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Draft:Effects of Hurricane Katrina in the Southeastern United States

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This is about the effects of Hurricane Katrina in the Southeastern United States. For the impacts in Louisiana, see Effects of Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans
Hurricane Katrina
Satellite imagery of Hurricane Katrina at its final landfall near the border of Louisiana and Mississippi on August 29
Meteorological history
DurationAugust 25–31, 2005
Category 3 major hurricane
1-minute sustained (SSHWS/NWS)
Highest winds120 mph (195 km/h)
Lowest pressure928 mbar (hPa); 27.40 inHg
Overall effects
Fatalities57 total
Damage$32 billion (2005 USD)
Areas affectedSouth Florida, Gulf Coast of the United States (especially Louisiana and Mississippi), Ohio Valley
Part of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season

The effects of Hurricane Katrina in the Southeastern United States were widespread and deadly, extending from South Florida to Louisiana and areas inland. After developing on August 23, Katrina made landfall near the border of Broward and Miami-Dade counties with 80 mph (130 km/h) winds on August 25. After emerging from the state, Katrina intensified into one of the strongest Atlantic hurricanes, becoming a Category 5 on the Saffir–Simpson scale. It moved ashore near the border of Louisiana and Mississippi and weakened as it moved inland, dissipating on August 31.

In Florida, the storm affected the southern portion of the state and in the panhandle. While it was crossing the state, the hurricane's convection was asymmetrical, primarily located to the south and east of the center. As a result, high rainfall totals occurred in the Miami area, peaking at 16.43 in (417 mm) in Perrine. The rains caused flooding, and the combination of rains and winds downed trees and power lines, leaving 1.45 million people without power. Damage in South Florida was estimated at $523 million (2005 USD), mostly as a result of crop damage. Further south, the hurricane spawned a tornado in the Florida Keys. In the island chain, Katrina caused heavy rainfall and gusty winds. The storm produced a 5.37 ft (1.64 m) storm surge in Pensacola along the panhandle. High waves caused beach erosion and closed nearby roadways. There were five tornadoes in northwestern Florida. Damage was estimated along the panhandle at $100 million. Throughout the state, the hurricane killed 14 people, of which 6 were directly related to the storm's effects. Due to damage from Katrina, 11 Florida counties were declared federal disaster areas.

Hurricane Katrina's winds and storm surge reached the Mississippi coastline on the morning of August 29, 2005,[1][2] beginning a two-day path of destruction through central Mississippi; by 10 a.m. CDT on August 29, 2005, the eye of Katrina began traveling up the entire state, only slowing from hurricane-force winds at Meridian near 7 p.m. and entering Tennessee as a tropical storm.[3] Many coastal towns of Mississippi (and Louisiana) had already been obliterated, in a single night.[4] Hurricane-force winds reached coastal Mississippi by 2 a.m.[1] and lasted over 17 hours, spawning 11 tornadoes (51 in other states[2]) and a 28-foot (8.5 m) storm surge[2] flooding 6–12 miles (9.7–19.3 km) inland. Many, unable to evacuate,[5] survived by climbing to attics or rooftops, or swimming to higher buildings and trees. The worst property damage from Katrina occurred in coastal Mississippi, where all towns flooded over 90% in hours, and waves destroyed many historic buildings, with others gutted to the 3rd story. Afterward, 238 people died in Mississippi, and all counties in Mississippi were declared disaster areas, 49 for full federal assistance.[6][7] Regulations were changed later for emergency centers and casinos. The emergency command centers were moved higher because all 3 coastal centers flooded at 30 ft (9.1 m) above sea level. Casinos were allowed on land rather than limited to floating casino barges as in 2005.

More than one million people in Mississippi were affected, and almost 6 months later, the extent of the devastation in Mississippi was still described as "staggering" in USA Today on February 16, 2006:[8] "The Mississippi Gulf Coast has been devastated. The extent of the devastation in Mississippi is also staggering. Since Katrina hit, more than half a million people in Mississippi have applied for assistance from FEMA. In a state of just 2.9 million residents, that means more than one in six Mississippians have sought help.

Background

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Satellite image of Hurricane Katrina approaching Florida on August 25

Hurricane Katrina developed as Tropical Depression Twelve over the Bahamas on August 23, partially from the remains of Tropical Depression Ten. As it moved slowly northwestward, it developed organized convection, or thunderstorms, and it intensified into a tropical storm on August 24. A building ridge turned Katrina to the west,[9] bringing it over the Gulf Stream. With warm waters and favorable outflow, the storm continued strengthening.[10] At around 2100 UTC on August 25, Katrina attained hurricane status, based on observations from the Hurricane Hunters.[11] Intensification of the ridge to its north caused the hurricane to turn to the west-southwest, and as it approached the Florida coastline Katrina developed a well-defined eye. At 2230 UTC on August 25, Katrina made landfall near the border of Miami-Dade and Broward counties with winds of around 80 mph (130 km/h). The hurricane moved southwestward and crossed Florida in about six hours, during which its eye became better defined over the warm and shallow waters of the Everglades. During its passage, northerly wind shear shifted the deepest convection to the south and east of the center, and Katrina briefly weakened to a tropical storm before emerging into the Gulf of Mexico early on August 26. After emerging from the state, Katrina intensified into one of the strongest Atlantic hurricanes, becoming a Category 5 on the Saffir–Simpson scale. Katrina moved ashore in southeastern Louisiana on August 29, and then made another landfall near the border of Louisiana and Mississippi. Even after making landfall, it kept its strength as a hurricane almost 150 mi (240 km) inland, before becoming a tropical storm near Meridian, Mississippi. It weakened into a tropical depression near Clarksville, Tennessee, and later got absorbed by a cold front in the Great Lakes region.[9]

In the preceding 2004 season, Florida was affected by four hurricanes, including hurricanes Frances and Jeanne which hit Martin County and caused billions in damage.[12]

Preparations

[edit]
Total rainfall from Katrina in the United States. Data for the New Orleans area are not available

About nine hours after the system developed on August 24, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) issued a tropical storm watch from the Seven Mile Bridge to Vero Beach. Later that day, the watch was upgraded to a tropical storm warning and hurricane watch from Florida City to Vero Beach after the storm's intensification became apparent. About 25 hours before Katrina made landfall, the tropical storm watch was extended northward to Titusville, and a tropical storm warning and a hurricane watch was issued for Lake Okeechobee. Early on August 25, a hurricane warning was issued from Florida City to Vero Beach and for Lake Okeechobee. In southeastern Florida, the lead time for the hurricane watch and warning occurred 31.5 and 19.5 hours before landfall, respectively; both were 16.5 hours less than the desired lead time. A tropical storm warning was also issued from Florida Key, southward through the Florida Keys to the Dry Tortugas, and northward along the western coast to Longboat Key. The warning in the Florida Keys occurred only nine hours before the onset of tropical storm force winds.[9]

On August 25, Florida's Emergency Operations Center was activated in Tallahassee to monitor the progress of the hurricane.[13] Before Katrina moved ashore, schools and businesses were closed in the Miami area. Cruise ships altered their paths due to seaports in southeastern Florida closing.[14] Officials in Miami-Dade County advised residents in mobile homes or with special needs to evacuate. To the north in Broward County, residents east of the Intracoastal Waterway or in mobile homes were advised to leave their homes. Evacuation orders were issued for offshore islands in Palm Beach County, and for residents in mobile homes south of Lantana Road. Shelters were opened across the region.[15] Officials closed the Miami International Airport,[16] Fort Lauderdale – Hollywood International Airport, Key West International Airport, and Florida Keys Marathon Airport due to the storm. In Monroe and Collier counties, schools were closed, and a shelter was opened in Immokalee.[17]

The NHC issued a hurricane watch on August 27 from Intracoastal City, Louisiana to the Florida/Alabama border. This was modified to a hurricane warning from Morgan City, Louisiana to the Florida/Alabama border, with a tropical storm warning westward to Intracoastal City, and another tropical storm warning extending eastward to Destin, Florida.[9] Officials issued a mandatory evacuation for portions of Walton, Gulf, Franklin, and Wakulla counties.[18]

By 4:30 a.m. CDT, on August 29, 2005, just hours before Hurricane Katrina landfall, many shelters in Mississippi were full to capacity, including many Red Cross shelters, the Jackson Coliseum (which allowed pets), and five special-needs shelters. The shelters had filled within 24 hours of opening.

Days earlier, on August 25, when Hurricane Katrina crossed the southern tip of Florida, government offices in Mississippi had already discussed emergency evacuation plans for days. On August 26, the Mississippi National Guard was activated, raising the level of concern, and on August 27, the state government activated its Emergency Operations Center, and local governments began issuing evacuation orders: the Mississippi Emergency Management Agency (MEMA)[19] advised not opening shelters in coastal counties. However, on August 28, the Red Cross also opened shelters in coastal counties, and by 7:00 p.m., 11 counties and eleven cities issued evacuation orders, a number which increased to 41 counties and 61 cities before the following morning, when Katrina came ashore. Moreover, 57 emergency shelters were established on coastal communities, with 31 additional shelters available to open if needed....[20]

Since the evacuation was not total, many people survived the 30-foot (9.1 m) storm tide by climbing into the second-floor attic, or knocking out walls and ceiling boards to climb onto the roof or nearby trees.[21] Tree trunks remained standing,[22] even near the beaches, where many houses were leveled. Other people had swum to taller buildings or trees.[23] Over 100 people were rescued from roof tops and trees in Mississippi.

Although the population of the three (3) coastal counties had been nearly 400,000, and the storm tide was 20–30 feet (6.1–9.1 m) with coastal winds 75–120 mph (121–193 km/h), fewer than 250 people died in Mississippi during Hurricane Katrina.

Impact

[edit]

Overall, Hurricane Katrina killed 14 people in Florida, of which 6 were directly related to the storm.[9] Six of the indirect deaths were in South Florida, of which three were from carbon monoxide poisoning caused by generators, one was due to a vehicle accident, one occurred during debris cleanup, and one was associated with a lack of electricity. At least five people were injured due to carbon monoxide poisoning. Overall damage totaled $623 million (2005 USD).[18]

Florida

[edit]

Southern Florida

[edit]
Tree damage in Dania Beach in Broward County

While moving across Florida, Katrina had an asymmetric area of thunderstorms, which placed the strongest winds and rainfall over Miami-Dade County.[9] The highest precipitation total related to hurricane in the United States was 16.43 in (417 mm) in Perrine, or about halfway between Miami and Homestead.[24] Of the total, 15.10 in (384 mm) fell in 24 hours.[18] During its passage, the eye of the hurricane moved directly over the office of the National Hurricane Center, which reported a wind gust of 87 mph (140 km/h).[9] The strongest sustained winds in Florida was a report of 72 mph (116 km/h) on the roof of the Rosenstiel School of Marine, Atmospheric, and Earth Science in Virginia Key. The same station recorded a gust of 94 mph (151 km/h).[18] Unofficially, wind gusts reached 97 mph (156 km/h) at Homestead General Aviation Airport. The hurricane's accompanying storm surge was small, estimated at 2 ft (0.61 m).[9] Consequentially, there was minor beach erosion and isolated coastal flooding.[18]

The heavy rainfall flooded neighborhoods in the area,[9] damaging over 100 houses.[18] The storm left about 1.4 million people without power in Palm Beach, Broward, and Miami-Dade counties.[17] In Broward County north of Katrina's first landfall, the hurricane dropped light rainfall, ranging from 2 to 4 in (51 to 102 mm).[9] Downed trees killed three people in the county.[9] Train and bus service was disrupted in the Miami area.[16] Property damage was estimated at $100 million.[18] Widespread flooding affected crop nurseries and greenhouses,[25] and crop damage totaled $423 million. Three people drowned in Miami-Dade County, two of whom on boats.[18]

Katrina weakened into a tropical storm while moving across Monroe County.[9] Tides reached 3 to 5 ft (0.91 to 1.52 m) in mainland Monroe County, which flooded several houses and vehicles in Flamingo in Everglades National Park.[18] Most of the Florida Keys reported tropical storm-force winds. A station on Key West reported sustained winds of 61 mph (98 km/h), with gusts to 74 mph (119 km/h). While the storm passed to its north, the city reported a storm surge of about 2 ft (0.61 m).[9] The storm's outer rainbands spawned an F2 tornado in Marathon on August 26, which damaged an airport hangar and several homes. This was one of only six F2 tornadoes in the Florida Keys since 1950.[9][17][26] Similar to the Miami area, Katrina dropped heavy rainfall in the Florida Keys, reaching 10.05 in (255 mm) in Key West.[9] In the area, the storm left about 5,000 people without power.[17] After Katrina re-intensified into a hurricane, a station on the Dry Tortugas reported sustained winds of 82 mph (132 km/h), with gusts to 105 mph (169 km/h).[9]

Florida Panhandle

[edit]
Flooding in Navarre, Escambia Country on August 31, 2005

After striking southeastern Louisiana, Hurricane Katrina made its final landfall in Mississippi, during which it produced a storm surge of about 5.37 ft (1.64 m) in Pensacola.[9] The hurricane struck months after Hurricane Dennis affected the same area. In St. Marks, the surge flooded several businesses, and in Walton County, high tides flooded several roads, including portions of U.S. Highways 98 and 331. The storm caused moderate to severe beach erosion along the gulf coast,[18] and washed sand onto many coastal roads.[27] Winds along the Florida panhandle peaked at 56 mph (90 km/h) in Pensacola, with gusts to 71 mph (114 km/h).[9] High winds briefly closed the Interstate 10 bridge over Escambia Bay in Pensacola. The outer rainbands of the hurricane spawned five tornadoes, all of them weak and not very damaging. Rainfall along the panhandle reached 7.80 in (198 mm) in Philpot, which caused flooding.[18]

Roads covered by sand along the Florida panhandle

The winds caused damage to some trees and structures and there was some minor flooding in the panhandle. There were two indirect fatalities from Katrina in Walton County as a result of a traffic accident.[9] Along the Florida panhandle, 77,000 customers lost power.[28] Damage along the panhandle was estimated at $100 million.[18]

Rest of Florida

[edit]

Light rains and winds spread into the Melbourne National Weather Service region. Kennedy Space Center reported wind gusts to 46 mph (74 km/h), although there was no damage or erosion in the area.[29] In southwestern Florida, the storm produced a storm surge of 1.13 ft (0.34 m) in St. Petersburg.[9] In the central portion of the state, some areas for pasture were flooded due to outer rainbands.[25]

Alabama

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Wind gusts up to 80 mph (130 km/h) were reported in the southeastern part of Alabama, downing trees and power lines.[30] Four tornadoes formed in Central Alabama - two EF0s and two EF1s. These tornadoes caused damage to trees and multiple mobile homes.[31] On Dauphin Island, a storm surge of 15 ft (4.6 m) moved ashore, destroying over 350 houses.[32] Only 50 have since been rebuilt.[33] In Mobile, a storm surge of 11.45 ft (3.49 m) moved ashore, while in Bayou La Batre, a storm surge of 12 – 14 feet was pushed ashore.[34] As a result of the storm surge, an oil rig under construction along the Mobile River was dislodged, sending it down the river where it struck the Cochrane Bridge. Another offshore oil rig washed up on the beaches of Dauphin Island. Two indirect deaths were reported after a fatal car accident during the storm.[9] Part of Battleship Parkway, or "The Causeway", which connects parts of Mobile Bay together, collapsed, causing a temporary closure.[35] Sustained winds of 73 mph (63 kn) were reported on Dauphin Island, while a gust of 102 mph (89 kn) was also reported on Dauphin Island.[36] Much of Alabama west of Interstate 65 received 2–4 inches (5.1–10.2 cm) of rain. Peak rainfall was 4.82 inches (12.2 cm) in Hamilton, Alabama.[37] Over 656,000 customers in Alabama lost power,[38] causing it to have, at the time, the second most power outages for a storm in Alabama history behind only Hurricane Ivan.[39]

Mississippi

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Figure KW10: Katrina Wind speed at 10 a.m. CDT, August 29, 2005: hurricane eye (central blue hub) a few miles to the west of Waveland, Mississippi.

The Gulf Coast of Mississippi suffered near total devastation[1][40][41] from Hurricane Katrina on August 29, with hurricane winds, 28-foot (8.5 m) storm surge, and 55-foot (17 m) sea waves[42] pushing casino barges, boats and debris into towns, and leaving 236 people dead, 67 missing, and billions of dollars in damages.[43] Katrina made landfall below central Mississippi, 30 miles (48 km) east of New Orleans at 6:10 a.m.,[3] the storm's powerful, right, front quadrant covered coastal Mississippi and southern Alabama, increasing wind and flood damage. After making initial landfall in Louisiana, four hours later Katrina made another landfall north at the state line (near the mouth of the Pearl River)[3] and passed over submerged towns around Bay St. Louis as a Category 3 hurricane with winds over 120 mph (190 km/h) and 28-foot (8.5 m) surge.[42] Battered by wind, rain and storm surges, some beachfront neighborhoods were leveled entirely, with flooding 6–12 miles (9.7–19.3 km) inland, crossing Interstate-10 (I-10) in some places.[44]

Winds reached hurricane-force in Hancock and Harrison County[1] by 2 a.m.,[45] and winds intensified. As Katrina passed 30 miles (48 km) east of central New Orleans, with 57 mph (92 km/h) winds, by 10 a.m., landfall in Mississippi increased hurricane-force winds in an area of 600,000 Mississippi residents, covering several counties (see Figure KW10: Katrina Wind Speed map): Hancock, Harrison, Jackson County, Pearl River County, Stone, Walthall, Marion, Lamar County, Forrest County, and Perry County (see Map of Counties). Other counties to see a strong hurricane force impact of Katrina were Covington County, Jefferson Davis County, Simpson County, Smith County, Hinds County, Rankin County, and Scott County. Katrina maintained a high wind capacity of 80–85 mph in cities like Mendenhall, Magee, Jackson, Brandon, and Forest in Mississippi. Those cities contained much tree damage, roof and patio damage, power line damage, and much thrown debris. In Jackson, streets were cleared off due to the intense strong winds and rains that carried throughout the entire day. During this 10 a.m. timeframe, hurricane-force winds continued over the barrier islands and Louisiana peninsula nearby; however, for the remainder of Louisiana, the winds were subsiding into gale-force winds after 10 a.m. when Katrina was becoming primarily a Mississippi hurricane.[46]

Because Hurricane Katrina became a massive storm,[3] [47] over 450 miles (720 km) wide, not only the eyewall-path, and 28-foot (8.5 m) storm surge, but also the outer bands of the hurricane arms caused scattered damage hundreds of miles away from the center. Eleven (11) spawned tornadoes were recorded in Mississippi (51 elsewhere).[2] It is possible that scattered damage to northern Mississippi occurred, by spin-off storms, around the time Katrina made landfall in eastern Greater New Orleans (Louisiana's "boot toe") and then, again, near Bay St. Louis, Mississippi, heading north-northeast into central Mississippi, at 10 a.m. on August 29.[3] Note that "landfall" occurred over towns submerged under 20 feet (6 m) of water. As buildings collapsed, water-tight appliances floated, sending refrigerators and dishwashers to ram other buildings and block streets.[47] Millions of homes and buildings were affected, along with ships, boats, and more than 40 offshore oil rigs.

Roadways and railways were put out of service by excessive amounts of debris and occasional collapse (most notably the I-10 Twin Span Bridge). Costs of debris removal in the Gulf Coast region is estimated at $200 million. Until major roadways (US 49, US 59) could be cleared, deliverers of supplies and other emergency relief were forced to detour through highway 609 or highway 43/603, though these routes were not officially posted.[48]

The three counties most affected by the storm were Hancock County, Harrison County, and Jackson County, although almost all counties had damage, and 47 counties were declared full disaster areas. Mississippi Emergency Management Agency (MEMA) officials also recorded deaths in Hinds, Warren, and Leake counties. About 800,000 people through the state experienced power outages, which is almost a third of the population.[49]

Surveying the damage the day after Katrina's passing, Mississippi governor Haley Barbour called the scene indescribable, saying "I can only imagine that this is what Hiroshima looked like 60 years ago."[50] The mayor of Biloxi, A.J. Holloway, told the Biloxi Sun Herald, "This is our tsunami."[51] Relief and rebuilding efforts initially focused on restoring power and clearing communities of debris up to eight feet (2.4 m) in depth.[52]

Because of federal intent to rebuild or recover projects of the US Federal Government, the damage assessment to federal buildings in Mississippi covers actual costs: the amount needed to resume operations at market costs. The following federal projects are described in terms of damage, along with the cost to resume operations:[7]

  • $1.987 billion: as requested by President George W. Bush, for Navy Shipbuilding and Conversion; these funds will assist Northrop Grumman to "replace destroyed or damaged equipment, prepare and recover naval vessels under contract; and provide for cost adjustments." Ships were damaged in Pascagoula.
  • (unknown): as increased funding for USDA housing programs which provide subsidized loans and housing repair funding.
  • $75 million: in wildlife habitat restoration, for the Corps of Engineers to enhance estuarine habitats in Mississippi: following the Governor's proposal regarding oyster reef and coastal marsh restoration. The Mississippi Department of Marine Resources will assist the Corps as these projects develop.
  • $75 million: for the Corps of Engineers on various coastal projects: to accelerate completion of authorized projects along the Mississippi Gulf Coast.
  • $1.1 billion: to repair vital federal facilities in Mississippi, including:
$292.5 million for the repair and renovation of the VA hospital in Biloxi.
$45 million for the Armed Forces Retirement Home in Gulfport.
$277.2 million for the United States Navy to help rebuild the Seabee base in Gulfport, and the Stennis Space Center.
$43.4 million to help rebuild Keesler Air Force Base.
$45 million for the Keesler Medical Center.
$82.8 million for new Navy housing in the Gulfport/Stennis region.
$324.8 million for housing at Keesler Air Force Base.
$48.9 million for Navy housing at the Naval Air Station Meridian and at the Seabee base in Gulfport.

The cost amounts were decided for work continuing in 2006. Note that repairs include modern renovation, since it is not feasible to assess damage in terms of restoring federal buildings to the year they were built. However, the costs provide a condensed measure of the construction damage, without counting the millions of lost roof tiles, thousands of broken windows, etc.

Coastal counties

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The three coastal counties of Mississippi, populated by about 400,000 people (almost the population of central New Orleans), had been mostly evacuated before Katrina flooded the 100-mile (160 km) region. Katrina's storm surge was the most extensive, as well as the highest, in the documented history of the United States; large portions of Hancock County, Harrison County,[1] and Jackson County were inundated by the storm surge, affecting most of the populated areas.[53] Surge covered almost the entire lower half of Hancock County, destroying the coastal communities of Clermont Harbor and Waveland, and much of Bay St. Louis, and flowed up the Jourdan River, flooding Kiln. In Harrison County, Pass Christian was completely inundated, along with a narrow strip of land to the east along the coast, which includes the cities of Long Beach and Gulfport; the flooding was more extensive in communities such as D'Iberville, which borders the Back Bay of Biloxi. Biloxi, on a peninsula between the Back Bay and the coast, was particularly hard hit, especially the low-lying Point Cadet area.

Damage to the riverboat Palace Casino located in Biloxi, Mississippi (MS), resulting from Hurricane Katrina.

Several casinos, which were floated on barges to comply with Mississippi land-based gambling laws, were washed hundreds of yards inland by waves.[54] According to MSNBC, a 28-foot (8.5 m) storm surge came ashore wiping out 90% of the buildings along the Biloxi-Gulfport coastline. A number of streets and bridges were washed away, including the bridge sections of U.S. Highway 90. In particular, the roadway portion of the U.S. Highway 90 bridge between Bay St. Louis and Pass Christian was completely destroyed by the storm; only the support structure was left.

In Jackson County, storm surge flowed up the wide river estuary, with the combined surge and freshwater floods cutting the county in half. Over 90% of Pascagoula, the easternmost coastal city in Mississippi, was flooded from surge. Other Jackson County communities such as Porteaux Bay were destroyed, and St. Martin was hard hit, along with Ocean Springs, Moss Point, Gautier, and Escatawpa.

Two destroyers that were under construction at Litton-Ingalls Shipbuilding in Pascagoula were damaged, as well as the Amphibious assault ship USS Makin Island.

Hancock County was the scene of the final landfall of the eye of Hurricane Katrina, causing total devastation in Waveland, Bay St. Louis, Pearlington, and Clermont Harbor, as well as southern Diamondhead. The bridge between Bay St. Louis and Pass Christian was destroyed.

Katrina's 28-foot (8.5 m) storm surge, and 55-foot (17 m) sea waves,[42] practically obliterated Waveland, Mississippi, and state officials said that it took a harder hit from the wind and water than any other town along the coast. Katrina came ashore during the high tide of 8:01 am,[55] raising the storm tide by 2 ft (0.61 m), to over 30 feet (9.1 m). The storm dragged away almost every structure within one half mile of the beach, leaving driveways and walkways that went to nowhere.[23] The death toll was estimated at 50.

In Bay St. Louis, Mississippi, a foot (30 cm) of water swamped the Emergency Operations Center at the Hancock County courthouse, which sits 30 feet (9.1 m) above sea level.[56] Katrina also destroyed the first floor and dormitories of Saint Stanislaus College.[citation needed]

The destruction brought forth by Katrina also caused about one-quarter of the labor force to lose their jobs, with the unemployment rate reaching as high as 24.3%.[57]

Harrison County, Mississippi was hit particularly hard by the hurricane and the storm surge. Its two largest coastal cities, Biloxi and Gulfport, suffered severe damages and a number of casualties. By September 126 people were already confirmed dead.[58] Smaller coastal towns were also severely damaged. Much of Long Beach and most of Pass Christian, which bore the brunt of Category 5 Hurricane Camille in 1969, were leveled. Nearby Gulfshore Baptist Assembly, a camp owned and operated by the Mississippi Baptist Convention, has been permanently closed, and recommendations have been made to build a new facility elsewhere.[59]

Damage to the Biloxi-Ocean Springs bridge.

In the tourist town of Biloxi, widespread damage was reported as several of the city's attractions were destroyed. The lower 3 floors of many high-rise casino-hotels were gutted, as in the former Grand Casino of Gulfport, or the Imperial Palace (IP Hotel and Casino) or Beau Rivage in Biloxi.[60] Many restaurants were destroyed and several casino barges had been washed out of the water and onto land. Residents who survived Hurricane Camille stated that Katrina was "much worse," with a storm surge reportedly reaching further inland than the previous catastrophic storm. Katrina's wind estimates were lighter than Camille's, and the central air pressure was slightly higher, but Camille was also a much smaller storm so the greater impact of the storm surge may be due to the size. Keesler Air Force Base, also located in Biloxi, reported extensive damage to its facilities. Gulfport authorities reported to news station CNN that up to ten feet of water covered downtown streets. The Biloxi-Ocean Springs Bridge was also totally destroyed, and US 90 had heavy debris and severe damage to the roadbed.

Thirty of the confirmed deaths in Harrison County were at the St. Charles apartment complex, said Kelly Jakubic with the county's Emergency Operations Center.[61] The apartment complex was reported, by local news sources, to have collapsed with dozens of residents inside. FOX News also reported deaths at the Quiet Water Beach apartments.[51] (A later investigation by Biloxi's WLOX could not confirm any deaths at these apartments.[62])

Rebuilding in Harrison County proceeded at different paces in different towns. The town of Biloxi was greatly helped by the resurgence of the casino industry, while smaller towns such as Pass Christian did not have an economic base with which to start the reconstruction effort. By January 2007, almost a year and a half after the Hurricane, Pass Christian had still not yet begun rebuilding its city buildings, and volunteer labor was still involved in rebuilding private homes in the town.[63]

The ECHL Mississippi Sea Wolves, which play in Biloxi, was forced to suspend operations for two years because of the aftermath of the hurricane causing damage to the Mississippi Coast Coliseum. The team resumed play in 2007.

Inland

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Louisiana

[edit]

Hurricane Katrina made landfall in Louisiana at 6:45 AM local time on August 29, 2005, as a Category 3 hurricane with sustained winds of 127 miles per hour (204 km/h), near Buras-Triumph, Louisiana and a 22-foot storm surge. The eye of the storm passed 27 miles east of downtown New Orleans at 8:30 AM. The primary areas that were affected were southeastern Louisiana, including the city of New Orleans, Louisiana, the parishes of St. Tammany (Slidell), Jefferson (Gretna), Terrebonne (Houma), Plaquemines (Buras), Lafourche (Thibodaux), and St. Bernard (Chalmette).

According to officials nearly one million people were temporarily without electricity in Louisiana for several weeks. On September 1, 2005, 800,000 homes were without electricity. Numerous roadways were flooded or damaged and many evacuations conducted by boat and helicopter.

Approximately 46,000 National Guard were dispatched to the area as part of the disaster relief effort. The United States Navy also announced that four amphibious ships would be sent from Norfolk, Virginia within a few days to assist the relief efforts. The US Coast Guard rescued 1,259 survivors off rooftops by Wednesday morning August 31, less than two days after landfall, and more than 1,000 the next day. In less than two weeks 12,535 flood victims were saved by helicopter. In all, the Coast Guard made 33,544 rescues by helicopter and boats.[64]

By July 1, 2006, when new population estimates were calculated by the U.S. Census Bureau, the population of the state of Louisiana declined by 219,563, or 4.87%.[65]

Just as matters were beginning to improve in 2010, the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf in April 2010 caused massive amounts of oil to come ashore in the wetlands and marshes in Plaquemines Parish and other areas of coastal Louisiana near New Orleans that had been most heavily damaged by Katrina, and the spill will likely reach other states that were also affected by the storm (the hurricane had caused or exacerbated oil spills on a smaller scale when it hit).

New Orleans

[edit]
An aerial view of the flooding near downtown New Orleans. The Superdome is at center.
Main article: Effects of Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans

Mayor Ray Nagin did not order a mandatory evacuation of the city until August 28, 2005.[66] Approximately one million people had fled the city and its surrounding suburbs by the evening of August 28, while about 100,000 people remained in the city, with about 10,000 taking shelter at the Louisiana Superdome which had been prepared to accommodate only 800. Eventually, 30,000 arrived at the Superdome before they were evacuated.

By August 31, eighty percent (80%) of the city of New Orleans was flooded by Hurricane Katrina, with some parts of the city under 20 feet (6.1 m), of water. Over 50 breaches in region's levee system were catalogued, five of which resulted in massive flooding of New Orleans. The 17th Street Canal levee was just south of the Hammond Highway Bridge. Levees adjacent to London Avenue breached in two locations: one near Robert E. Lee Boulevard and one between Filmore Avenue and Mirabeau Avenue. Two breaches also occurred in the Industrial Canal adjacent to Surekote Road. Levee repair efforts were undertaken, involving reinforcing the levees with 3,000 pounds (1,400 kg) sandbags deployed by U.S. Army Chinook and Black Hawk helicopters. The 17th Street Canal levee repair was completed by September 5, 2005, and subsequently, the three canals were repaired all the way to Lake Pontchartrain. The Army Corps of Engineers added flood gates to the three canals.

Many evacuees were trapped in flooded houses and rooftops waiting to be rescued. The Superdome sustained significant damage and much of the dome's waterproof membrane had essentially been peeled off. On August 30, Louisiana governor Kathleen Blanco ordered the complete evacuation of the remaining people that sought shelter in the Superdome.[67] Blanco instructed the Adjutant General of the Louisiana National Guard, Major General Bennett C. Landreneau to contact Honoré of Northern Command (Honoré arrived on Wednesday, August 31, as the commander of the newly established Joint Task Force Katrina to supervise federal military operations) to arrange for active duty military support of response operations in Louisiana. Additionally, General Landreneau instructed Louisiana National Guard officials at the Superdome to cease planning for the evacuation as Honoré would be "taking charge" of the evacuation project. The evacuees were then transported to the Astrodome in Houston, Texas. The only route out of the city was west on the Crescent City Connection as the I-10 (twin span) bridge traveling east towards Slidell, Louisiana had collapsed. The Lake Pontchartrain Causeway was also carrying emergency traffic only.

St. Tammany Parish

[edit]

Hurricane Katrina made its final landfall in eastern St. Tammany Parish. The western eye wall passed directly over St. Tammany Parish, Louisiana as a Category 3 hurricane at about 9:45 AM CST, August 29, 2005.[68] The communities of Slidell, Avery Estates, Lakeshore Estates, Oak Harbor, Eden Isles and North Shore Beach were inundated by the storm surge that extended over six miles inland. The storm surge impacted all 57 miles of St. Tammany Parish's coastline, including Lacombe, Mandeville and Madisonville.[69] The storm surge in the area of the Rigolets Pass is estimated 16 feet, not including wave action declining to 7 feet at Madisonville. The surge had a second peak in eastern St. Tammany as the westerly winds from the southern eye wall pushed the surge to the east, backing up at the bottleneck of the Rigolets Pass. The Twin Spans of I-10 between Slidell and New Orleans East were virtually destroyed, and much of I-10 in New Orleans East was under water. The Lake Pontchartrain Causeway and the Highway 11 bridge, connecting the north and south shores of Lake Pontchartrain, were open only to emergency traffic.

Initial search and rescue operations were conducted south of Highway 190 from Lacombe east to the state line.[70] Fire District No. 1 and the St. Tammany Parish Sheriff's office evacuated over 3,000 people from flooded homes and rescued about 300 people in imminent danger.[71] Radio communications among first responders functioned throughout the rescue period but the 9-1-1 system was not operational for ten days.[72] Utility services were not available anywhere in the parish. Generator power was available for hospitals and a special needs shelter. Hospitals were running at capacity on generator power.

The hurricane-force winds toppled trees and telephone poles parish-wide, blocking all transportation routes. Land debris cleanup continued into 2007 with over 6.6 million cubic yards collected.[73] Debris cleaning in waterways continued at least through 2009. Hurricane Katrina damaged 48,792 housing units in St. Tammany Parish from flood waters, high winds, or both.[74]

Jefferson Parish

[edit]

The breach on the east side of the 17th Street Canal levee did not cause severe flooding within Jefferson Parish, but some lower-lying areas did receive significant water damage, especially on the East Bank.

The Sheriff of Jefferson Parish reported that he expected his district to remain uninhabitable for at least one week and that residents should not return to the area. Incidents of looting were reported throughout affected areas of Louisiana, most notably in New Orleans. Louisiana governor Kathleen Blanco ordered all roadways into the state closed.

By one week after the storm, residents were allowed to return to their homes to retrieve essentials, provided that they could present identification proving that they lived in the parish. They were only allowed in to retrieve essential items, and were then required to leave the parish for another month.

Terrebonne Parish

[edit]

In Terrebonne Parish, signs, trees, roofs and utility poles suffered the brunt of Hurricane Katrina's fury when the storm roared across Terrebonne and Lafourche. Most of Terrebonne Parish and Lafourche Parish were covered with water during the storm surge, yet Houma was spared to the extent that the Coast Guard used their airport for the initial rescue launch site. ""[64]

Plaquemines Parish

[edit]
Flooding in Venice, Louisiana.

Hurricane Katrina made a direct landfall in the "lower" (southern/down river) portion of Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana, the eye passed directly over the town of Empire, Louisiana. There was extensive flooding the majority of the Parish, and the southern part was temporarily "reclaimed" by the Mississippi River. All of the East Bank of the Parish was flooded, as was the downriver portion of the West Bank. Belle Chase mostly escaped with only moderate wind damage. The Belle Chasse Tunnel was flooded as well.

On August 29, the President of Plaquemines Parish, Benny Rousselle, issued a statement to all residents not to return to the parish until further notice. There were no public services available and all roads were closed and impassable. He requested that only employees in Drainage, Heavy Equipment, Public Right-of-Way Maintenance and Solid Waste departments return to the parish if possible.

St. Bernard Parish

[edit]

St. Bernard Parish, Louisiana, which lies to the East of New Orleans and thus was closer to the path of the storm and the more exposed to the storm surge from the Gulf of Mexico, was completely flooded via water surging into Lake Borgne. A large portion of the flooding was apparently the result of levee failures along the Mississippi River – Gulf Outlet Canal, a 76 miles (122 km) canal. The levees were sized to hold back up to 17.5 feet (5.3 m), of water; they held back the initial surge, but then they were breached in several areas by the 22 feet (6.7 m), surge.

The Parish's two shelters at Chalmette High School and St. Bernard High School suffered considerable damage with flooding. Chalmette High lost much of its roof, and St. Bernard High had many broken windows. There were estimates of 300-plus evacuees at both sites.

By August 29, about 150 people were sighted on rooftops in areas that were under approximately 8–10 feet or more of water. Among those on the roofs were WDSU reporter Heath Allen and a St. Bernard resident on a government complex rooftop. Residents reported that even oil platform service boats were utilized to rescue survivors.

Several tragic deaths were reported at St. Rita's Nursing Home in the parish, as 35 people died due to drowning. The owners of the nursing home were arrested and charged with negligent homicide for not having evacuated in advance of the storm. However, the owners were subsequently found not guilty.[75]

Washington Parish

[edit]

Washington Parish, Louisiana is located north of New Orleans. The parish received significant damage due to wind damage and local flooding. The Parish is home to many pine forests in which many of the pine trees snapped or were completely uprooted. The eye of Katrina could be seen from the eastern part of the parish, in Bogalusa as Bogalusa was only fifteen miles away from the center of the eye. Much of Bogalusa was without power for weeks. Many major roads were covered by trees and were not cleared for many days. Schools did not reopen until October. As gasoline was in short supply even for emergency workers, the parish banned gas sales to the public for several days, arousing the ire of many locals.

Other states

[edit]

Aftermath

[edit]
Disaster areas map: dark orange indicates full Individual and Public Assistance, orange for Individual and Public Assistance (Categories A and B), yellow for full Public Assistance, and green for Public Assistance (Category B).

On August 28, or about three days after Katrina struck Florida, President George W. Bush declared a disaster area for Miami-Dade and Broward counties, which allocated federal funding for debris removal and other emergency services.[76] Three days later, Monroe County was also declared a disaster area, and on the same day the three counties were designated to receive funding for public assistance; this included aid to repair roads and bridges, water control facilities, public buildings, and recreation areas. The declaration was determined after the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) sent 20 State Emergency Response Teams to determine the extent of damage.[77] After Hurricane Katrina struck the Gulf Coast, President Bush declared a disaster area for seven counties along the Florida panhandle on September 6; the counties were Bay, Escambia, Franklin, Gulf, Okaloosa, Santa Rosa, and Walton. In addition, Collier County in southwestern Florida was added to the list of disaster areas.[78]

In the two months after Katrina struck south Florida, Hurricane Rita brushed the region in late September with tropical storm-force winds and flooding rains.[79] In late October, Hurricane Wilma struck southwestern Florida as a major hurricane, affecting the Miami area with hurricane-force winds that left 98% of south Florida without power.[80] Including Hurricane Dennis in July, FEMA provided $1 billion in public assistance to Florida residents in association with the four hurricanes in 2005.[81]

As a result of the flooding in Mobile, Alabama, a curfew from dusk to dawn was implemented.[34] Around a week after Katrina hit Alabama, FEMA approved $5.2 million into disaster aid to over 3,000 households in Alabama. Almost 550 truckloads with of supplies also arrived in Alabama from logistical centers across the southeast.[82]

The names of the 49 counties in Mississippi, declared disaster areas for full Federal assistance, are:[6][83] Adams, Amite, Attala, Claiborne, Choctaw, Clarke, Copiah, Covington, Franklin, Forrest, George, Greene, Hancock, Harrison, Hinds, Holmes, Humphreys, Jackson, Jasper, Jefferson, Jefferson Davis, Jones, Kemper, Lamar, Lauderdale, Lawrence, Leake, Lincoln, Lowndes, Madison, Marion, Neshoba, Newton, Noxubee, Oktibbeha, Pearl River, Perry, Pike, Rankin, Scott, Simpson, Smith, Stone, Walthall, Warren, Wayne, Wilkinson, Winston and Yazoo.[83] Taxpayers were eligible for automatic relief in the 49 Mississippi counties designated for individual assistance.[83]

Rebuilding of towns took years, and some areas were not restored. The bay bridges were rebuilt taller and stronger, as had been done around Pensacola in the years following Hurricane Ivan (2004). Because all 3 Emergency Command Centers in the Mississippi coastal counties had been flooded over 30 feet (9.1 m) above sea level,[3] the rules for command-center elevation were changed to relocate to even higher ground. The casino-gambling regulations were changed to allow casinos to be built on land in taller buildings, no longer forcing the use of massive floating casino barges near a city, which could again become battering rams along 2nd and 3rd-story levels of nearby hotels.[citation needed] Many local Gulf Coast water systems were destroyed in the storm. The state government opted to have them reconstructed as a handful of regional water systems and one large regional sewage system.[84]

Celebrities who had previously visited New Orleans came to understand the massive devastation that occurred along the Gulf Coast cities. The US Army Corps of Engineers developed plans to rebuild the protective barrier islands that had been washed out to sea along the coastal areas. Detailed reports were written describing how people had survived by swimming to taller buildings or trees, and noting that those too old or unable to swim did not survive. Many residents moved away and never returned. Medical studies attempted to estimate the indirect deaths caused by people losing their homes or local medical support.

Both the Mississippi residents who survived the hurricanes as well as the disaster relief workers who supported them are at high risk of developing Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, or PTSD, a mental health disorder that can develop after exposure to an extreme situation such as warfare, a natural disaster or abuse.[85]

References

[edit]
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  60. ^ Note: see Beau Rivage about 3rd-floor damage to high-rise buildings.
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