000 Serbian soldiers armed with guns marched into Albania from three directions at the beginning of June, and took Elbasan and Tirana - the hotbeds of rebellion - suppressed the Young Turk movement, liberated the besieged Essad Pasha in Durazzo and turned over the captured insurgent leaders. A special Albanian Detachment was set up to implement a thorough pacification of Albania and consolidate Essad Pasha's rule. The regions inhabited by Mirdits... remained out of reach for the Serbian troops...
  96. ^ Batakovic, Dusan. "The Kosovo Chronicles (Part 2e)". balkania.tripod.com. Retrieved 2023-12-30. The Montenegrin army took advantage of the favorable situation and marched into Scutari, officially still under international regime.
  97. ^ Chekrezi, Constantine A. (April 1919). Albania: Past and Present. Macmillan. p. 158. Scutari was taken only after a bitter engagement in which 9,000 Albanians were killed. The consuls of the Powers did nothing to prevent the seizure of the city which was entrusted to their supervisory administration.
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