Jump to content

Mahar

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Mahar (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Mahar (tribe) or Mahar (Uttarakhand).

Mahar
"A Mahar woman", a watercolour by M. V. Dhurandhar, 1928
Total population
10 million[citation needed]
Regions with significant populations
Maharashtra8,006,060
Madhyapradesh819,416
Chhattisgarh245,220
Karnataka66,068
West Bengal34,793 [note 1]
Gujarat28,417
Odisha21,304
Andhrapradesh (including Telangana)12,872
Goa8,536
Rajasthan1,980
Assam1,822
Dadra and Nagar Haveli224
Daman and Diu110
Languages
Marathi, Konkani, Varhadi dialect, Ahirani, Hindi, Chhattisgarhi, English
Religion
Majority:
Buddhism
Minority:
Hinduism & Christianity

Mahar is an Indian caste found largely in the state of Maharashtra and neighbouring areas.[11][12] Most of the Mahar community followed B. R. Ambedkar in converting to Buddhism in the middle of the 20th century.[13][14] As of 2017 the Mahar caste was designated as a Scheduled Caste in 16 Indian states.

Majority of Mahars converted to Buddhism in response of injustice of the caste practices within Brahmanism. It is said that, their stratum lowered during the Peshwa Rule, due to their habit of meat eating. Thus, the practice of untouchability began and continued for generations. It was the primary reason for most of the Mahar community to follow Dr. B. R. Ambedkar in embracing Buddhism and re establishing it in the middle of the 20th century.[15][14]

History

[edit]

The Mahars are considered original inhabitants of Maharashtra.The community is also known as "Kathiwale" (Men with sticks), Bumiputera (Sons of the Soil), and Mirasi (Landlords).[16] From the time of early Islamic rule, villages in Maharashtra were part of the Baluta system. In that system, different castes were assigned different roles, each with its own tasks and rights. The duties assigned to the Mahar in the Baluta system included being village watchmen, trackers of thieves, messengers, wall menders, adjudicators of boundary disputes, and suppliers of coarse cloth to the village. In return for these services, the village granted them a watan, or rights to small piece of land to do their own cultivation. The watan also included a share of village produce.[17] They also worked at times as agricultural labourers.[18][19] However, the Mahar were socio-economically above most other untouchable groups because their traditional role had been important in the village administrative system. This had necessitated that they had at least a rudimentary education, and frequently brought them into contact with upper-caste Hindus.[20]In the Baluta system, apart from many traditional duties mentioned above, the Mahar were assigned work of removing dead cattle from the village, they also started eating the meat from the cattle that had died naturally.[21] This formed the basis for the caste being treated as untouchables.[22] The Mahar community defends consumption of beef by saying the famines were the reason they started eating the beef.[23]

Islamic Era

[edit]

Under Islamic rule, Mahar served as soldiers in various armies of the Deccan Sultanates, Bahmani Sultanate, and the Mughals.[18] In 14th century, Mahar Bhakti saint Chokhamela, and many of his family members such as Karmamela, Banka, Nirmala, and Soyarabai became popular for their religious poetry called abhang.[24][25][26][27]

Maratha era

[edit]

Mahar served in various armies over several centuries. The Maratha king Shivaji Maharaj recruited a number of them into his army in the 17th century due to their loyalty and bravery.[28] They served as guards in hill forts and as soldiers.[29] The Mahar along with the Koli and Marathas defended the fort of Purandar from Dilerkhan's Mughal army in 1665.[30]

British India

[edit]
A Mahar Man winding thread from The Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India (1916)

Under British rule, the Mahars became aware of the scope for social and political advancement. Their traditional role had been low-status but important in the village system.[20]


Military role under the British

[edit]
Bhima Koregaon Victory Pillar

During the colonial period, large numbers of Mahars and dhors were recruited for military duties by the East India Company and the British Raj. The Battle of Koregaon (1 January 1818) is commemorated by an obelisk known as the Koregaon pillar—which was erected at the site of the battle—and by a medal issued in 1851. The pillar featured on the Mahar Regiment crest until the Independence of India; it is inscribed with the names of 22 Mahars killed at the battle. The victory pillar serves as focal point of Mahar heroism.[31]

The Mahar began their service to the East India company around 1750. 20-25% of the British Bombay Army was Mahar. Their conduct as soldiers was praised by many British officers. Mahars were a vital component of the British Marine Battalion. In the East India Company Army they participated in various wars including Second Anglo-Maratha War, Third Anglo-Maratha War, Second Anglo-Sikh War and Second Afghan War.[28]

After the 1857 mutiny, the British decided to change their military recruitment policy One report "emphasized that we cannot practically ignore it (the caste system), so long as the natives socially maintain it". This led to the discrimination against the Mahars, other low-caste and some unreliable Brahmin castes.[28]

Mahar recruitment reached its nadir in the early 1890s (sources differ as to exact year) when British in favour of "martial races," specially north-western communities halted recruitment of Mahars.[14][32] The Mahar community attempted to confront this block with a petition circulated among the Mahar, Chamar, and Mang former soldiers—all Marathi-speaking lower castes—but the movement was unable to organise and submit their petition.[14] The attempt at a challenge had been spearheaded by Gopal Baba Walangkar, himself a Mahar, dhor and former soldier, but he found that Mahar military pensioners were unwilling to sign because they feared that they might lose their pensions. Thus, by the beginning of World War I, there were few Mahars left in the Army.[33]

A Mahar regiment was created during World War I but only for a few years and because of British desperation for additional troops. In 1941, the Mahar Regiment proper was created.[34][35]

Jyotirao Phule

[edit]

In 1873, Jyotirao Phule, the founder of Satyashodhak Samaj—which aimed to abolish religious slavery—organised Mahars.[citation needed] At that time, Mahars were not allowed to enter Hindu temples and were considered unclean. Even their entry into the shrines of Hindu gods was restricted.[36] Their first conference was held in Mumbai in 1903.[37][38]

Shahu of Kolhapur

[edit]

Shahu, the ruler of the princely state of Kolhapur, abolished Mahar watan in 1918 and freed the Mahars in his territory from the slavery imposed by the society of the day. He also gave them all the human rights and equality that others enjoy.[39][40]

B. R. Ambedkar

[edit]

In the 20th century, top leader Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar organized the Mahars and created radical political awakening among them and inspired them to pay attention towards education. Before his death in 1956, Ambedkar, along with millions of his Mahar followers, converted to Buddhism as a protest against the caste discrimination of Hindus.[41]

Demographics

[edit]

In 1969, the Mahars constituted about 70% of the total Scheduled Caste population and also represented about 9% of population of the state of Maharashtra.[42] Mahar is numerically the largest Scheduled Caste in Maharashtra, according to the 2001 Census of India.[43] As of 2017, the Mahar community was designated as a Scheduled Caste (SC) in 16 Indian states, being: Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh Assam, Chhattisgarh, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu, Goa, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Telangana, West Bengal and Haryana.[11]

According to the 2011 census, the Mahar population in Maharashtra is 80,06,060, which is 60.31% among Scheduled Castes, and 7.12% in the state.[44]

Culture and Social stratification

[edit]

Historically Mahar had "12 and half" endogamous subcastes, major subcastes include Ladvanshi (derived from "Lata Pradesh" current Gujarat), Somvanshi, Andhavanshi, Tilvanshi, Bawane (Bhavani Mahar),Gondvanshi, Kadvanshi and Kosare etc. These subcaste names are not totemistic. Some of the subcaste names represent the territory they controlled or occupied and other subcaste names represent the acts their founders did. The Somavanshi Mahar trace their descent (bloodline) from Mahabharata's Pandava. The Somavanshi Mahar claim to have taken part in Mahabharata war and subsequently settled in Maharashtra .Before converting to Buddhism these subcastes would not marry and eat with one another.[45]

The Mahars of the Deccan speak a non-standard version of Marathi. When a Mahar meets a man of his own caste a he says Namastu, and when he meets anyone other than a Mahar he says Johar, said to be from the Sanskrit Yoddhar (Warrior). The Mahars belonging to different regions can't intermarry unless there is some family connection can be traced between them. The Mahars are divided into number of exogamous groups or clans or kuls. There are enough evidences found to conclude that each of the exogamous group historically owned and worshipped Devak or Totem and it is brought into prominence at the time of marriage ceremony. Members of families with a common Devak cannot intermarry.

Clan System of Mahar
Clan Totem
Bagad Umbar (Ficus glomerata)
Bhagat Cobra
Gaekwad Crab, sunflower, Kohala (Cucurbita Pivi)
Jadhav Palm (Borassus Flabellzjerz, Pankanis (Typha Angustata), Tortoise(Kasav)
Kadam Kadamba (Anthocephalus Cadumba).
Mohite Umbar (Ficus Glomerata)
More Peacock
Satpal Cobra
Shevale Nagvel (Pieper Betle)
Sonkamble Champa (Mesua Ferrea).
Suryavanshi Sunflower
Talvatke Copper
Tambe Umbar (Ficus Glomerata).
Zankare Mango, Umbar, Zambul.

In most of the cases Devak became obsolete and it is replaced with composite Devak called Panchpalvi composed of the leaves, of five trees.[46]
Few examples of Panchpalvi are,

  • Khandesh
    • Arkathi
    • Borkathi
    • Jambul
    • Mango
    • Ruchkin
  • Poona
    • Mango
    • Pipal
    • Rui
    • Shami
    • Umbar

After Independence Era

[edit]

Today mahar community has little to no political representation in the top brass due to low population.[citation needed] Even Dr. B.r. Ambedkar lost 2 elections fought by him on his party ticket on the loksabha.[citation needed] Finally he had to go Rajya Sabha with the help of some political parties at the time.[citation needed]

Dalit literature

[edit]

According to Eleanor Zelliot, Dalit literature originated in Marathi-speaking areas of Maharashtra. She credits Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar, a Mahar himself, for inspiring many Dalit writers. Baburao Bagul (1930–2008), Shankarrao Kharat, and Bandhu Madhav were early Marathi writers from the Mahar community.[47] The Mahar writer Namdeo Dhasal (who founded Dalit Panther) was significant in the Dalit movement.[48] Other notable Mahar authors writing in Marathi include Shantabai Kamble, Urmila Pawar, Raja Dhale, Daya Pawar, and Narendra Jadhav.[49]

Religion

[edit]
The Dalit Buddhist Movement was begun by B. R. Ambedkar when he converted with his followers in 1956 in Deekshabhoomi, Nagpur.

Religion-wise population of the Mahars, as per 2011 census.[44][50]

  • Buddhist Mahars – 49,43,821 (61.75%)
  • Hindu Mahars – 30,54,158 (38.15%)
  • Sikh Mahars – 8,081 (0.10%)
  • Total Mahars – 80,06,060 (100%)

In the 2011 census, the majority of Mahars (62%) stated Buddhism as their religion.[44] Among the Scheduled Caste Hindus (Dalit Hindus) in Maharashtra, the proportion of Mahars is the highest at 38%. And 95% of Scheduled Caste Buddhists (Neo-Buddhists) and 70% of Scheduled Caste Sikhs (Dalit Sikhs) belong to the Mahar caste.[44][50]

Buddhism

[edit]
Main article: Marathi Buddhists

Buddhism amongst the mahar coomunity started to take roots due to B. R. Ambedkar.[51] When he converted to Buddhism at Nagpur in 1956, many Mahars were among those of his followers who chose to do the same.[52] As Buddhists, they gave up their traditional Hindu occupations and sought to redefine their social status.[citation needed] Ambedkar died about two months after this mass conversion.[53] At the same spot, after his cremation, more Mahars were converted to Buddhism.[54] Now, this community is the third most populous in Mumbai.[12]

Some Buddhist leaders among the population prefer that the term Mahar no longer be applied to these converts.[55] Buddhism appealed to the sense of equality for the Mahars;[56] an intellectual of Mahar origin said, "I have accepted Buddhist doctrine. I am Buddhist now. I am not Mahar now, not untouchable nor even Hindu. I have become a human being".[57]

In a 1996 book, authors De and Shastree claimed that it has been difficult for the Neo-buddhists to totally abandon the rituals, practices, and festivals of their old Hindu religion. Although one of the early buddhist convert, V R Ranpise had written a book in Marathi called Boudha Samskar Path in 1962 as a guide to his fellow converts, very few had read the book.[58]

Hinduism

[edit]

Before their conversion to Buddhism, the important deities of Mahar were Shiva, Khandoba, Vithoba and the varkari saints, Chokhamela, and Dnyaneshwar. Family deities of Mahars are typically Shiva, Maridevi, Bhumidevi, Navanathas and Bhavani. The Nag or king cobra was particularly revered by the community.[59]

Sikhism

[edit]

Some Mahars in Maharashtra practice Sikhism. According to the 2011 census, there were 11,485 Scheduled Caste (SC) Sikhs in Maharashtra, of which 8,081 were Mahars.[44][50]

Christianity

[edit]
Main article: Christianity in Maharashtra

In the late 19th century, Otto Weishaupt's attempts to evangelise in the Sangamner area of Ahmadnagar district met with resistance, but his efforts to promote Christianity did appeal to few Mahars.[60][61] Legally, Christian Mahars are not considered as Scheduled Castes (SCs).[44]

Footnotes

[edit]
  1. ^ The Mahar population in West Bengal, specifically in Jhargram, West Medinipur and Bankura district might be erroneous entry in 2011 and its four previous decadal census by a section of Pastoral society, As their Historical population was 573, 590, N/A, 1666, 6017, 4206, 6760, 12221, 17706, 23630, 28419 and 34,793 in 1901,[1] 1911,[2] 1921, 1931,[2] 1941,[3] 1951,[2][4] 1961,[4] 1971,[5] 1981,[6] 1991,[7] 2001[8] and in 2011,[9] subsequently. The district-wise distribution of the Mahar community as of the 1951 census was Midnapur (1,487), Birbhum (840), Burdwan (487), Malda (302), West Dinajpur (243), Jalpaiguri (221), Calcutta (177), Bankura (141), 24 Parganas (108), Murshidabad (81), Hooghly (61), Cooch Behar (33), Howrah (19), Darjeeling (3), and Nadia (1).[10] However the actual Mahar population were came to West Bengal from various part of Maharashtra during early 20th century to work in railway workshop and colonies. Nowadays their population thinly scattered all over the state, but mostly in municipal areas. They possess Buddhism except a section of Mahar in Malda district, who are Hindu by religion. By social structure they are divided into exogamous division by their surname, such as Hogragorhe, Meshram, Madaom and Shendey. The marriage rituals are performed with the help of Buddhist priest (vikkhuk), the birth pollution is observed till six days but don't conduct naming ceremony and ten day mourning are observed after cremation.[6]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Gait, E. A (1902). Census Of India 1901. Vol. V. A (lower Probinces Of Bengal And Their Leudatoties). Part. 2 (Imperial Tables). Bengal Secretariat Press.
  2. ^ a b c "4. West Bengal". ESTIMATED POPULATION BY CASTES, 1951 (PDF). Ministry of Home Affairs, GoI. 1954. p. 4. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 April 2023.
  3. ^ Dutch, R. A. (1942). CENSUS OF INDIA, 1941 (Bengal) (PDF). Vol. IV. Caste tables - Appendix. p. 5.
  4. ^ a b Gupta, J. Datta (1953). CENSUS OF INDIA 1961 (West Bengal & Sikkim) (PDF). Vol. XVI. Tables on Scheduled Castes. p. 54.
  5. ^ Ghosh, Bhaskar. CENSUS OF INDIA –1971, SERIES-22 (WEST BENGAL) (PDF). PART II-C (i) SOCIAL AND CULTURAL TABLES (Tables C-VII and C-VIII). Director of census operation, West Bengal. p. 147.
  6. ^ a b Singh, K. S. (1993). The Scheduled Castes. Anthropological Survey of India. pp. 839–841. ISBN 978-0-19-563254-5.
  7. ^ Banthia, R. K. (2000). CENSUS' OF INDIA 1991, SERIES-26, WEST BENGAL PART-VIII(I) (PDF). Vol. 1. SPECIAL TABLES ON SCHEDULED CASTES. Director of Census Operations, West Bengal. p. 12.
  8. ^ "SC-14: Scheduled caste population by religious community, West Bengal - 2001". censusindia.gov.in (xls). Retrieved 9 April 2023.
  9. ^ "A-10: Individual scheduled caste primary census abstract (PCA) data – West Bengal". censusindia.gov.in. Retrieved 17 February 2023.
  10. ^ Mitra, A. (1953). The Tribes and Castes of West Bengal, Land and Land Revenue Department - Census 1951 (PDF). p. 107.
  11. ^ a b "State wise list of Scheduled Castes updated up to 26-10-2017". MSJE, Government of India. 26 October 2017. Archived from the original on 13 March 2022. Retrieved 1 February 2018.
  12. ^ a b Fred Clothey (2007). Religion in India: A Historical Introduction. Psychology Press. p. 213. ISBN 978-0-415-94023-8.
  13. ^ Jaffrelot, Christophe (2005). "The 'Solution' of Conversion". Dr Ambedkar and Untouchability: Analysing and Fighting Caste. Orient Blackswan Publisher. pp. 119–131. ISBN 8178241560.
  14. ^ a b c d Zelliot, Eleanor (1978). "Religion and Legitimation in the Mahar Movement". In Smith, Bardwell L. (ed.). Religion and the Legitimation of Power in South Asia. Leiden: Brill. pp. 88–90. ISBN 9004056742.
  15. ^ Jaffrelot, Christophe (2005). "The 'Solution' of Conversion". Dr Ambedkar and Untouchability: Analysing and Fighting Caste. Orient Blackswan Publisher. pp. 119–131. ISBN 8178241560.
  16. ^ THE RELIGIOUS LIFE OF INDIA. 3 December 2023.
  17. ^ Kulkarni, A. R. (2000). "The Mahar Watan: A Historical Perspective". In Kosambi, Meera (ed.). Intersections: Socio-Cultural Trends in Maharashtra. London: Sangam. pp. 121–140. ISBN 978-0863118241. Retrieved 13 December 2016.
  18. ^ a b Mendelsohn, Oliver; Vicziany, Marika (1998). The untouchables : subordination, poverty and the state in modern India. Cambridge [u.a.]: Cambridge University Press. p. 91. ISBN 0521553628.
  19. ^ Zelliott, Eleanor (2015). "Ambedkar's Life and his Navayana Buddhism". In Jacobsen, Knut A. (ed.). Routledge Handbook of Contemporary India. Routledge. pp. 362–363. ISBN 978-0415738651. Retrieved 25 October 2016.
  20. ^ a b Gupta, Dipankar (May 1979). "Understanding the Marathwada Riots: A Repudiation of Eclectic Marxism". Social Scientist. 7 (10): 3–22. doi:10.2307/3516774. JSTOR 3516774.
  21. ^ Valunjkar, T. N. (1998). "Dalit Social Consciousness in Western Maharashtra in Colonial Period 1880-1910". In Pathak, Bindeshwar (ed.). Continuity and Change in Indian Society: Essays in Memory of Late Prof. Narmadeshwar Prasad. Concept Publishing Company. pp. 207–208. ISBN 978-8-17022-726-7.
  22. ^ Rāmacandra Kshīrasāgara (1994). Dalit Movement in India and Its Leaders, 1857-1956. M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. p. 33,169. ISBN 978-81-85880-43-3.
  23. ^ Ardythe Basham (2008). Untouchable Soldiers: The Maharas and the Mazhbis. Gautam Book Center. p. 12. ISBN 978-81-87733-43-0.
  24. ^ King, Anna S.; Brockington, J. L. (2005). The Intimate Other: Love Divine in Indic Religions. Orient Blackswan. pp. 5–. ISBN 978-81-250-2801-7.
  25. ^ Swami Ghananda; Sir John Stewart-Wallace, eds. (1979). Women saints, east & west. Hollywood, Calif.: Vedanta. p. 61. ISBN 0874810361.
  26. ^ Aktor, Mikael; Deliège, Robert, eds. (2008). From Stigma to Assertion : Untouchability, Identity & Politics in Early & Modern India. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 86. ISBN 978-8763507752.
  27. ^ Eleanor Zelliot (2000). Meera Kosambi (ed.). Intersections: Socio-cultural Trends in Maharashtra. Orient Blackswan. pp. 187–188. ISBN 978-81-250-1878-0.
  28. ^ a b c White, Richard B. (1994). "The Mahar Movement's Military Component" (PDF). SAGAR: South Asia Graduate Research Journal. 1 (1): 39–60.
  29. ^ Shinoda, Takashi, ed. (2002). The other Gujarat. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. p. 4. ISBN 8171548741.
  30. ^ Kantak, M. R. (1978). "The Political Role of Different Hindu Castes and Communities in Maharashtra in the Foundation of Shivaji's Swarajya". Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute. 38 (1/4): 40–56. JSTOR 42931051.
  31. ^ Kumbhojkar, Shraddha (2012). "Contesting Power, Contesting Memories - The History of the Koregaon Memorial". The Economic and Political Weekly. EPW. Retrieved 11 June 2013.
  32. ^ Kamble, N. D. (1983). Deprived castes and their struggle for equality. Ashish Publisher House. pp. 129–132.
  33. ^ Teltumbde, Anand (2016). Dalits: Past, present and future. Routledge. p. 53. ISBN 978-1-31552-643-0.
  34. ^ Mahars Turn Sixty. Mod.nic.in (1 October 1941). Retrieved on 2012-03-28.
  35. ^ Basham, Ardythe (2008). Untouchable Soldiers: The Maharas and the Mazhbis. Gautam Book Center. p. 12. ISBN 978-81-87733-43-0.
  36. ^ Galanter, Marc (1966). Smith, D. E. (ed.). South Asian politics and religion (PDF). Princeton University Press. p. 283. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 April 2015.
  37. ^ Aktor, Mikael; Deliège, Robert (2008). From Stigma to Assertion : Untouchability, Identity & Politics in Early & Modern India. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 103. ISBN 978-8763507752.
  38. ^ Keer, Dhananjay (1997). Mahatma Jotirao Phooley : father of the Indian social revolution (New ed.). Bombay: Popular Prakashan. pp. 126–127. ISBN 817154066X.
  39. ^ Kosambi, Meera (2000). Intersections: Socio-cultural Trends in Maharashtra. Orient Blackswan. ISBN 9788125018780.
  40. ^ Kulkarni, A. R. (2000). "The Mahar Watan: A Historical Perspective". In Kosambi, Meera (ed.). Intersections: Socio-Cultural Trends in Maharashtra. London: Sangam. pp. 121–140. ISBN 978-0863118241. Retrieved 13 December 2016.
  41. ^ Zelliot, Eleanor Mae (1969). Dr. Ambedkar and the Mahar movement (Thesis). ProQuest 302466553.[page needed]
  42. ^ Junghare, Indira Y. (1988). "Dr. Ambedkar: The Hero of the Mahars, Ex-Untouchables of India". Asian Folklore Studies. 47 (1): 93–121. doi:10.2307/1178254. JSTOR 178254.
  43. ^ "Maharashtra: Data Highlights: The Scheduled Castes" (PDF). 14 November 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 November 2012.
  44. ^ a b c d e f Hiwale, Sandesh (28 April 2024). "What is the Mahar population in Maharashtra?". Dhamma Bharat. Retrieved 22 May 2024.
  45. ^ "Major castes and tribes" (PDF). Maharashtra: Land and its people. Maharashtra State Gazetteer. Government of Maharashtra.
  46. ^ Ethnographic Notes – Andhra Pradesh (PDF). Census of India. Vol. II, part V–B, (11). Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad: Office of the Director of Census Operations. 1961. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 January 2022.
  47. ^ Zelliot, Eleanor (2007). "Dalit Literature, Language and Identity". In Kachru, Braj B.; Kachru, Yamuna; Sridhar, S. N. (eds.). Language in South Asia, Part 9. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 450–454. ISBN 978-0-52178-141-1.
  48. ^ "Of art, identity, and politics". The Hindu. 23 January 2003. Archived from the original on 2 July 2003.
  49. ^ Jadhav, Narendra (2005). Untouchables : my family's triumphant escape from India's caste system. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press. pp. 53–54. ISBN 978-0520252639. Retrieved 4 January 2017.
  50. ^ a b c Hiwale, Sandesh (23 February 2024). "महाराष्ट्रातील अनुसूचित जातींची धर्मनिहाय लोकसंख्या". Dhamma Bharat. Retrieved 22 May 2024.
  51. ^ Stackhouse, Max L.; Pachuau, Lalsangkima, eds. (2007). News of boundless riches : interrogating, comparing, and reconstructing mission in a global era. Delhi: ISPCK. pp. 230–232. ISBN 978-8184580136.
  52. ^ Pritchett, Frances. "In the 1950s" (PHP). Retrieved 2 August 2006.
  53. ^ Gautam, C. "Life of Babasaheb Ambedkar". Ambedkar Memorial Trust, London. Retrieved 14 June 2013.
  54. ^ Kantowsky, Detlef (2003). Buddhists in India today:descriptions, pictures, and documents. Manohar Publishers & Distributors.
  55. ^ "Maya under fire from Dalit leaders in Maharashtra". Indian Express. 1 December 2007. Archived from the original on 3 January 2008. Retrieved 28 March 2012.
  56. ^ Pandey, Gyanendra (6–12 May 2006). "The Time of the Dalit Conversion". Economic and Political Weekly. 41 (18): 1779+1781–1788. JSTOR 4418177.
  57. ^ Jaffrelot, Christophe (2005). The 'solution' of conversion': Dr Ambedkar and Untouchability: Analysing and Fighting Caste. Orient Blackswan. p. 138. ISBN 978-8-17824-156-2.
  58. ^ Ranjit Kumar De; Uttara Shastree (1996). Religious Converts in India: Socio-political Study of Neo-Buddhists. Mittal Publications. pp. 65–86. ISBN 978-81-7099-629-3.
  59. ^ Ranjit Kumar De & Uttara Shastree 1996, p. 73.
  60. ^ Shelke, Christopher (2008). God the Creator : universality of inculturality. Roma: Pontificia università gregoriana. pp. 166–167. ISBN 978-8878391284.
  61. ^ Rege, Sharmila (2006). Writing caste, writing gender: reading Dalit women's testimonios. New Delhi: Zubaan. p. 139. ISBN 8189013017.

Further reading

[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mahar&oldid=1255134839"