Slovincian grammar

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The grammar of the Slovincian language is characterized by a high degree of inflection, a lack of articles, and vowel, consonant, and stress alternations.[1][2][3]

Slovincian has an inflectional system mostly inherited from Proto-Slavic, with many innovationss.

Nouns[edit]

Slovincian has three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter; three numbers: singular, dual, and plural; and seven cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, locative, and vocative.[4][5]

The vocative is largely replaced by the nominative, but masculine animate singular and a few feminine singular nouns retain it.[4][6][5]

The genitive-locative dual has been almost entirely replaced by the plural equivalents, and only few words kept their original forms, e.g.:[7][5]

  • rãˈkʉ ("hand, arm")
  • nôˈgʉ ("foot, leg")
  • wôˈczʉ ("eye")
  • wùˈszʉ ("ear")

The nominative-accusative-vocative dual is found with masculine and feminine nouns and also with monosyllabic neuter stems in stems with non-alternating final consonants ending with ⟨-ô⟩ and in the word ˈjajê ("egg").[7][5] The dative-instrumental dual only occurs with monosyllabic stems.[5]

Nouns can either have non-alternating final stem consonants or alternating final stem consonants. The non-alternating consonants are ⟨s, z, sz, cz, ż, dż, rz, l, j⟩, and the alternating consonants are ⟨p, b, f, v, t, d, k, g, ch, gh, m, n, r⟩.[8]

Masculine nouns[edit]

Masculine nouns can end in alternating (⟨p, b, f, v, t, d, k, g, ch, gh, m, n, r⟩) and non-alternating (⟨s, z, sz, ż, rz, l, j⟩) consonants, a consonant ending with ⟨-a⟩ (opa), and alternating consonants ending with ⟨-ë⟩ (kamë).[9] The last group is small and shows an irregular alternation in the non-nominative cases in the singular and all cases in the plural:[10]

  • ˈkamë, ˈkamjen ("stone") > ˈkamjenja (GEN SG). Compare Kashubian: kam, kamiéń, kamiń.
  • ˈplômë, ˈplômjen ("flame"). Compare Kashubian: płom, płomiéń

A few masculine nouns ending in alternating consonants add ⟨j⟩ to the stem when declined. Some nouns with ⟨ej⟩ will add ⟨j⟩, others will not.[9]

  • ˈkóń ("horse") > ˈkônja (GEN SG)
  • ˈmej ("May") > ˈmejjú (GEN SG)
  • ˈroj ("swarm of bees") > ˈrôjú (GEN SG)

Many masculine nouns whose stem ends in ⟨c⟩ and ⟨z⟩ alternate with ⟨cz⟩ and ⟨ż⟩ in the vocative singular.[10]

Ending in a consonant[edit]

Masculine nouns ending in a consonant[11]
Stressed Non-stressed
Singular Plural Dual Singular Plural Dual
animate inanimate virile nonvirile animate inanimate virile nonvirile
Nominative -∅ -ˈë, -ˈê[a] -ˈa -∅ -ë, -i, -ôwje[b] -a
Genitive -ˈa, -ˈú[c] -ˈó, -ˈy[d] = PL -a, -ú[c] -ó, -∅, -i[d] = PL
Dative -ˈú -ˈóm[e] -ˈôma[f] -ú, -ôjú, -ejú[g] -óm (-im)[e] -ôma
Accusative -ˈa -∅ -ˈó -ˈë -ˈa -a -∅ -ó -ë, -i[b] -a
Instrumental -ˈã -amˈy (-ˈmy, -ˈy)[h] -ˈôma[f] -ã -amy (-my, -i)[h] -ôma[f]
Locative -ˈú, -ˈê[i] -ˈach (-ˈéch)[j] = PL -ú, -ê[k] -ach (-éch, -ich)[j] = PL
Vocative -ˈú[l] -ˈë, -ˈê -ˈa -ú, -ê[m] = NOM -a
  1. ^ There is no regularity to determine the ending.[12][13]
  2. ^ a b Nouns in a velar have ⟨-i⟩ and ⟨-ë⟩ unpredictably, non-velars always have ⟨-ë⟩, except five nouns which admit ⟨-i⟩: ˈchlôp ("man") > ˈchlôpji or ˈchlôpë, ˈkóń ("horse"), ˈknop ("knave"), ˈmaszchôp ("comrade"), ˈkôùp ("swan"). Monosyllabic animate referents often take ⟨-ôwje⟩.[14][13]
  3. ^ a b Animate nouns always get ⟨-a⟩.[15][13] Body parts usually have the ending ⟨-a⟩, coin denominations, trees, and words formed with the suffixes ⟨-ok⟩, ⟨-ëk⟩, ⟨-ik⟩ have ⟨-a⟩. Shrubs, herbs, and substances ⟨-ú⟩.[15]
  4. ^ a b Except five plurale tantum nouns ( ˈlëdzë ("people") > ˈlëdzy (genitive plural), ˈpjõdzë ("money") > ˈpjõdzy (genitive plural), ˈswjõtkji ("Pentecost") > ˈswjõtk (genitive plural), ˈjastrë ("Easter") > ˈjastër (genitive plural), ˈgôdë ("Christmas") > ˈgód (genitive plural), nouns admit ⟨-ó⟩ with frequent use of the alternative endings, but -∅ is rare in Kluki.[16][17] Sometimes ⟨-éj⟩ can be used.[18]
  5. ^ a b There are seven instances of ⟨-ym⟩ and one of ⟨-ˈim⟩, see Lorentz §117,8[16] and §139,5.[19]
  6. ^ a b c The dative/instrumental dual, which only occurs in monosyllabic stems, has the endings ⟨-ôma⟩, ⟨-ema⟩, and ⟨-ma⟩, in one case also ⟨-ëma⟩ (psëma). Of these endings, ⟨-ôma⟩ is widespread throughout the area and is found in both hard and soft stems, ⟨-ema⟩ exists only in Wierzchocino and Stojcino and is restricted to the soft stems; ⟨-ma⟩ occurs in Wierzchocino in a few nouns.[20]
  7. ^ May get ⟨-ôjú⟩ or ⟨-ejú⟩ in the unstressed dative singular with no certain regularity, except that nouns ending in non-alternating final stem consonants only get ⟨-ejú⟩.[13] Also ⟨-ôwú⟩, ⟨-ewú⟩ in West Slovincian, in Witkowo ⟨-ômú⟩, ⟨-emú⟩, which arose through the influence of the pronominal declension. Forms with ⟨-e-⟩ are much more limited than those formed with ⟨-ô-⟩.[21][6]
  8. ^ a b Except for lëdzˈmy and pjˈõdzmy, nouns prefer ⟨-amy⟩. The other endings are rare, but ⟨-my⟩ generally appears in non-alternating final stem consonants and ⟨-y⟩ in alternating final stem consonants, with exceptions.[22][23][19]
  9. ^ ⟨-ˈê⟩ occurs for non-syllabic stems.[24][13]
  10. ^ a b Generally, ⟨-ach⟩ is the most common endings; ⟨-éch⟩ does not appear in feminine nouns ending in a consonant. ⟨-ich⟩ is only found in a few words.[25][23][19]
  11. ^ After labials and ⟨t, d, n, r⟩ mostly ⟨-e⟩ occurs in monosyllabic and polysyllabic stems.[13]
  12. ^ Only the word ˈpjês ("dog") has an attested vocative singular form ˈpsú.[13]
  13. ^ The only regularity is ⟨-ú⟩ for nouns ending in non-alternating final stem consonants with no other regularity able to be established.[13]

Examples:

chlôp "man" (personal)[26]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈchlôp∅ ˈchlôpji/ˈchlôpë ˈchlôpa
Genitive ˈchlôpa ˈchlôp∅/ˈchlôpó = PL
Dative ˈchlôpú/ˈchlôpôjú ˈchlôpóm ˈchlôpôma
Accusative ˈchlôpa ˈchlôpó ˈchlôpa
Instrumental ˈchlôpã ˈchlôpy/ˈchlôpmy/ˈchlôpamy ˈchlôpôma
Locative ˈchlôpjê ˈchlôpjéch/ˈchlôpach = PL
Vocative ˈchlôpjê = NOM = NOM
brat "brother" (personal)[26]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈbrat∅ ˈbracë/ˈbratë/ˈbraco ˈbrata
Genitive ˈbrata ˈbrató = PL
Dative ˈbratú ˈbratóm ˈbratôma/ˈbratma
Accusative ˈbrata ˈbrató ˈbrata
Instrumental ˈbratã ˈbraty/ˈbratmy/ˈbratamy ˈbratôma/ˈbratma
Locative ˈbracê ˈbracéch/ˈbratach = PL
Vocative ˈbracê = NOM = NOM
brzég "edge, shore" (inanimate)[26]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈbrzég∅ ˈbrzêgji ˈbrzêga
Genitive ˈbrzêgú ˈbrzêgó = PL
Dative ˈbrzêgú ˈbrzêgóm ˈbrzêgôma
Accusative ˈbrzég∅ ˈbrzêgji ˈbrzêga
Instrumental ˈbrzêgã ˈbrzêgamy ˈbrzêgôma
Locative ˈbrzêgú ˈbrzêgach = PL
Vocative = NOM = NOM = NOM
wól "ox, steer" (animal)[26]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈwól∅ ˈwôlôwje/ˈwôlë ˈwôla
Genitive ˈwôla ˈwôló = PL
Dative ˈwôlôjú ˈwôlóm' ˈwôlôma/ˈwólma
Accusative ˈwôla ˈwôlë ˈwôla
Instrumental ˈwôlã wôlaˈmy/ˈwólmy ˈwôlôma/ˈwólma
Locative ˈwôlú ˈwôlach = PL
Vocative ˈwôlê = NOM = NOM
pjês "dog" (masculine animal)[26]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈpjês∅ ˈpsë ˈpsa
Genitive ˈpsa ˈpsó = PL
Dative ˈpsú ˈpsóm ˈpsëma
Accusative ˈpsa ˈpsë ˈpsa
Instrumental ˈpsã psˈmy/psaˈmy ˈpsëma
Locative ˈpsú ˈpsach = PL
Vocative psˈú = NOM = NOM
lên "flax" (inanimate)[26]
Singular
Nominative ˈlên∅
Genitive ˈlnú
Dative ˈlnú
Accusative ˈlên∅
Instrumental ˈlnã
Locative ˈlnê
Vocative = NOM
ksõdz "(chrisian) priest" (personal)[27]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈksõdz∅ ˈksãzɵwje/ˈksãzä ˈksãza
Genitive ˈksãza ksąˈzó = PL
Dative ˈksãzú/ˈksãzôjú/ˈksãzejú ksãˈzóm ˈksãzôma/ˈksãzema
Accusative ˈksãza ksãˈzó ˈksãza
Instrumental ˈksãzã ksãzˈmï/ksãzˈamy ˈksãzôma/ˈksãzema
Locative ˈksãzú ksãˈzach = PL
Vocative ˈksãzê ˈksãza = NOM
kóń "horse" (animal)[27]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈkóń∅ ˈkônji/ˈkônjë ˈkônja
Genitive ˈkônja ˈkônjy/ˈkônjó = PL
Dative ˈkônjú/ˈkônjejú/ˈkônjôjú ˈkônjim/ˈkônjóm ˈkônjema/ˈkônjôma
Accusative ˈkônja ˈkônjë ˈkônja
Instrumental ˈkônjã ˈkônjamy/ˈkônjmy/ˈkônjymy ˈkônjema/ˈkônjôma
Locative ˈkônjú ˈkônjich/ˈkônjach = PL
Vocative = NOM = NOM = NOM
kjêrz "bush, shrub" (inanimate)[27]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈkjˈêrz∅ ˈkrzê ˈkrza
Genitive ˈkrza ˈkrzó = PL
Dative ˈkrzú ˈkrzóm = PL
Accusative ˈkjêrz∅ ˈkrzê ˈkrza
Instrumental ˈkrzã krzaˈmy = PL
Locative ˈkrzú ˈkrzach = PL
Vocative = NOM = NOM = NOM
gôsc "guest" (personal)[27]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈgôsc∅ ˈgôscë ˈgôsca
Genitive ˈgôsca gôsˈcó = PL
Dative ˈgôscú/ˈgôscôjú/ˈgôscejú gôsˈcóm ˈgôscma/ˈgôscôma/ˈgôscema
Accusative ˈgôsca gôsˈcó ˈgôsca
Instrumental ˈgôscã gôscˈmy/gôscaˈmy ˈgôscma/ˈgôscôma/ˈgôscema
Locative ˈgôscú gôsˈcach = PL
Vocative ˈgôscú = NOM = NOM
mjêszczón "burgher" (personal)[28]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈmjêszczón∅ ˈmjêszczónjë/ˈmjêszczónjë ˈmjêszczóna/ˈmjêszczana
Genitive ˈmjêszczóna/ˈmjêszczana mjêszˈczón∅/mjêszˈczanó = PL
Dative ˈmjêszczónú/ˈmjêszczónôjú mjêszˈczanóm = PL
Accusative ˈmjêszczóna/ˈmjêszczóna mjêszˈczanó ˈmjêszczóna/ˈmjêszczana
Instrumental ˈmjêszczónã/ˈmjêszczanã mjêszˈczanmy/mjêszˈczanamy/mjêszˈczany = PL
Locative ˈmjêszczónjê/ˈmjêszczanjê mjêszˈczanach = PL
Vocative ˈmjêszczónjê/ˈmjêszczanjê = NOM = NOM
kam/kamä/kamjêń "rock, stone" (inanimate)[29]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈkam∅/ˈkamä∅/ˈkamjêń∅ ˈkamjênjë ˈkamjênja
Genitive ˈkamjênja kaˈmjênjó = PL
Dative ˈkamjênjú kaˈmjênjóm = PL
Accusative ˈkam∅/ˈkamä∅/ˈkamjênj∅ ˈkamjênjë ˈkamjênja
Instrumental ˈkamjênjã kaˈmjenjmy/kaˈmjênjamy = PL
Locative ˈkamjênjê/kaˈmjênjú kaˈmjênjach = PL
Vocative = NOM = NOM = NOM
dzeń "day" (inanimate)[30]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈdzeń∅ ˈdnji ˈdnja
Genitive ˈdnja ˈdnjó/ˈdnjy = PL
Dative ˈdnjú ˈdnjóm ˈdnjôma
Accusative ˈdzeń∅ ˈdnji ˈdnja
Instrumental ˈdnjã dnjaˈmy ˈdnjôma
Locative ˈdnjú ˈdnjach = PL
Vocative = NOM = NOM = NOM

Ending with ⟨-a⟩[edit]

Masculine nouns ending with ⟨-a⟩[a][11]
Non-stressed
Singular Plural Dual
virile nonvirile
Nominative -a -ë, -ôwje[b] -a
Genitive -ë, -i, -a[c] -ó, -∅ [d] = PL
Dative -ê, -ôjú, -ejú[e] -óm (-im)[f] -ôma
Accusative -ã[g] -ó, -∅[d] -ë -a
Instrumental -õ, -ã[h] -amy (-my, -y)[i] -ôma
Locative -y -ú, -ê[j] -ach (-éch, -ich)[k] = PL
Vocative -ú, -ë[j] = NOM -a
  1. ^ All masculine nouns ending in ⟨-a⟩ have fixed stress except ˈbùla ("bull") and ˈslëga ("servant").[19]
  2. ^ ⟨-ôwje⟩ is for monosyllabic stems, nouns with non-alternating final stem consonants, and several loanwords.[31]
  3. ^ ⟨-i⟩ after velars, ⟨-ë⟩ after non-velars. Some nouns have ⟨-a⟩ by analogy with some masculine nouns ending in a consonant.[19]
  4. ^ a b ⟨-ó⟩ is the most frequent with -∅ appearing without a regular rule.[31]
  5. ^ ⟨-ê⟩ after an alternating consonant, otherwise ⟨-ôjú⟩ or ⟨-ejú⟩ with no predictability as to which.[32]
  6. ^ There are seven instances of ⟨-ym⟩ and one of ⟨-ˈim⟩, see Lorentz §117,8[16] and §139,5.[19]
  7. ^ Sometimes ⟨-e⟩ (pronounced ⟨-ë⟩ was used, from earlier *-ę.[23][31]
  8. ^ ⟨-õ⟩ is more common than ⟨-ã⟩, but no rule can be established.[31]
  9. ^ Except for lëdzˈmy and pjˈõdzmy, nouns prefer ⟨-amy⟩. The other endings are rare, but ⟨-my⟩ generally appears in non-alternating final stem consonants and ⟨-y⟩ in alternating final stem consonants, with exceptions.[22][23][19]
  10. ^ a b ⟨-ê⟩ after alternating consonant, ⟨-ú⟩ after non-alternting consonants. ⟨-y⟩ can be shown in nouns ending in ⟨-ola⟩, but potentially only for feminine nouns.[31]
  11. ^ Generally, ⟨-ach⟩ is the most common endings; ⟨-éch⟩ does not appear in feminine nouns ending in a consonant. ⟨-ich⟩ is only found in a few words.[25][23][19]

Examples:

opa "monkey" (animal) [33]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈopa ˈopë ˈopa
Genitive ˈopë/ˈopa ˈopó = PL
Dative ˈopjê/ˈopôjú ˈopóm ˈopôma
Accusative ˈopã ˈopë ˈopa
Instrumental ˈopõ ˈopamy/ˈopmy ˈopôma
Locative ˈopjê ˈopach = PL
Vocative ˈopjê = NOM = NOM
bùla "bull" (animal)[33]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈbùla ˈbùlë ˈbùla
Genitive ˈbùlë bùˈló = PL
Dative ˈbùlôjú bùˈlóm ˈbùlôma
Accusative ˈbùlã ˈbùlë ˈbùla
Instrumental ˈbùlõ/ˈbùlã bùlaˈmy ˈbùlôma
Locative bùˈlú bùˈlach = PL
Vocative ˈbùlú = NOM = NOM
twórca "creator" (personal)[33]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈtwórca ˈtwórcôwje ˈtwórca
Genitive ˈtwórcë/ˈtwórca ˈtwórcó = PL
Dative ˈtwórcôjú/ˈtwórcejú ˈtwórcóm ˈtwórcôma
Accusative ˈtwórcã ˈtwórcä ˈtwórca
Instrumental ˈtwórcõ/ˈtwórcã ˈtwórcamy ˈtwórcôma
Locative ˈtwórcú ˈtwórcach = PL
Vocative ˈtwórcú = NOM = NOM
nożênja "bridegroom" (personal)[34]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative noˈżênja ˈnożênjë = PL
Genitive noˈżênjë noˈżênjó = PL
Dative ˈnożênjejú/ˈnożênjôjú noˈżênjóm = PL
Accusative ˈnożênjã noˈżênjó = PL
Instrumental ˈnożênjõ noˈżênjamy = PL
Locative noˈżênjú noˈżênjach = PL
Vocative noˈżênja = NOM = NOM

Feminine nouns[edit]

Feminine nouns can end in a consonant, ⟨-a⟩, and ⟨-o⟩.[35]

Feminine nouns ending in non-alternating consonants always add ⟨-j-⟩ to non-nominative cases except the genitive plural, which takes -∅.[35]

  • ˈdlon ("open palm"), ˈdlonjë (genitive singular), ˈdlon (genitive plural)

A few feminine nouns end in ⟨-i⟩, ⟨-ëw⟩ (⟨-ew⟩), and ⟨-wja⟩. There are two nouns that end in ⟨-ë⟩ and two nouns that end in ⟨-é⟩:[35]

  • ˈcérkwji, ˈcérkjëw, ˈcérkwja ("church") (Compare Kashubian: cerkew, cerczew, cerkwiô)
  • polˈnôcë ("midnight")
  • ˈkrë (alternatively ˈkrev) ("blood")
  • brëˈvjé ("eyebrow")
  • ɡôspôˈdënjé ("female host")

It can be noticed that both masculine and feminine nouns can end in a consonant with ⟨-a⟩ ending. Masculine nouns ending in ⟨-a⟩ always refer to a male being and female nouns ending in ⟨-a⟩ a female being; the one exception is ˈslëga ("servant") and nouns ending in ⟨-ola⟩, which can refer to a person of either gender.[35]

With stem ending in an alternating consonant with ⟨-a⟩ ending[edit]

Feminine nouns' stem ending in ⟨p, b, f, w, t, d, k, g, ch, gh, m, n, r⟩ with ⟨-a⟩ ending[11]
Stressed Non-stressed
Singular Plural Dual Singular Plural Dual
Nominative -ˈa -ˈë -ˈê -a -ë, -i[a] -ê
Genitive -ˈë -ˈó, -∅[b] = PL -ë, -i[a] -ó, -∅[b] = PL
Dative -ˈê -ˈóm[c] = PL -ê -óm (-im)[c] -óma
Accusative -ˈã -ˈë -ˈê -ã[d] -ë, -i[a] -ê
Instrumental -ˈõ -aˈmy (-ˈmy, -ˈy)[e] = PL -õ -amy (-my, -y)[e] -óma
Locative -ˈê -ˈach (-ˈéch)[f] = PL -ë -ach (-éch, -ich)[f] = PL
Vocative = NOM = NOM -ˈê -ô[g] = NOM -ê
  1. ^ a b c ⟨-i⟩ after velars, ⟨-ë⟩ after non-velars.[31]
  2. ^ a b -∅ is the most frequent with ⟨-ó⟩ appearing without a regular rule.[31]
  3. ^ a b There are seven instances of ⟨-ym⟩ and one of ⟨-ˈim⟩, see Lorentz §117,8[16] and §139,5.[19]
  4. ^ Sometimes ⟨-e⟩ (pronounced ⟨-ë⟩ was used, from earlier *-ę.[23][31]
  5. ^ a b Except for lëdzˈmy and pjˈõdzmy, nouns prefer ⟨-amy⟩. The other endings are rare, but ⟨-my⟩ generally appears in non-alternating final stem consonants and ⟨-y⟩ in alternating final stem consonants, with exceptions.[22][23][19]
  6. ^ a b Generally, ⟨-ach⟩ is the most common endings; ⟨-éch⟩ does not appear in feminine nouns ending in a consonant. ⟨-ich⟩ is only found in a few words.[25][23][19]
  7. ^ -ɵ/ only occurs in a few nouns.[31]

Examples:

rëba "fish"[36]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈrëba ˈrëbë ˈrëbjê
Genitive ˈrëbë ˈryb∅/ˈrëbó = PL
Dative ˈrëbjê ˈrëbóm ˈrëbóma
Accusative ˈrëbã ˈrëbë ˈrëbjê
Instrumental ˈrëbõ ˈrëbamy/ˈrëby ˈrëbóma
Locative ˈrëbjê ˈrëbach = PL
Vocative = NOM = NOM = NOM
rãka "hand; arm"[36]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈrãka ˈrãkji ˈrãcê
Genitive ˈrãkji ˈrãk∅/ˈrãkó rãˈkú
Dative ˈrãcê rãˈkóm ˈrãkóma
Accusative ˈrãkã ˈrãkji ˈrãcê
Instrumental rãˈkõ rãkaˈmy ˈrãkóma
Locative ˈrãcê rãˈkach = PL
Vocative = NOM = NOM = NOM
skra "spark"[36]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈskra ˈskrë ˈskrzê
Genitive ˈskrë ˈskê∅r/ˈskró = PL
Dative ˈskrzê ˈskróm = PL
Accusative ˈskrã ˈskrë ˈskrzê
Instrumental ˈskrõ skraˈmy = PL
Locative ˈskrzê ˈskrach = PL
Vocative = NOM = NOM = NOM

With stem ending in a non-alternating consonant with ⟨-a⟩ ending[edit]

Feminine nouns' stems ending in a ⟨s, z, sz, ż, rz, l, j⟩ with ⟨-a⟩ ending[11]
Stressed Non-stressed
Singular Plural Dual Singular Plural Dual
Nominative -ˈa -ˈê, -ˈë[a] -ˈy -a -ë -y
Genitive -ˈê, -ˈë[a] -ˈó, -∅, -ˈy[b] = PL -ë -∅, -y[b] = PL
Dative -ˈy -ˈóm[c] = PL -y -óm (-im)[c] -óma
Accusative -ˈã -ˈê, -ˈë[a] -ˈy -ã -ë -y
Instrumental -ˈõ -aˈmy (-ˈmy, -ˈy)[d] = PL -õ -amy (-my, -y)[d] -óma
Locative -ˈi -ˈach (-ˈéch)[e] = PL -i -ach (-éch, -ich)[e] = PL
Vocative = NOM = NOM -ˈy = NOM = NOM -y
  1. ^ a b c ⟨-ˈë⟩ occurs after ⟨s⟩ and ⟨z⟩, otherwise ⟨-ˈê⟩/.[31]
  2. ^ a b -∅ is the most frequent with ⟨-ó⟩ and ⟨-y⟩ appearing without a regular rule. Only non-syllabic stems have ⟨-ˈy⟩.[31]
  3. ^ a b There are seven instances of ⟨-ym⟩ and one of ⟨-ˈim⟩, see Lorentz §117,8[16] and §139,5.[19]
  4. ^ a b Except for lëdzˈmy and pjˈõdzmy, nouns prefer ⟨-amy⟩. The other endings are rare, but ⟨-my⟩ generally appears in non-alternating final stem consonants and ⟨-y⟩ in alternating final stem consonants, with exceptions.[22][23][19]
  5. ^ a b Generally, ⟨-ach⟩ is the most common endings; ⟨-éch⟩ does not appear in feminine nouns ending in a consonant. ⟨-ich⟩ is only found in a few words.[25][23][19]

Examples:

tãcza "thundercloud"[37]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈtãcza ˈtãczë ˈtãczy
Genitive ˈtãczë ˈtãczy/ˈtãcz∅ = PL
Dative ˈtãczy ˈtãczóm ˈtãczóma
Accusative ˈtãczã ˈtãczë ˈtãczy
Instrumental ˈtãczõ ˈtãczamy/ˈtãczmy ˈtãczóma
Locative ˈtãczy ˈtãczach = PL
Vocative = NOM = NOM = NOM
zêmja "earth; soil"[37]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈzêmja ˈzêmjë ˈzêmjy
Genitive ˈzêmjë ˈzem∅/zêˈmjó = PL
Dative ˈzêmjy zêˈmjóm ˈzêmjóma
Accusative ˈzêmjã ˈzêmjë ˈzêmjy
Instrumental zeˈmjõ zêmjaˈmy ˈzêmjóma
Locative ˈzêmjy zêˈmjach = PL
Vocative = NOM = NOM = NOM
sla "breastplate (for a horse)"[37]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈsla ˈslê ˈsly
Genitive ˈslê ˈsêl∅ = PL
Dative ˈsly ˈslóm = PL
Accusative ˈslã ˈslê ˈsly
Instrumental ˈslõ slaˈmy = PL
Locative ˈsly ˈslach = PL
Vocative = NOM = NOM = NOM
kôsa "scythe"[38]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈkôsa ˈkôsë ˈkôsy
Genitive ˈkôsë ˈkôs∅/ˈkôsy = PL
Dative ˈkôsy ˈkôsóm ˈkôsóma
Accusative ˈkôsã ˈkôsë ˈkôsy
Instrumental ˈkôsõ ˈkôsamy ˈkôsóma
Locative ˈkôsy ˈkôsach = PL
Vocative = NOM = NOM = NOM
lza "tear"[38]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈlza ˈlzë ˈlzy
Genitive ˈlzë ˈzêl∅/ˈlzy = PL
Dative ˈlzy ˈlzóm = PL
Accusative ˈlzã ˈlzë ˈlzy
Instrumental ˈlzõ lzaˈmy = PL
Locative ˈlzy ˈlzach = PL
Vocative = NOM = NOM = NOM
mac/macêrz "mother"[39]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈmac∅/ˈmacêrza ˈmacêrzë ˈmacêrzy
Genitive ˈmacêrzë maˈcéř∅/macêˈřyn = PL
Dative ˈmacêrzy maˈcêrzóm = PL
Accusative ˈmac∅/ˈmacêrzã ˈmacêrzë ˈmacerzy
Instrumental maˈcêrzõ maˈcêrzmy/maˈcêrzamy = PL
Locative maˈcêrzy maˈcêrzach = PL
Vocative = NOM = NOM = NOM

Ending with ⟨-o⟩[edit]

Feminine nouns ending in ⟨-o⟩[11]
Stressed Non-stressed
Singular Plural Dual Singular Plural Dual
Nominative -ˈo[a] -ˈé -ˈy -o -ë -y
Genitive -ˈé -ˈy = PL -é -y, -∅[b] = PL
Dative -ˈy -óm[c] -óˈma -y -óm (-ym)[c] -óma
Accusative -ˈõ -ˈé -ˈy -õ -ë -y
Instrumental -ˈõ -aˈmy (-ˈmy, -ˈy)[d] -óˈma -õ -amy (-my, -y)[d] -óma
Locative -ˈi -ˈach (-ˈéch)[e] = PL -i -ach (-éch, -ich)[e] = PL
Vocative = NOM = NOM -ˈy = NOM = NOM -y
  1. ^ brëˈwjé ("eyebrow") belongs to this declension.[31]
  2. ^ Only two nouns have -∅: ˈmjéz from ˈmjêzo ("field divide") and ˈrzóz from ˈrzôzo ("evening glow"). [40]
  3. ^ a b There are seven instances of ⟨-ym⟩ and one of ⟨-ˈim⟩, see Lorentz §117,8[16] and §139,5.[19]
  4. ^ a b Except for lëdzˈmy and pjˈõdzmy, nouns prefer ⟨-amy⟩. The other endings are rare, but ⟨-my⟩ generally appears in non-alternating final stem consonants and ⟨-y⟩ in alternating final stem consonants, with exceptions.[22][23][19]
  5. ^ a b Generally, ⟨-ach⟩ is the most common endings; ⟨-éch⟩ does not appear in feminine nouns ending in a consonant. ⟨-ich⟩ is only found in a few words.[25][23][19]

Examples:

cenjo "shade, shadow"[41]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ceˈnjo ceˈnjé ceˈnjy
Genitive ceˈnjé ceˈnjy = PL
Dative ceˈnjy ceˈnjóm = PL
Accusative ceˈnjõ ceˈnjé ceˈnjy
Instrumental ceˈnjõ cenjaˈmy = PL
Locative ceˈnjy ceˈnjach = PL
Vocative = NOM = NOM = NOM
mjêzo "balk"[41]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈmjêzo ˈmjêzë ˈmjêzy
Genitive ˈmjêzé ˈmjêz∅/ˈmjêzy = PL
Dative ˈmjêzy ˈmjêzóm ˈmjêzóma
Accusative ˈmjêzõ ˈmjêzë ˈmjêzy
Instrumental ˈmjêzõ ˈmjêzamy/mjezˈmy ˈmjêzóma
Locative ˈmjêzy ˈmjêzach = PL
Vocative = NOM = NOM = NOM

Ending in a consonant[edit]

Feminine nouns ending in a consonant[11]
Stressed Non-stressed
Singular Plural Dual Singular Plural Dual
Nominative -∅ -ˈë -ˈy -∅, -i, -a[a] -ë -y
Genitive -ˈë, -ˈê[b] -ˈi, -∅ = PL -ë[b] -i, -ó, -∅, -ew[c] = PL
Dative -ˈy -óm[d] = PL [e] -y -óm (-ym)[d] -óma, -ma
Accusative -∅ -ˈë -ˈy -∅ -ë -y
Instrumental -ˈõ -aˈmy (-ˈmy, -ˈy)[f] = PL [e] -õ -amy (-my, -y)[f] -óma, -ma
Locative -ˈy -ˈach (-ˈéch)[g] = PL -y, -ë[h] -ach (-éch, -ych)[g] = PL
Vocative = NOM = NOM -ˈy = NOM = NOM -y
  1. ^ A few nouns show alternations with ⟨-a⟩ and ⟨-i⟩.[40]
  2. ^ a b ⟨-ˈê⟩ only for krëˈwjê from krë ("blood"); Rudnicki sometimes gives [i].[40]
  3. ^ ⟨-y⟩ is the most common, the other endings occur unpredictably. ⟨-ew⟩ is rare.[40]
  4. ^ a b There are seven instances of -ym⟩ and one of -ˈim⟩, see Lorentz §117,8[16] and §139,5.[19]
  5. ^ a b Feminine nouns in this case are unattested; there is one exception for masculine nouns: ˈpsˈma from ˈpjês ("dog").[40]
  6. ^ a b Except for lëdzˈmy and pjˈõdzmy, nouns prefer ⟨-amy⟩. The other endings are rare, but ⟨-my⟩ generally appears in non-alternating final stem consonants and ⟨-y⟩ in alternating final stem consonants, with exceptions.[22][23][19]
  7. ^ a b Generally, ⟨-ach⟩ is the most common endings; ⟨-éch⟩ does not appear in feminine nouns ending in a consonant. ⟨-ich⟩ is only found in a few words.[25][23][19]
  8. ^ Lorentz in §139 says that polysyllabic stems ending in ⟨-n⟩ or ⟨-ôsc⟩ usually take ⟨-ë⟩. This is not the case in Kluki.[40]

Examples:

wôs "axis"[42]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈwôs∅ ˈwôsë ˈwôsy
Genitive ˈwôsë wôˈsy/ˈwôs∅ = PL
Dative ˈwôsy wôˈsóm ˈwôsma
Accusative ˈwôs∅ ˈwôsë ˈwôsy
Instrumental ˈwôsõ wôsˈmy ˈwôsma
Locative ˈwôsy wôˈsach = PL
Vocative = NOM = NOM = NOM
mësz "mouse"[42]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈmësz∅ ˈmëszë ˈmëszy
Genitive ˈmëszë ˈmëszy = PL
Dative ˈmëszy ˈmëszim/ˈmëszóm ˈmëszma/ˈmëszóma
Accusative ˈmësz∅ ˈmëszë ˈmëszy
Instrumental ˈmëszõ ˈmëszmy/ˈmëszamy ˈmëszma/ˈmëszóma
Locative ˈmëszy ˈmëszach = PL
Vocative = NOM = NOM = NOM
chôrôsc "sickness, illness"[43]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈchôrôsc∅ ˈchôrôscë ˈchôrôscy
Genitive ˈchôrôscë chôˈrôsc∅/chôˈrôscy = PL
Dative ˈchôrôscy chôˈrôscóm = PL
Accusative ˈchôrôsc∅ ˈchôrôscë chôrôscy
Instrumental chôˈrôscõ chôˈrôscmy/chôˈrôscamy = PL
Locative chôˈrôscy/ˈchôrôscë chôˈrôscach = PL
Vocative = NOM = NOM = NOM
wjês "village"[43]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈwjês∅ ˈwsë ˈwsy
Genitive ˈwsë ˈwsy = PL
Dative ˈwsy ˈwsóm = PL
Accusative ˈwjês∅ ˈwsë ˈwsy
Instrumental ˈwsõ wsaˈmi = PL
Locative ˈwsy/ˈwsë ˈwsach = PL
Vocative = NOM = NOM = NOM
cérkji/cérkjew "church"[44]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈcérkji∅/ˈcérkjew∅ ˈcérkwjë ˈcérkwjy
Genitive ˈcérkwjë ˈcérkew∅/ˈcérkwjy/ˈcérkwjó = PL
Dative ˈcérkwjy ˈcérkwjóm ˈcérkwjóma
Accusative ˈcérki∅/ˈcérkew∅ ˈcérkwjë ˈcérkwjy
Instrumental ˈcérkwjõ ˈcérkwjamy ˈcérkwjóma
Locative ˈcérkwjy ˈcérkwjach = PL
Vocative = NOM = NOM = NOM
krë, krew "blood"[45]
Singular
Nominative ˈkrë, ˈkrew∅
Genitive krëˈwjê
Dative krëˈwjy
Accusative ˈkrë, ˈkrew∅
Instrumental krëˈwjõ
Locative krëˈwjy
Vocative = NOM

Neuter nouns[edit]

Neuter nouns can end in a ⟨-ô⟩, a non-alternating consonant with ⟨-é⟩ ending, a consonant with ⟨-ã⟩ ending, and non-alternating consonants with ⟨-ê⟩ ending, the last two groups being sub-classes of the first.[46]

Ending with ⟨-o⟩ (⟨-ã⟩ or ⟨-ê⟩)[edit]

Neuter nouns ending in ⟨-ô⟩ (or ⟨-ã⟩ or ⟨-ê⟩)[11]
Stressed Non-stressed
Singular Plural Dual Singular Plural Dual
Nominative -ˈô -ˈa -ˈê -ô, -ê[a] -a -ê
Genitive -ˈa -∅, -ˈó[b] = PL -a -∅, -ó[b] = PL
Dative -ˈú -ˈóm[c] -ˈôma[d] -ú -óm[c] -ôma[d]
Accusative -ˈô -ˈa -ˈê -ô, -ê[a] -a -ê
Instrumental -ˈã -amˈy (-ˈmy, -ˈy)[e] -ˈôma[d] -ã -amy (-my, -y)[e] -ôma[d]
Locative -ˈú, -ˈê[f] -ˈach (-ˈéch)[g] = PL -ê -ach (-éch, -ich)[g] = PL
Vocative = PL = PL -ˈê = PL = PL -ê
  1. ^ a b ⟨-ê⟩ except ˈmôrzê ("sea"), ˈspôlê ("community, collective"), ˈksénjê ("shed"), ˈslôncê ("Sun"), and ˈpôùnjê ("midday") (and it's derivatives such as przyˈpôùnjê ("forenoon")), which all have the alternate ending ⟨-ô⟩.[40]
  2. ^ a b -∅ is the most common. ˈmôrzê ("sea") and nouns ending in ⟨-stwô⟩ have ⟨-ó⟩. môˈrzy is attested alongside môˈrzó.[47]
  3. ^ a b There are seven instances of -ym⟩ and one of -ˈim⟩, see Lorentz §117,8[16] and §139,5.[19]
  4. ^ a b c d The dative/instrumental dual, which only occurs in monosyllabic stems, has the endings ⟨-ôma⟩, ⟨-ema⟩, and ⟨-ma⟩, in one case also ⟨-ëma⟩ (psëma). Of these endings, ⟨-ôma⟩ is widespread throughout the area and is found in both hard and soft stems, ⟨-ema⟩ exists only in Wierzchocino and Stojcino and is restricted to the soft stems; ⟨-ma⟩ occurs in Wierzchocino in a few nouns.[20]
  5. ^ a b Except for lëdzˈmy and pjˈõdzmy, nouns prefer ⟨-amy⟩. The other endings are rare, but ⟨-my⟩ generally appears in non-alternating final stem consonants and ⟨-y⟩ in alternating final stem consonants, with exceptions.[22][23][19]
  6. ^ ⟨-ˈê⟩ occurs for non-syllabic stems.[24][13]
  7. ^ a b Generally, ⟨-ach⟩ is the most common endings; ⟨-éch⟩ does not appear in feminine nouns ending in a consonant. ⟨-ich⟩ is only found in a few words.[25][23][19]

Examples:

latô "summer"[48]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈlatô ˈlata ˈlêcê
Genitive ˈlata ˈlat∅ = PL
Dative ˈlatú ˈlatóm ˈlatóma
Accusative ˈlatô ˈlata ˈlêcê
Instrumental ˈlatã ˈlaty/ˈlatamy ˈlatóma
Locative ˈlêcê ˈlatach/ˈlêcéch = PL
Vocative = NOM = NOM = NOM
kôlô "wheel"[48]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈkôlô ˈkôla ˈkôlê
Genitive ˈkôla ˈkól∅ = PL
Dative ˈkôlú kôˈlóm ˈkôlóma
Accusative ˈkôlô ˈkôla ˈkôlê
Instrumental ˈkôlã kôlaˈmy ˈkôlóma
Locative kôˈlú kôˈlach = PL
Vocative = NOM = NOM = NOM
kôlanô "knee"[49]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈkôlanô kôˈlana = PL
Genitive ˈkôlana kôˈlón∅/kôˈlanó = PL
Dative ˈkôlanú kôˈlanóm = PL
Accusative ˈkôlanô kôˈlana = PL
Instrumental ˈkôlanã kôˈlanmy/kôˈlanamy = PL
Locative ˈkôlanjê kôˈlanjéch/kôˈlanach = PL
Vocative = NOM = NOM = NOM
krô "calf (of the leg)"[49]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈkrô ˈkrë ˈkrzê
Genitive ˈkrë ˈkjêr∅/ˈkró = PL
Dative ˈkrú ˈkróm ˈkrôma
Accusative ˈkrô ˈkrë ˈkrzê
Instrumental ˈkrã ˈkramy ˈkrôma
Locative ˈkrzê ˈkrzéch/ˈkrach = PL
Vocative = NOM = NOM = NOM
pôlô/pôlê "field"[50]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈpôlô/ˈpôlê ˈpôla = PL
Genitive ˈpôla ˈpól∅ = PL
Dative ˈpôlú pôˈlóm = PL
Accusative ˈpôlô/ˈpôlê ˈpôla = PL
Instrumental ˈpôlã pôlˈmy/pôˈlamy = PL
Locative ˈpôlê/pôˈlú pôˈlach = PL
Vocative = NOM = NOM = NOM
môrzê "sea"[50]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈmôrzê ˈmôrza = PL
Genitive ˈmôrza môˈrzy/môˈrzó = PL
Dative ˈmôrzú môˈrzóm = PL
Accusative ˈmôrzê ˈmôrza = PL
Instrumental ˈmôrzã môrzˈmy/môrzaˈmy = PL
Locative ˈmôrzê/môˈrzú môˈrzach = PL
Vocative = NOM = NOM = NOM
jajê "egg"[50]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈjajê/ˈjajô ˈjaja ˈjajê
Genitive ˈjaja ˈjôj = PL
Dative ˈjajú jaˈjóm = PL
Accusative ˈjajê/ˈjajô ˈjaja ˈjajê
Instrumental ˈjajã jajˈmy = PL
Locative jaˈjú jaˈjach/jaˈjéch = PL
Vocative = NOM = NOM = NOM
remjã "arm"[51]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈremjã reˈmjônjê = PL
Genitive ˈremjênja reˈmjón∅/reˈmjônjó = PL
Dative ˈremjênjú reˈmjônjóm = PL
Accusative ˈremjã reˈmjônjê = PL
Instrumental ˈremjênjã reˈmjônjamy/reˈmjônjmy = PL
Locative ˈremjênjê/reˈmjênjú reˈmjônjach = PL
Vocative = NOM = NOM = NOM
cêlã "calf (young cow)"[51]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈcêlã cêˈląta = PL
Genitive ˈcêlëca ˈcêląt∅/cêˈlątó = PL
Dative ˈcêlëcú cêˈlątóm = PL
Accusative ˈcêlã cêˈląta = PL
Instrumental ˈcêlëcã cêˈlątamy/cêˈlątmy/cêˈląty = PL
Locative ˈcêlëcú cêˈlątach = PL
Vocative = NOM = NOM = NOM
jagnjã "lamb"[52]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative ˈjagnjã jagˈnjąta = PL
Genitive ˈjagnjica ˈjagnjąt∅/jagˈnjątó = PL
Dative ˈjagnjicú jagˈnjątóm = PL
Accusative ˈjagnjã jagˈnjąta = PL
Instrumental ˈjagnjicã jagˈnjątamy/jagˈnjątmy/jagˈnjąty = PL
Locative ˈjagnjicú jagˈnjątach = PL
Vocative = NOM = NOM = NOM

With stem ending in a non-alternating consonant with ⟨-é⟩ ending[edit]

Neuter nouns' stems ending in ⟨s, z, sz, ż, rz, l, j⟩ with ⟨-é⟩ ending[11]
Stressed
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative -é -o, -é, -a[a] = NOM
Genitive -o -∅, -ó[b] = NOM
Dative -ú -óm (-im)[c] = NOM
Accusative -é -o, -é[a] = NOM
Instrumental -ym -amy (-my, -y)[d] = NOM
Locative -ú, -im[e] = NOM
Vocative = PL = PL = PL
  1. ^ a b ⟨-a⟩ is rare. ⟨-o⟩ and ⟨-é⟩ are alternative endings.[53]
  2. ^ The most common ending is ⟨-ó⟩; a few nouns have only -∅. Nouns ending in ⟨-anjé⟩ admit both endings.[53]
  3. ^ There are seven instances of -ym⟩ and one of -ˈim⟩, see Lorentz §117,8[16] and §139,5.[19]
  4. ^ Except for lëdzˈmy and pjˈõdzmy, nouns prefer ⟨-amy⟩. The other endings are rare, but ⟨-my⟩ generally appears in non-alternating final stem consonants and ⟨-y⟩ in alternating final stem consonants, with exceptions.[22][23][19]
  5. ^ ⟨-im⟩ is the most common, but see Rudnicki §187 for additional forms such as [-em] and [-ėm].[53]
kôzané "sermon"[54]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative koˈzanjé koˈzanjo/koˈzanjé = PL
Genitive koˈzanjo koˈzónj∅/koˈzanjó = PL
Dative koˈzanjú koˈzanjóm = PL
Accusative koˈzanjé koˈzanjé/koˈzanjo = PL
Instrumental koˈzanjim koˈzanjmy/koˈzanjamy = PL
Locative koˈzanjú/koˈzanjim koˈzanjach = PL
Vocative = NOM = NOM = NOM
vjesêlé "wedding"[55]
Singular Plural Dual
Nominative wjeˈsêlé wjeˈsôla = PL
Genitive wjeˈsêlo wjeˈsól∅ = PL
Dative wjeˈsêlú wjeˈsôlóm = PL
Accusative wjeˈsêlé wjeˈsôla = PL
Instrumental wjeˈsêlim wjeˈsôlamy = PL
Locative wjeˈsêlú/wjeˈsêlim wjeˈsôlach = PL
Vocative = NOM = NOM = NOM

Consonant alternations[edit]

With one exception, soft stem-final consonants remain unchanged; hard stem-final consonants, however, have a number of alternations:[56][57]

  • ⟨k⟩ || ⟨kj⟩ || ⟨c⟩ || ⟨cz⟩
  • ⟨g⟩ || ⟨gj⟩ || ⟨z⟩ || ⟨ż⟩
  • ⟨zg⟩ || ⟨zgj⟩ || ⟨zdz⟩ || —
  • ⟨ch⟩ || ⟨chj⟩ || ⟨sz⟩ || ⟨sz⟩
  • ⟨gh⟩ || ⟨j⟩ || ⟨z⟩ or ⟨ż⟩ || —
  • ⟨t⟩ || ⟨c⟩
  • ⟨d⟩ || ⟨dz⟩
  • ⟨n⟩ || ⟨nj⟩
  • ⟨m⟩ || ⟨mj⟩
  • ⟨p⟩ || ⟨pj⟩
  • ⟨b⟩ || ⟨bj⟩
  • ⟨f⟩ || ⟨fj⟩
  • ⟨w⟩ || ⟨wj⟩
  • ⟨r⟩ || ⟨rz⟩
  • ⟨c⟩ || ⟨cz⟩
  • ⟨z⟩ || ⟨ż⟩
  • ⟨c⟩ || ⟨cz⟩
  • ⟨z⟩ || ⟨ż⟩

The alternations ⟨k⟩||⟨kj⟩, ⟨g⟩||⟨gj⟩, ⟨zg⟩||⟨zgj⟩, ⟨ch⟩||⟨chj⟩, ⟨gh⟩||⟨j⟩ occur:[58]

  • In masculine nouns ending in ⟨p, b, f, w, t, d, k, g, ch, gh, m, n, r⟩ with:
  1. the nominative-accusative plural ending ⟨-i⟩:
    ˈmjêch ("sack") > ˈmjêchji (nominative-accusative plural);
  2. the instrumental plural ending ⟨-y⟩:
    ˈftoch ("bird") > ˈftochjy (instrumental plural).
  • In masculine nouns' stem ending in ⟨p, b, f, w, t, d, k, g, ch, gh, m, n, r⟩ with nominative ending ⟨-a⟩ with the genitive singular ending ⟨-i⟩:
    ˈslëga ("servant") > ˈslëgji (geneitive singular).
  • In feminine nouns' stem ending in ⟨p, b, f, w, t, d, k, g, ch, gh, m, n, r⟩ with nominative ending ⟨-a⟩ with the genitive singular/nominative-accusative plural ending ⟨-i⟩:
    ˈmùcha ("fly (insect)") > ˈmùchji (genitive singular/nominative-accusative plural).
  • In feminine nouns' stem ending in ⟨p, b, f, w, t, d, k, g, ch, gh, m, n, r⟩ with nominative ending ⟨-o⟩ with the genitive singular ending ⟨-é⟩ and the locative singular ending ⟨-y⟩:
    Szwétsko ("Sweden") > Szvétskjé (genitive singular) > Szwétskjy (locative singular).
  • In neuter nouns' stem ending in ⟨p, b, f, w, t, d, k, g, ch, gh, m, n, r⟩ with nominative ending ⟨-ô⟩ with the instrumental plural ending ⟨-y⟩. Only ⟨k⟩||⟨kj⟩ is attested:
  • ˈjabkô ("apple") > ˈjabkjy (instrumental plural).

The alternations ⟨k⟩||⟨c⟩, ⟨g⟩||⟨z⟩, ⟨zg⟩||⟨zdz⟩, ⟨ch⟩||⟨sz⟩, ⟨gh⟩||⟨z⟩/⟨ż⟩, ⟨t⟩||⟨c⟩, ⟨d⟩||⟨dz⟩, ⟨n⟩||⟨nj⟩, ⟨m⟩||⟨mj⟩, p⟩||⟨pj⟩, ⟨b⟩||⟨bj⟩, ⟨f⟩||⟨fj⟩, ⟨w⟩||⟨wj⟩, ⟨r⟩||⟨rz⟩, ⟨c⟩||⟨cz⟩, ⟨z⟩||⟨ż⟩ occur:[59]

  • In masculine nouns ending in ⟨p, b, f, w, t, d, k, g, ch, gh, m, n, r⟩ with:
  1. the nominative-accusative plural ending ⟨-i⟩ for three nouns:
    ˈchlôp ("man") ˈchlôpji (nominative-accusative plural);
    ˈkop ("knave") ˈknopji (nominative-accusative plural);
    ˈmaszchôp ("comrade; partner") > ˈmaszchôpji (nominative-accusative plural);
  2. the locative singular ending ⟨-ê⟩ ;
    ˈsnjég ("snow") > ˈsnjêzê (locative singular);
  3. the nominative plural ending ⟨-ë⟩;
    ˈsnjég ("snow") > ˈsnjêzê (nominative plural);
  4. the locative plural ending ⟨-éch⟩;
    ˈkwjat ("flower") > kwjeˈcéch (locative plural).
  • In masculine nouns ending in ⟨p, b, f, w, t, d, k, g, ch, gh, m, n, r⟩+⟨-a⟩ with the dative and locative singular ending ⟨-ê⟩:
    ˈopa ("monkey; ape") > ˈopjê (dative-locative singular).
  • In feminine nouns' stem ending in ⟨p, b, f, w, t, d, k, g, ch, gh, m, n, r⟩ with ending ⟨-a⟩ with:
  1. the dative-locative singular/nominative-accusative dual ending ⟨-ˈê⟩ or ⟨ê⟩. Here ⟨gh⟩ can alternate with ⟨z⟩ as well as ⟨ż⟩:
    ˈrãka ("hand; arm") > ˈrãcê (dative-locative singular/nominative-accusative dual);
    ˈmogha ("stomach, maw") > ˈmozê or ˈmożê (dative-locative singular);
    ˈrejgha ("row") > ˈrejzê or ˈrejżê (dative-locative singular);
    ˈrózga ("branch, twig") > ˈrózdzê (dative-locative singular);
  2. the locative plural ending ⟨-éch⟩:
    ˈborzda ("furrow") > ˈbarzdzéch (locative plural).
  • In neuter nouns' stem ending in ⟨p, b, f, w, t, d, k, g, ch, gh, m, n, r⟩ with ending ⟨-ô⟩ with:
  1. the locative singular/nominative-accusative dual ending ⟨-ê⟩;
    ˈlatô ("summer") > ˈlêcê (locative singular/nominative-accusative dual);
  2. the locative plural ending ⟨-éch⟩:
    ˈgnjozdô ("nest") > ˈgnjozdzéch (locative plural).

The alternations ⟨k⟩||⟨cz⟩, ⟨g⟩||⟨ż⟩, ⟨ch⟩||⟨sz⟩, ⟨t⟩||⟨c⟩, ⟨d⟩||⟨dz⟩, ⟨n⟩||⟨nj⟩, ⟨m⟩||⟨mj⟩, ⟨p⟩||⟨pj⟩, ⟨b⟩||⟨bj⟩, ⟨f⟩||⟨fj⟩, ⟨w⟩||⟨wj⟩, ⟨r⟩||⟨rz⟩, ⟨c⟩||⟨cz⟩, ⟨z⟩||⟨ż⟩ occur:[60]

  • In masculine nouns ending in ⟨p, b, f, w, t, d, k, g, ch, gh, m, n, r⟩ with the vocative singular ending ⟨-ê⟩:
    ˈczlôwjek ("person") > ˈczlôwjecê (vocative singular);
    kaˈmrot ("comrade") > kaˈmrocê (vocative singular).
  • In masculine nouns ending in ⟨p, b, f, w, t, d, k, g, ch, gh, m, n, r⟩+⟨-a⟩ with the vocative singular ending ⟨-ê⟩;
    ˈopa ("monkey; ape") > ˈopjê (vocative singular).

The alternations ⟨c⟩||cz and ⟨z⟩||⟨ż⟩ occurs:[60]

  • In masculine nouns ending in ⟨-c⟩ and ⟨-z⟩ with the vocative singular ending ⟨-ê⟩;
    ˈchlôpc ("serf; male servant") > ˈchlôpczê (vocative singular).

There also exists a number of isolated, irregular alternations, usually in common words.[61]

Noun vowel alternations[edit]

There are three types of vowel alternations.

The first alternation affects the last syllable of the stem.[62]

This alternation can put vowels into three groups:

  1. ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩
  2. ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩
  3. ⟨ôˈi, au, ùej, ă, ŏ, ĕ, ù̆⟩

The vowels ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ in the nominative singular of an alternating stem always alternate with the vowels ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩. The vowels ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ in the nominative singular of an alternating stem always alternate with ⟨o, ó, é y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩, but ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ are not attested in the nominative singular of an alternating stem. The vowels ⟨ôˈi, au, ùej, ă, ŏ, ĕ, ù̆⟩ never alternate.[63]

Group 1~2

  • ⟨o~a⟩, ⟨o~ô⟩: ⟨o~a⟩ sometimes applies to the basic phoneme /ɔ/ and sometimes to the archiphoneme /ɔ/ when unstressed before ⟨r, rz, i, (j)⟩. In all other positions the archiphoneme ⟨o⟩ alternates with ⟨ô⟩.[64]
    ˈczod ("smoke, fume") > ˈczadú (genitive singular)
    ˈwˈãgorz ("eel") > ˈwãgôrza (genitive singular) but wãˈgórz (genitive plural)
    ˈgwjozda ("star") > ˈgwjazdõ (instrumental singular)
    ˈpôkoj ("calm") > ˈpôkôjú (genitive singular) > pôˈkôjú (locative singular)
  • ⟨ó~a⟩, ⟨ó~ô⟩: ⟨ó⟩ can alternate between both ⟨a⟩ and ⟨ô⟩ when before a nasal, before other consonants ⟨ó⟩ alternates with ⟨ô⟩. ⟨ó~a⟩ can also be found in the suffix ⟨-ón⟩ indicating inhabitants, in feminine equivalents of these nouns with mobile stress, and in three individual nouns. Outside of these cases, ⟨o~a⟩ is not to be found, and the alternation will be ⟨ó~ô⟩ before a nasal consonant. Stressed ⟨ˈó⟩ is the archiphoneme of /ˈo/ and /ˈɔ/ before ⟨j⟩.[65][66]
    ˈbóg ("god") > ˈbôga (genitive singular)
    ˈmjêszczón ("urbanite") > ˈmjêszczana (genitive singular)
    ˈjablónka ("apple tree") > jaˈblônkã (instrumental singular)
  • ⟨é~ê⟩ and ⟨é~ˈej⟩: an alternation of ⟨é~ˈe⟩ is unattested. There is one instance of ⟨ˈéj~ˈê⟩ attested. /é~ˈej/ occurs in loanwords with fixed stress before ⟨j⟩ in stem-final position.[67]
    drëˈżéjn ("pith in the wood") > drëˈżênja (genitive singular)
    ˈbjég ("run") > ˈbjêgú (genitive singular) > ˈbjegú (locative singular)
    (loanword with fixed stress before ⟨j⟩ in stem-final position) aˈléj ("alley") > aˈlejjú (genitive singular)
  • ⟨y~ë⟩, ⟨y~i⟩: ⟨y~ë⟩ after ⟨cz, dż, j⟩ and ⟨y~i⟩ after all other consonants.[68]
    ˈżmjija ("snake") > żmjyˈjõ (instrumental singular)
    ˈczin ("deed") > ˈczynú (genitive singular)
    ˈżid ("Jew") > ˈżëda (genitive singular)
  • ⟨ú~ë⟩, ⟨ü~ù⟩: ⟨ü~ù⟩ after ⟨p, b, w, m, n, j, k, ch, g, cz⟩, ⟨ú~ë⟩ after all other consonants.[68]
    ˈdlúg ("debt") > ˈdlëga (genitive singular)
    ˈjúcha ("soup") > jùˈchõ (instrumental singular)
  • ⟨õ~ã⟩ alternate regularly.[68]
    ˈdõb ("oak tree") > ˈdãba (genitive singular)
  • ⟨ŭ~ĭ⟩ appears only in polysyllabic feminine loanwords ending in ⟨-ŭnga⟩ with mobile stress:[68]
    ˈreknŭnga ("reckoning") > rekˈnĭngõ (instrumental singular)
  • ⟨ˈôù(w)~a⟩ /ˈôù~ôˈù/: The alternation ⟨ˈôù(w)~a⟩ occurs before /l, (v)/ or in open final syllables. ⟨ˈôù~ôˈù⟩ occurs before all other consonants.[69]
    ˈstôùw or ˈstôù ("pond") > staˈwú (genitive singular) > staˈwó (genitive plural)
    ˈczôùn > ("small inland boat") > ˈczôùn (genitive singular)

Group 2~1:

  • ⟨a~o⟩, ⟨a~ó⟩, ⟨a~ˈôù(w)⟩: ⟨a~ó⟩ before nasals. ⟨a~ˈôù⟩ before ⟨l, w⟩. ⟨a~o⟩ in all other cases.[70]
    ˈscana ("wall") > ˈscón (genitive plural)
    ˈstrawa ("meal") > ˈstrôù(v) (genitive plural)
    ˈskala ("rock") > ˈskôùl (genitive plural)
    ˈbaba ("old woman") > ˈbob (genitive plural)
  • ⟨ô~ó⟩ alternate regularly.[70]
    ˈgrônô ("squat, crouch") > ˈgrón (genitive plural)
    ˈkrôwa ("cow") > ˈkró(w) (genitive plural)
  • ⟨e, ê~é⟩ see ⟨é~e, ê⟩.[70]
  • ⟨ë~y⟩, ⟨ë~ú⟩, ⟨ë~ó⟩: ⟨ë~y⟩ and ⟨ë~ú⟩ is regular but as to which alternation occurs is unpredictable; however, ⟨ë~ú⟩ alternate only in four words. Nouns ending in ⟨-ˈëna, -ëna⟩ always show ⟨ë~y⟩. ⟨ë~ó⟩ is a unique exception with one example, being the remnant of a set of alternations ⟨ë~ó⟩, ⟨ë~é⟩, ⟨ù~ó⟩, ⟨i~é⟩. which is still productive in verb stems when followed by /l/ but otherwise obsolete in the noun.[71]
    ˈszczêżëla ("scale (of an animal)") szczeˈzúl (genitive plural)
    ˈsztënja ("hour") > ˈsztún (genitive plural)
    ˈsztrëga ("brook, stream") > ˈsztrúg (genitive plural)
    ˈlëba ("type of weaving rush") > ˈlúb (genitive plural)
    szëja ("neck") > szyj (genitive plural)
    ˈstrzëna ("duct, pipe, tube") > ˈstrzyn (genitive plural)
    ˈstrzëżënë ("cord, string") (plurale tantum) > ˈstrzëżyn (genitive plural)
    ˈghrëla (fire poker) > ˈghrol (genitive plural)
  • ⟨i~y⟩ alternate regularly.[72]
    ˈszczinë ("urine") (plurale tantum) > ˈszczyn (genitive plural)
  • ⟨ù~ú⟩ alternate regularly.[72]
    ˈbùda ("booth, stall") > ˈbúd (genitive plural)
  • ⟨ã~õ⟩ alternate regularly.[68]
    ˈlãba ("sheaf") > ˈlõb (genitive plural)
  • ⟨aj~ˈôj⟩ alternate regularly.[68]
    ˈjajô ("egg") > ˈjôj (genitive plural) > jajˈmy (instrumental plural)

Nouns with fleeting vowels do not count the fleeting vowel for the syllable count of the stem.[73]

One can generally predict when alternations take place for each inflection type knowing the gender, number of syllables of the stem, last stem vowel, the voicedness of the final consonant (⟨-ôù⟩ is considered voiced), and whether stress is mobile or stressed.[74]

⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ ~ ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ alternations occurs for masculine mono-syllabic and polysyllabic stems ending in a consonant or in a consonant ending with ⟨-a⟩ and feminine mono-syllabic and polysyllabic stems ending in a consonant in the genitive, dative, accusative animate, instrumental, and vocative singular and in all the plural (except accusative animate) and dual forms. If the genitive plural is -∅, then ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ are present.[75] Nouns ending in a consonant alternate only if the vowel in the final stem syllable is ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩.[74]

  • Masculine nouns ending in a voiced consonant with a monosyllabic stem containing ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ and having fixed or mobile stress have this alternation. Such nouns containing ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ or voiceless consonant do not have alternations.[76]
    (fixed) ˈgrod ("hail") > ˈgradú (genitive singular)
    (mobile) ˈbóg ("god") > ˈbôga (genitive singular)
  • Two exceptions exist for monosyllabic masculine nouns ending in a voiceless consonant with fixed stress:[77]
    ˈtónc ("dance") has both this alternation and no alternation: ˈtanca or ˈtónc (genitive singular)
    ˈslúp ("post, pillar") can have either fixed or mobile stress, and as a result, either this alternation or no alternation: ˈslúpjéch or slëˈpjéch (locative plural).
  • Masculine nouns ending in a voiced consonant with polysyllabic stems containing ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ and having fixed or mobile stress also alternate this way. Such nouns containing ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ or voiceless consonant do not have alternations or that are loanwords do not have alternations. Nouns of mobile stress ending in ⟨-orz⟩ have this type or another (below) if there is ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ in the syllable preceding the final stem syllable with ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩. Nouns ending in ⟨-ón⟩ may optionally alternate.[78]
    (fixed native word) ˈvëchód ("exit") > ˈvëchôda (genitive singular)
    (fixed loanword) ˈknŭrhon ("gurnard") > ˈknŭrhona (genitive singular)
    (mobile) ˈkõkól ("corncockle") > ˈkõkôlú (genitive singular)
    (mobile ⟨-orz⟩) ˈpjêkorz ("baker") > ˈpjêkarza (genitive singular), ˈpjêkorza (genitive singular) and ˈpjêkarzú (locative singular)
  • Feminine nouns ending in a voiced consonants with a monosyllabic stem containing ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ vowel and having fixed stress typically have no alternation but can have this alternation, the same kind of nouns with mobile stress have this alternation. Such nouns containing ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ or voiceless consonant do not have alternations.[79]
    (fixed or mobile) ˈdrob ("ladder") > ˈdrobjõ or draˈbjõ (instrumental singular)
    (mobile) ˈscyrz ("beast of burden") > ˈscërza (genitive singular)
  • Feminine nouns ending in a voiced consonants with a polysyllabic stem containing ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ and having fixed or mobile stress have this alternation. Such nouns containing ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ or voiceless consonant do not have alternations.[79]
    ˈgalõz ("gallows") > ˈgalãzë or gaˈlãzy (genitive singular) > gaˈlõz (genitive plural)

⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ ~ ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ alternate for neuter polysyllabic stems ending in a consonant ending with ⟨-ô⟩ in no singular forms and in all plural and dual forms.[75]

  • Monosyllabic neuter nouns ending in a voiced consonant ending in ⟨-ô⟩ nouns whose stem has + ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ of mobile stress show an alternation of ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ ~ ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩. Only one example can be found.[80]
    ˈcalô ("body") > ˈcôùl (genitive plural)
  • Polysyllabic neuter nouns ending in a voiceless consonant ending with ⟨-kô⟩ nouns whose stem contains ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ with mobile stress show this alternation except those ending in ⟨-yszkô⟩ and ⟨-ùszkô⟩.[80]
    ˈcêlõtkô ("calf") > cêˈlãtka (nominative plural)
  • Mobile polysyllabic neuter nouns ending in a consonant ending with ⟨-ô⟩ stems with this alternation show another alternation in the locative singular in ⟨-ú⟩, but stress can change this.[81]
    ˈdôbitczõtkô ("small animal") > dôbitˈczãtka (nominative plural) but > ˈdôbitczõtkú (locative singular)
    ˈslónyszkô ("sun") > slóˈnyszka (nominative plural)

⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ ~ ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ alternations occurs for feminine monosyllabic stems ending in a consonant anding with ⟨-a⟩ in the instrumental singular, genitive, dative, instrumental, and locative plurals, and not in the plural. If the genitive plural is -∅, then ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ are present.[75]

  • Nouns of mobile stress ending in ⟨-orz⟩ have this type or another (above) if there is ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ in the syllable preceding the final stem syllable with ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩.
    (mobile ⟨-orz⟩) ˈpjêkorz ("baker") > ˈpjêkarza (genitive singular), ˈpjêkorza (genitive singular) and pjêˈkarzú (locative singular)
  • Diminutives ending in ⟨-ork⟩, ⟨-ólk⟩, and ⟨-ónk⟩ have this alternation.[82]
    ˈkoczork ("drake (male duck)") > koˈczôrkú (locative singular)
  • Monosyllabic feminine stems ending in a consonant ending with ⟨-a⟩ + containing ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ in the stem with mobile stress have this alternation. Such nouns with fixed stress do not.[83]
    (voiced) ˈgwjozda ("star") > gwjazˈdõ (instrumental singular)
    (voiceless) ˈmõka ("flour") > mãˈkõ (instrumental singular)
  • Polysyllabic feminine nouns ending in a voiced consonant+/-a/ borrowed nouns whose stems contain ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ with mobile stress have this alternation. Such native words have none.[83]
  • (native) ˈprzyvoga ("overweight") > ˈprzyvogõ (instrumental singular)
  • (loanword) ˈlodŭnga ("load") > laˈdy̆ngõ (instrumental singular), but the alternative nominative singular ending in -ynga shows no alternation.

⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ ~ ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ alternations occur for feminine monosyllabic stems ending in a consonant plus ending ⟨-a⟩ and in a consonant with ending ⟨-o⟩, polysyllabic stems ending in a consonant with ending ⟨-a⟩, and neuter stems ending in a consonant with ending ⟨-ô⟩ monosyllabic and polysyllabic stems only in the genitive plural unless the genitive plural is -∅.[75]

  • Monosyllabic native feminine C+⟨-a⟩ nouns whose stems end in a voiced consonant + ⟨a ô e ë i ã ê aj⟩|ôˈù ej ĭ⟩ with fixed stress have this alternation. Such borrowed words do not.[83]
    (fixed native) ˈbaba ("old woman") > ˈbob (genitive plural)
    (fixed loanword) ˈflagha ("flag") > ˈflagh (genitive plural)
  • Monosyllabic borrowed feminine stems ending in a voiced consonant+⟨-a⟩ nouns and contain ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ with mobile stress unpredictably have this alternation or none. Such native words alternate.[83]
    (mobile loanword with alternation) ˈkara ("cart") > ˈkor (genitive plural)
    (mobile loanword without alternation) ˈszëfla ("shovel") > szëˈfel (genitive plural)
    (mobile native) ˈglôwa ("head") > ˈglów (genitive plural)
  • Polysyllabic feminine nouns ending in a voiced consonant+⟨-a⟩ nouns whose stems contain ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ with mobile stress have this alternation.[83]
  • Feminine nouns with this alternation that form the genitive plural with -∅ and formed with an infix show no alternation.[84]
    ˈwarna ("crow") > ˈworn but also ˈwarën (genitive plural)
  • Monosyllabic neuter nouns ending in a voiced consonant+⟨-ô⟩ whose stem contain ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ with mobile stress show this alternation. One such noun can be found.[80]
    ˈgównô ("shit") > ˈgôwna (nominative plural) > gôˈwjên (genitive plural)
  • Polysyllabic neuter nouns ending in a voiceless consonant with ending ⟨-ô⟩ nouns whose stem contains ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ with mobile stress show this alternation including those ending in ⟨-iszkô⟩ and ⟨-ùszkô⟩.[80]
    slˈónyszkô ("sun") > slónˈyszka (nominative plural)
  • Polysyllabic neuter nouns ending in a voiced consonant ending ⟨-ô⟩ nouns whose stem contains ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ with mobile stress show this alternation.[80]
    ˈwrzêcônô ("spindle") > wrzêˈcôna (nominative plural)
  • In the genitive plural of neuter nouns formed with -∅ and an infix of with this type, alternation takes place.[85]
    ˈdôbrô ("good") > dôˈber (genitive plural)
    ˈkarnô ("(Shaar)") > ˈkarën (genitive plural)

The second type of alternations is not automatic and is rare, applying to a few dozen nouns. ⟨ˈa, a; ˈô, ô; ó, o⟩ may change into ⟨ˈê⟩ when stressed and ⟨ê⟩ when unstressed in native monosyllabic or polysyllabic stems.[85]

This alternation may occur:[86]

  1. In masculine nouns ending with ⟨ˈa, a; ˈô, ô; ó, o⟩ + ⟨s, z, t, d, n, r, l⟩ in the locative-vocative singular and nominative plural ⟨-ê⟩ and in the locative plural ⟨-ˈéch⟩ or ⟨-éch⟩.
    ˈjanjól ("angel") > ˈjanjelê (locative singular-nominative plural)
    ˈjasón ("ash tree") > ˈjasênje (locative singular) > jaˈsênjéch (nominative plural)
  2. In feminine nouns' stems ending in ⟨t, d, n, r⟩ ening with ⟨-a⟩ in the dative and locative singular and the nominative and accusative dual in ⟨-ê⟩
    ˈkôbjôra ("coltsfoot") > ˈkôbjerzê (dative-locative singular)
    ˈmjara ("measure") > ˈmjêrzê (dative-locative singular/nominative-accusative dual)
  3. In neuter nouns' stems ending in ⟨t, d, n, r⟩ ending witih ⟨-ô⟩ and neuter nouns in ⟨l⟩ ending with ⟨-ô⟩ in the locative singular and the nominative and accusative dual in ⟨-ê⟩ and in the locative plural in ⟨-ˈéch⟩ or ⟨-éch⟩.
    ˈcalô ("body") > ˈcêlê (locative singular/nominative-accusative dual) > cêˈléch (locative plural)

This alternation does not even occur regularly in all the cases mentioned and may occur in nouns with mono- or polysyllabic stems of both mobile and fixed stress patterns and also depends on whether other alternations occur in these nouns.[87]

The last alternation involves inserting ⟨ˈe, e, ë, ˈê, ˈej⟩ between the last consonants of a stem before -∅. The alternation itself it not predictable, but the inserted vowel is.[88]

  • Masculine non-syllabic stems ending in a consonant have a fleeting infix in the nominative singular of ⟨ˈej~∅⟩ if a ⟨-j⟩ is added to the stem, otherwise ⟨ˈê~∅⟩.[88]
    (with inserted -j) ˈdzeń ("day") > ˈdnja (genitive singular)
    ˈlên ("flax") > ˈlnú (genitive singular)
  • Feminine non-syllabic stems ending in a consonant have a fleeting infix in the nominative singular of ⟨ˈe~∅⟩ before /ż, sz/, otherwise ⟨ê~∅⟩.[89]
    ˈreż ("rye") > ˈrżë (genitive singular)
    ˈwjês ("village") > ˈwsë (genitive singular)
  • Feminine non-syllabic stems ending in a consonant ending wiht ⟨-a⟩ have a fleeting infix ⟨-ê-⟩ and -∅ in the genitive plural:[90]
    ˈskra ("spark") > ˈskjêr or ˈskró (genitive plural)
  • Neuter non-syllabic stems in a consonant ending with ⟨-ô⟩ have a fleeting infix ⟨-ê-⟩ and /∅/ in the genitive plural:[90]
    ˈkrô ("calf of one's leg") > ˈkjêr or ˈkró (genitive plural)
  • Masculine mono- and polysyllabic stems have unstressed ⟨-ë⟩ (before ⟨n⟩ and also ⟨e⟩), stressed ⟨ê⟩ after velars plus ⟨j⟩, ⟨ˈe⟩ in all other cases in the nominative singular and the genitive plural and the genitive plural in -∅.[91]
    ˈbãbël ("drum") > ˈbãbla (gen. sing.) > ˈbãbel (genitive plural)
but:
ˈserszël ("hornet") > ˈserszela (genitive singular)
  • Feminine mono- and polysyllabic stems ending in a consonant ending with ⟨-a⟩ show ∅~vowel/diphthong alternation in the genitive plural in ⟨∅⟩: ⟨∅~ˈê⟩, ⟨∅~ˈê⟩ (unstressed) after velars plus ⟨j⟩; ⟨∅~ˈe⟩ (stressed), ⟨∅~e, ê⟩ (unstressed) after other consonants (⟨e⟩ only sometimes before final ⟨w⟩ or ⟨nj⟩. However, many such words do not show here this third type of alternation, mostly loanwords. There also nouns with the first type which in the genitive plural either show ⟨a, ô, e, ë, y, ã, e, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ with an inserted vowel or ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ without one, no matter whether the vowel in the nominative singular is ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ or ⟨a, ô, e, ë, y, ã, e, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩:[92]
    ˈjêgla ("needle") > jêˈgjêl (genitive plural)
but:
ˈpalma ("palm") > ˈpalm (genitive plural)
but:
ˈwarna ("crow") > ˈwarên but also ˈworn (genitive plural)
ˈborna ("harrow") > baˈren but also ˈborn (genitive plural)
  • Several feminine monosyllabic stems ending in ⟨-ew⟩ or ⟨-ëw⟩ in the nominative singular show ⟨e, ë~∅⟩ alternation in all other cases except the genitive plural in -∅.[93]
    ˈcérkjëw ("church") > ˈcérkjwë (genitive singular) > ˈcérkjëw (genitive plural)
  • Neuter mono- and polysyllabic stems ending in a consonant ending with ⟨-ô⟩ have unstressed ⟨-ê⟩ (/ɛ/ or /ə/ before ⟨n⟩), stressed ⟨ê⟩ after velars and ⟨j⟩, ⟨ˈe⟩ after other consonants in the genitive plural ending in ⟨-∅⟩.[94]
    ˈkrôsna ("loom") (plurale tantum) > ˈkrôsên (genitive plural)
    ˈżêbrô ("rib") > żeˈber (genitive plural)

A few nouns show isolated cases of other alternations.[95]

Noun stress alternations[edit]

Slovincian nouns can have either fixed or mobile stress.[96] Nouns with fixed stress keep the stress on the stem, unless the stress is on the end, in which case the stress will always be on the last syllable.[97][98] If an vowel is inserted in the genitive plural formed with -∅, then that vowel will automatically get the stress.[99] All non-syllabic stems with fixed stress have in the dative and instrumental dual a stress shift to the first syllable of the inflectional suffix.[100]

Nouns with mobile stress can shift it in three ways.

Some shift it right in the plural and the dual.[98]

  • The stress always shifts from its original position in the nominative singular to the final syllable of the ending for non-syllabic and monosyllabic stems. In polysyllabic stems the stress shifts to the last syllabic of the stem.[98]
  • ˈrãka ("hand, arm") > rãˈkõ (instrumental singular) > rãkaˈmy (instrumental plural)
  • The locative singular ending ⟨-ú⟩ causes an automatic shift here.[99]
  • Sometimes no stress shift occurs in the genitive plural constructed with -∅ here.[99]

Nouns with this type of shift include:

  • Neuter polysyllabic stems ending in a consonant+⟨-ô⟩. These nouns can also have fixed stress.[101]
  • Neuter polysyllabic stems ending in a consonant+⟨-ã⟩.[101]

Some shift it right in the genitive, dative, instrumental, and locative plural.[98]

  • The stress always shifts from its original position in the nominative singular to the final syllable of the ending for non-syllabic and monosyllabic stems. In polysyllabic stems the stress shifts to the last syllabic of the stem.[98]
  • ˈrãka ("hand, arm") > rãˈkõ (instrumental singular) > rãkaˈmy (instrumental plural)
  • All here feminine nouns automatically shift the stress in the instrumental singular.[99]
  • The locative singular ending ⟨-ú⟩ causes an automatic shift here.[99]
  • The locative singular ending ⟨-i⟩ causes an automatic shift in feminine nouns with a polysyllabic stem ending in a consonant or ending in a consonant +⟨-a⟩.[99]

Nouns with this type of shift include:

  • Masculine monosyllabic stems ending in a consonant or in a consonant+⟨-a⟩, of which there are two examples. These nouns can also have fixed stress.[101]
  • Masculine polysyllabic stems ending in a consonant. These nouns can also have fixed stress.[101]
  • Masculine polysyllabic stems ending in a consonant+⟨-a⟩. These nouns can also have fixed stress.[101]
  • Feminine monosyllabic stems ending in a consonant or a consonant +⟨-a⟩. These nouns can also have fixed stress.[101]
  • Feminine polysyllabic stems ending in a consonant. These nouns can also have fixed stress.[101]
  • Feminine polysyllabic stems ending in a consonant+⟨-a⟩. These nouns can also have fixed stress.[101]
  • Neuter monosyllabic stems ending in a consonant+⟨-ô⟩. These nouns can also have fixed stress.[101]
  • Feminine nouns with polysyllabic stems except compounds formed with ⟨-môc⟩ and ⟨vë-⟩.[102]

Some shift it left in non-animate accusative singular and the nominative and accusative plural and dual.[98]

  • The stress shifts from the final stem syllable to the initial syllable of the noun.[98]
  • rôˈbôta ("work") > ˈrôbôtã (accusative singular)

Nouns with this type of shift include:

  • Masculine polysyllabic stems ending in a consonant+⟨-a⟩ of which there is only one example.[101]
  • Feminine polysyllabic stems ending in a consonant+⟨-a⟩. These nouns can also have fixed stress.[101]
  • Feminine polysyllabic stems ending in a consonant+⟨-é⟩, of which there is one example.[101]

All other nouns have fixed stress.[101]

General rules:

  • Feminine nouns with monosyllabic stems ending in a consonant usually have fixed stress, with the exception of 9 nouns.[102]
  • Masculine nouns ending in a consonant+⟨-a⟩ are always have fixed stress except those ending ⟨-ola⟩, which can be of either gender.[102]
  • Masculine nouns ending in a consonant+⟨-a⟩ and feminine nouns ending in a consonant+⟨y⟩ are considered nouns ending in a consonant.[102]
  • Nouns ending in a consonant+⟨-a⟩ never stress the last syllable of the word.[103]
  • Feminine nouns ending in a consonant always have stress on the first syllable, with two exceptions.[103]
  • Feminine nouns ending in a consonant+⟨-o⟩ always stress the last syllable, with a few exceptions.[103]
  • Neuter nouns ending in a consonant+⟨-ô⟩ never stress the last syllable, with one exception.[103]
  • Neuter nouns ending in a consonant+⟨-é⟩ always stress the penultimate syllable.[103]
  • Neuter nouns ending in a consonant+⟨-ã⟩ stress the initial syllable.[103]

It is possible to predict the stress pattern of a noun if one knows:[104]

  1. If a noun has fixed or mobile stress
  2. The number of syllables of the stem
  3. The stressed syllable of the nominative singular
  4. The gender
  5. The type of declension

In Slovincian, prepositions can act as proclitics and take stress completely away from masculine and feminine nouns ending in a consonant or a consonant+⟨-a⟩ and from neuter nouns ending in a consonant+⟨-ô⟩ or in a consonant+⟨-ã⟩.[105][106]

This happens to:

  • All nouns with a non-syllabic or monosyllabic stem, fixed or stress that shifts right in the genitive, dative, instrumental, and locative plural have stress retracted when the initial syllable of the word is stress, except in the genitive plural ending in -∅.[106]
  • Nouns with mobile stress with polysyllabic stems retract the stress in words which are stressed on the initial syllable of the word.[107]

No retraction occurs in:

  • Nouns with polysyllabic stems with fixed stress.[108]
  • Polysyllabic prepositions and a few monosyllabic prepositions.[109]
  • Prepositional phrases where another word, such as a determiner or adjective, is between the preposition and the noun.[109]

There is a strong tendency for words with stress on final or only syllable of the inflectional suffix when there is a preposition to retract to the initial syllable of the word.[110]

Sometimes both the noun and the preposition are stressed.[111]

Adjectives[edit]

There are long, short, and possessive adjectives. Short adjectives are uncommon.[112] Short adjectives are used predicatively.[113] In addition to hard and soft declension, like Kashubian, Slovincian velar stems soften in the nominative but are hard in other cases.[114]

Hard adjective declension[115]
Case Singular Plural Dual
Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative nôˈwy nôˈwo nôˈwé nôˈwy (virile), nôˈwé (non-virile) nôˈwé nôˈwé nôˈwo nôˈwé nôˈwé
Genitive nôˈwéwo, nôˈwo nôˈwé nôˈwéwo, nôˈwo nôˈwëch nôˈwëch nôˈwëch = PL = PL = PL
Dative nôˈwémú nôˈwy nôˈwémú nôˈwym nôˈwym nôˈwym nôˈwëma nôˈwëma nôˈwëma
Accusative Inanimate: nôˈwy
Animate: nôˈwéwo, nôˈwo 		nôˈwõ nôˈwé Inanimate: nôˈwy (virile), nôwė (non-virile)
Animate: nôˈwëch 		nôˈwé nôˈwé nôˈwo nôˈwé nôˈwé
Instrumental nôˈwym nôˈwõ nôˈwym nôˈwëmy nôˈwëmy nôˈwëmy nôˈwëma nôˈwëma nôˈwëma
Locative nôˈwym nôˈwy nôˈwym nôˈwëch nôˈwëch nôˈwëch = PL = PL = PL
Hard adjective declension[115]
Case Singular Plural Dual
Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative ˈstory ˈstoro ˈstoré ˈstorzy (virile), ˈstoré (non-virile) ˈstoré ˈstoré ˈstoro ˈstoré ˈstoré
Genitive ˈstoréwo, ˈstoro ˈstoré ˈstoréwo, ˈstoro ˈstorëch ˈstorëch ˈstorëch = PL = PL = PL
Dative ˈstorémú ˈstory ˈstorémú ˈstorym ˈstorym ˈstorym ˈstorëma ˈstorëma ˈstorëma
Accusative Inanimate: ˈstory
Animate: ˈstoréwo, ˈstoro 		ˈstorõ ˈstoré Inanimate: ˈstory (virile), ˈstoré (non-virile)
Animate: ˈstorëch 		ˈstoré ˈstoré ˈstoré ˈstoré ˈstoré
Instrumental ˈstorym ˈstorõ ˈstorim ˈstorëmy ˈstorëmy ˈstorëmy ˈstorëma ˈstorëma ˈstorëma
Locative ˈstorym ˈstory ˈstorym ˈstorëch ˈstorëch ˈstorëch = PL = PL = PL
Soft adjective declension[115]
Case Singular Plural Dual
Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative wôwˈczy wôwˈczo wôwˈczé wôwˈczy (virile), wôwˈczé (non-virile) wôwˈczé wôwˈczé wôwˈczo wôwˈczé wôwˈczé
Genitive wôwˈczéwo, wôwˈczo wôwˈczé wôwˈczéwo, wôwˈczo wôwˈczich wôwˈczich wôwˈczich = PL = PL = PL
Dative wôwˈczémú wôwˈczy wôwˈczémú wôwˈczym wôwˈczym wôwˈczym wôwˈczima wôwˈczima wôwˈczima
Accusative Inanimate: wôwˈczy
Animate: wôwˈczéwo, wôwˈczo 		wôwˈczõ wôwˈczé Inanimate: wôwˈczy (virile), wôwˈczé (non-virile)
Animate: wôwˈczych 		wôwˈczé wôwˈczé wôwˈczé wôwˈczé wôwˈczé
Instrumental wôwˈczym wôwˈczõ wôwˈczym wôwˈczimy wôwˈczimy wôwˈczimy wôwˈczima wôwˈczima wôwˈczima
Locative wôwˈczym wôwˈczy wôwˈczym wôwˈczich wôwˈczich wôwˈczich = PL = PL = PL
Soft adjective declension[116]
Case Singular Plural Dual
Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative ˈtónjy ˈtónjo ˈtónjé ˈtónjy (virile), ˈtónjé (non-virile) ˈtónjé ˈtónjé ˈtónjo ˈtónjé ˈtónjé
Genitive ˈtónjéwo, ˈtónjo ˈtónjo ˈtónjéwo, ˈtónjo ˈtónjich ˈtónjich ˈtónjich = PL = PL = PL
Dative ˈtónjémú ˈtónjy ˈtónjémú ˈtónjim ˈtónjim ˈtónjim ˈtónjima ˈtónjima ˈtónjima
Accusative Inanimate: ˈtónjy
Animate: ˈtónjéwo, ˈtónjo 		ˈtónjõ ˈtónjé Inanimate: ˈtónjy (virile), ˈtónjé (non-virile)
Animate: ˈtónjich 		ˈtónjé ˈtónjé ˈtónjé ˈtónjé ˈtónjé
Instrumental ˈtónjim ˈtónjõ ˈtónjim ˈtónjimy ˈtónjimy ˈtónjimy ˈtónjima ˈtónjima ˈtónjima
Locative ˈtónjim ˈtónjy ˈtónjim ˈtónjich ˈtónjich ˈtónjich = PL = PL = PL
Velar declension[116]
Case Singular Plural Dual
Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative cëchjˈy cëchˈo cëchjˈé cëchjˈy (virile), cëchjˈé (non-virile) cëchjˈé cëchjˈé cëchˈo cëchjˈé cëchjˈé
Genitive cëchjˈéwo, cëcho cëchjˈé cëchjˈéwo, cëchˈo cëˈchjich cëˈchjich cëˈchjich = PL = PL = PL
Dative cëchjˈémú cëchjˈy cëchjˈémú cëchjˈym cëchjˈym cëchjˈym cëˈchjima cëˈchjima cëˈchjima
Accusative Inanimate: cëchjˈy
Animate: cëchjˈéwo, cëchˈo 		cëchˈõ cëchjˈé Inanimate: cëchjˈy (virile), cëchjˈé (non-virile)
Animate: cëchjˈych 		cëchjˈé cëchjˈé cëchjˈé cëchjˈé cëchjˈé
Instrumental cëchjˈym cëchˈõ cëchjˈym cëˈchjimy cëˈchjimy cëˈchjimy cëˈchjimy cëˈchjimy cëˈchjimy
Locative cëchjˈym cëchjˈy cëchjˈym cëˈchjich cëˈchjich cëˈchjich = PL = PL = PL
Velar declension[116]
Case Singular Plural Dual
Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative ˈwjelgjy ˈwjelgo ˈwjelgjé ˈwjelzy (virile), ˈwjelgjé (non-virile) ˈwjelgjé ˈwjelgjé ˈwjelgo ˈwjelgjé ˈwjelgjé
Genitive ˈwjelgjéwo, ˈwjelgo ˈwjelgjé ˈwjelgjéwo, ˈwjelgo ˈwjelgjich ˈwjelgjich ˈwjelgjich = PL = PL = PL
Dative ˈwjelgjémú ˈwjelgjy ˈwjelgjémú ˈwjelgjim ˈwjelgjim ˈwjelgjim ˈwjelgjima ˈwjelgjima ˈwjelgjima
Accusative Inanimate: ˈwjelgjy
Animate: ˈwjelgjéwo, ˈwjelgo 		ˈwjelgõ ˈwjelgjé Inanimate: wjelzy (virile), ˈwjelgjé (non-virile)
Animate: ˈwjelgjych 		ˈwjelgjé ˈwjelgjé ˈwjelgjé ˈwjelgjé ˈwjelgjé
Instrumental ˈwjelgjim ˈwjelgõ ˈwjelgjim ˈwjelgjimy ˈwjelgjimy ˈwjelgjimy ˈwjelgjima ˈwjelgjima ˈwjelgjima
Locative ˈwjelgjim ˈwjelgjy ˈwjelgjim ˈwjelgjich ˈwjelgjich ˈwjelgjich = PL = PL = PL

The short masculine/neuter genitive form and ⟨-o⟩ is most often found with adjectives that do not have a stress on the final syllable, especially when they are used as nouns. It is rare in adjectives with word-final stress, and the most rare in velar stems, which, even when not stressed word-finally, prefer ⟨-éwo⟩. For ˈzly ("bad"), the genitive is always ˈzlévo.[117]

⟨-ë⟩ is sometimes used instead of the phonetic ⟨-i⟩ in soft stems in the genitive-instrumental-locative plural and dative-instrumental dual, this almost never happens with velar stems.[118]

Adjective comparative and superlative[edit]

Slovincian has ⟨-szy⟩ and ⟨-êszy⟩ as comparative suffixes. ⟨-szy⟩ is used in stems that end with a single consonant. Some stems ending in ⟨-k⟩ typically lose it, but the ⟨k⟩ is often restored analogously. If a stem ends in multiple consonants, ⟨-êszy⟩, which can can stress and stem alternations such as ⟨t, n, r⟩ ~ ⟨c, nj, rz⟩.[119]

  • ˈsaty > ˈsatszy
  • ˈkrótkjy > ˈkrótszy
  • gãsˈty > gãsˈcêszy
  • ˈmôkry > môˈkrzêszy

Slovincian, like other Slavic languages also has suppletive comparatives.[120]

  • ˈdôbry > ˈlêpszy
  • ˈzly > ˈgôrszy
  • ˈwjelgy > wjitzy
  • ˈmoly > ˈmjênszy

The superlative is formed from the comparative with the prefix ⟨no-⟩.[120]

Adjective stress patterns[edit]

The accent of the long adjectives is fixed.[121]

Possessive adjectives ending in ⟨-ó⟩ and ⟨-yn⟩ have a definite and indefinite form in the lemma form, and a definite form everywhere else. Possessive adjectives derived from monosyllabic stems emphasize the stem syllable. Polysyllabic stems emphasize the last stem syllable if the base word has a movable accent; however, if the base word has a fixed accent, the possessive adjective emphasizes the same syllable as the base word. Other possessive adjectives have a fixed accent.[122]

Place names ending in ⟨-ôwô, -ënô⟩ are neuter possessive adjectives; those ending in ⟨-ôwô⟩ withdraw the accent as much as possible.[113]

Ordinal numerals are long adjectives and as such emphasize the penultimate syllable.[123]

Adverbs[edit]

Adverbs can be formed from adjectives as well as prepositional phrases.[113]

Adverb comparative and superlative[edit]

The comparative adverb is formed by adding the suffix ⟨-é⟩. Adverbs also have suppletive comparatives. The superlative is formed by putting the prefix ⟨no-⟩ in front of the comparative. ⟨-é⟩ causes consonant softening: ⟨p, b, w, m, t, d, st, zd, n, k, g, ch, r⟩ alternate with ⟨pj, bj, wj, mj, c, dz, szcz, żdż, nj, cz, ż, sz, rz⟩.[124][125]

Pronouns[edit]

Pronouns share the same cases, numbers, and genders with nouns, but the vocative is the same as the nominative, and is only used with second person pronouns, and only personal pronouns have the dual. The three genders are only distinct for the non-personal or third-person pronouns.[126] Pronouns may be used as clitics, and may occur generally in stressed or unstressed positions. Some have short forms, used in unstressed positions.[127]

Personal pronouns[128][129]
Case Singular Plural Dual
1st 2nd 1st 2nd 1st 2nd
stressed unstressed stressed unstressed stressed unstressed stressed unstressed stressed unstressed stressed unstressed
Nominative ˈjo jo ˈtë të ˈmë më ˈwë wë ˈma m, ˈmjê f ma m, mjê[a] f ˈwa m, ˈwjê f wa m, wjê[b] f
Genitive ˈmjê mjê[a] ˈcêbjê cê[c] ˈnas — ˈwas — ˈnajú — ˈwajú —
Dative ˈmjê mjê[a] ˈtôbjê cê, tê[d] ˈnóm nóm ˈwóm wóm ˈnama — ˈwama —
Accusative ˈmjê mjê[a] ˈcêbjê cê[c] ˈnas nas ˈwas was ˈnajú — ˈwajú —
Instrumental ˈmnõ — tôˈbõ — ˈnamy — ˈwamy — ˈnama — ˈwama —
Locative ˈmjˈê mjê[a] ˈcêbjê cê[c] ˈnas — ˈwas — ˈnajú — ˈwajú —
Reflexive pronoun[130]
Case
stressed unstressed
Nominative —
Genitive ˈsêbjê sê[e]
Dative ˈsôbjê sê[e]
Accusative — sã, sê
Instrumental sôˈbõ —
Locative ˈsêbjê sê[e]
  1. ^ a b c d e pronounced mjë
  2. ^ pronounced vjë
  3. ^ a b c pronounced cë
  4. ^ pronounced cë, të
  5. ^ a b c pronounced së

In addition to personal pronouns, Slovincian also has:[131][132]

  • Demonstratives: ˈtên, ˈta, ˈtô ("this"), ˈnên, ˈna, ˈnô ("this"), ˈwôn, ˈwôna, ˈwônô ("he", "she", "it"), (occurring only in the nominative forms); taˈkjy, taˈko, taˈkjé ("such", which inflects as a long adjective), ˈjên ("he");
  • Interrogative pronouns: ˈchtô ("who"), ˈcô ("what") and their compounds: ˈnjicht ("nobody"), ˈnjic ("nothing"); chtôˈlê, côˈlê; chtôˈbõdz, côˈbõdz; chtôˈkôlwjek, côˈkôlwjek; chtôleˈbõdz, côleˈbõdz, chtôleˈkôlwjek, côleˈkôlwjek; bëleˈchtô, bëleˈcô; dzeˈcô; ˈnjêjëden ("some"); ˈchtôry ("which"), jaˈkjy ("what"), ˈkóżdy ("every"), ˈjyny ("other") and their combinations: ˈchtôryˈlê, ˈchtôryˈbõdz, ˈchtôryˈkôlwjek, ˈchtôryleˈbõdz, ˈchtôryleˈkôlwjek, bëleˈchtôry, njêˈchtôry, njeˈchtôry; jaˈkjylê, jakjyˈbõdz, jakjyˈkôlwjek, jakjyleˈbõdz, jakjyleˈkôlwjek, bëleˈjakjy, njiˈjakjy; ˈkóżdyˈkôlwjek, wszeˈlakjy, wszeleˈjakjy, wszelerˈjakny, wszelerˈjakny ("all sorts"); ˈwszëden ("all"); ˈczy, ˈczo, ˈczé ("whose") and its compounds czyˈlê, czyˈbõdz, czyˈkôlwjek, czyleˈbõdz, czyleˈkôlwjek, bëleˈczy;
  • Relative pronouns: the indeclinable cô serves as a general relative particle, to which the forms of ˈjên can be added in the oblique cases; ˈchtôry, ˈchtôro, ˈchtôré ("which") and jaˈkjy, jaˈko, jaˈkjé ("such") (the last two inflect as a long adjective);
  • Indefinite pronouns: ˈchtôsz, ˈchtesz ("who?"), ˈcesz ("what?"), ˈchtôrysz, ˈchttôrósz, ˈchttôresz ("which one?") and jaˈkjysz, jaˈkosz, jaˈkjéjsz ("of what kind?"), ˈczysz, ˈczosz, ˈczéjsz ("whose?") (the last three inflect as a long adjective);
  • Quantitative pronouns: ˈjëden, ˈjëna, ˈjënô ("one"), ˈdwa, ˈdwjê ("two"), ˈwôba, ˈwôbjë, ("both"), ˈżõden, ˈżóno, ˈżóné ("none");
  • Possessive pronouns: ˈmój ("my"), ˈtwój ("your"), ˈswój (reflexive possessive pronoun "one's"), ˈnasz ("our"), ˈwasz ("you all's");
Declension of tên[133][134]
Case Singular Plural Dual
Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative ˈtên ˈta ˈtô ˈty (virile)
tˈë (non-virile) 		ˈty, tˈë ˈtë ˈta ˈtë ˈtë
Genitive ˈtêwo, to (unstressed) ˈté ˈtêwo, to (unstressed) ˈtëch (pronounced tech when unstressed) ˈtëch (pronounced tech when unstressed) ˈtëch (pronounced tech when unstressed) = PL = PL = PL
Dative ˈtêmú ˈty ˈtêmú ˈtym ˈtym ˈtym ˈtëma ˈtëma ˈtëma
Accusative Inanimate: ˈtên
Animate: ˈtêwo, ˈto (unstressed) 		ˈtã ˈtô ˈty, ˈtë (inanimate)

ˈtëch (inanimate; pronounced tech when unstressed) 		ˈtë ˈtë ˈta ˈtë ˈtë
Instrumental ˈtym ˈtõ ˈtym ˈtëmy ˈtëmy ˈtëmy ˈtëma ˈtëma ˈtëma
Locative ˈtym ˈty ˈtym ˈtëch (pronounced tech when unstressed) ˈtëch (pronounced tech when unstressed) ˈtëch (pronounced tech when unstressed) = PL = PL = PL
Declension of chtô, chteż "who"[135]
Case
Nominative ˈchtô, ˈchteż
Genitive ˈkôwo, ˈko, ˈkjêwo
Dative ˈkômú, ˈkjêmú
Accusative ˈkôwo, ˈko, ˈkjêwo
Instrumental ˈczym
Locative ˈczym
Declension of cô, ceż "what"[135]
Case
Nominative ˈcô, ˈceż
Genitive ˈczêwo, ˈczo
Dative ˈczêmú
Accusative ˈcô, ˈcesz
Instrumental ˈczym
Locative ˈczym
Declension of jên[136]
Case Singular Plural Dual
Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative ˈjên — — — — — —
Genitive ˈjêwo (stressed)
jêwo, jo, njewo, njo (unstressed) 		ˈjé ˈjêwo (stressed)
jêwo, jo, njewo, njo (unstressed) 		ˈjich, ˈnjich ˈjich, ˈnjich ˈjich, ˈnjich ˈjú, ˈnjú ˈjú, ˈnjú ˈjú, ˈnjú
Dative ˈjêmú (stressed)
jêmú, mú (unstressed) 		ˈjy ˈjêmú (stressed)
jêmú, mú (unstressed) 		ˈjym ˈjym ˈjym ˈjima, njima (stressed) ˈnjima (stressed) ˈnjima (stressed)
Accusative Inanimate: ˈjên (stressed); jên, njên (unstressed)
Animate: ˈjêwo, jo (stressed)
jêwo, jo, njêwo, njo (unstressed) 		ˈjã, njã jë (unstressed) ˈjich, ˈnjich (stressed)
jich , jë, një (unstressed) 		jë, një (unstressed) jë, një (unstressed) ˈjich, ˈnjich (stressed) jë, një (unstressed) jë, një (unstressed)
Instrumental ˈnjym ˈjõ ˈnjym ˈnjimy (stressed) ˈnjimy (stressed) ˈnjimy (stressed) ˈjima, njima ˈnjima (stressed) ˈnjima (stressed)
Locative ˈnjym ˈnjy ˈnjym ˈjich, ˈnjich (stressed) ˈjich, ˈnjich (stressed) ˈjich, ˈnjich (stressed) = PL = PL = PL

Alternative forms starting with ⟨nj-⟩ are used after prepositions.[137]

Declension of possessive pronouns[138]
Case Singular Plural Dual
Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative ˈmój ˈmo ˈmé ˈmy, ˈmé ˈmé ˈmé ˈmo ˈmé ˈmé
Genitive ˈméwo, ˈmo ˈmé ˈméwo, ˈmo ˈmëch ˈmëch ˈmëch = PL = PL = PL
Dative ˈmémú ˈmy ˈmémú ˈmym ˈmym ˈmym ˈmëma ˈmëma ˈmëma
Accusative Inanimate: ˈmój
Animate: ˈméwo, ˈmo 		ˈmõ ˈmé Inanimate: ˈmy, ˈmé
Animate: ˈmëch 		ˈmé ˈmé ˈmé ˈmé ˈmé
Instrumental ˈmym ˈmõ ˈmym ˈmëmy ˈmëmy ˈmëmy ˈmëma ˈmëma ˈmëma
Locative ˈmym ˈmy ˈmym ˈmëch ˈmëch ˈmëch = PL = PL = PL

ˈtwój and ˈswój decline similarly, as well as ˈnasz and ˈwasz, but the latter only differ in the nominative and accusative. Many of these forms are the result of vowel contractions; uncontracted forms died out; but the nominative ˈmôja, ˈtwôja, ˈtwôje still occurred in folk songs and in the Lord's Prayer. ˈczy inflects like ˈmój, only in the plural and dual, it has ⟨i⟩ instead of ⟨ë⟩: ˈczimy, ˈczima.[139]

Declension of wszëden[140]
Case Singular Plural Dual
Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative ˈwszëden ˈwszëtka ˈwszëtkô ˈwszëtcë (virile), ˈwszëtkji (non-virile) ˈwszëtkji ˈwszëtkji = PL = PL = PL
Genitive ˈwszêwo ˈwszé ˈwszêwo ˈwszêch ˈwszêch ˈwszêch = PL = PL = PL
Dative ˈwszêmú ˈwszy ˈwszêmú ˈwszym ˈwszym ˈwszym = PL = PL = PL
Accusative Inanimate: ˈwszëden
Animate: ˈwszêwo 		ˈwszëtką ˈwszëtkô Inanimate: ˈwszëtkji
Animate: ˈwszêch 		ˈwszëtkã ˈwszëtkô = PL = PL = PL
Instrumental ˈwszym ˈwszõ ˈwszym ˈwszëmy ˈwszëmy ˈwszëmy = PL = PL = PL
Locative ˈwszym ˈwszy ˈwszym ˈwszêch ˈwszêch ˈwszêch = PL = PL = PL

Numerals[edit]

Slovincian has ordinal, cardinal, and collective numerals.

The cardinal numbers 1-20, words for tens (30, 40, etc.), hundreds, and thousands in Slovincian have a single word, all others are made through combining other cardinal numbers.[141] There are no ordinals of numbers over 30 in Slovenian.[123]

The numerals jˈëden, dwˈa, trzˈë, sztˈérzë ("one, two, three, four") and are declinable. Numbers from five (pjˈync) to twenty (dwadzˈêsca) except word for "teens" ending in ⟨-e⟩ are declinable. Teens are usually indeclinable, but sometimes decline like adjectives. They are sometimes reduced to ⟨-no⟩. tˈësinc ("thousand") behaves grammatically like a noun and declines as one.[142][143]

Ordinal numerals are long adjectives and are inflected as such. There are no ordinal numerals above 30. Collective numerals are only used in the nominative and accusative.[144]

Multiplicative numerals are long adjectives; numerals ending in ⟨-jak⟩ are adverbs.[144]

The fractional number words formed with ⟨pôù-⟩ are usually declinable.[144]

Numeral stress patterns[edit]

Di- and multi-syllable cardinal numerals are emphasized on the last syllable. In inflectable numerals the accent is fixed.[145]

Numerals for tens from 30 to 90 and for thousands have the main stress on the stem (the root for hundred, thousand). Words for the thousands often have a primary stress on both elements. This is always the case for those exceeding 10,000. Conversely, the hundreds emphasize the number word; if this is polysyllabic, the following noun has a secondary accent.[141]

  • dwadzˈêscë ("twenty"), where ⟨dzêsc-⟩ is the stem for "ten"
  • ˈtrzësta or ˈtrzëˌsta ("three hundred")

Words for numerals between the tens (21, 34, etc.) are composed of the ones digit numeral, a connecting a ("and"), and the tens numeral. In the expressions for 21 to 29, the primary stress is on the connecting a and the number words themselves usually both have a secondary stress, or both number words are fully stressed and the a follows the decade number word proclitic. For non-tens numerals higher than 30, the latter is always the case.[141]

  • dwa‿ˈa‿dwadzêscë
  • trzë‿a‿dvadzˈêscë

Collective numerals are emphasized on the same syllable as the cardinal numeral counterparts.[123]

The distributive numerals formed with ⟨po-, pô-⟩ place the accent on the prefix up to 40.[123]

Fractional numerals formed with ⟨pôù-⟩ emphasize either the prefix or the penultimate syllable. ⟨pôù-⟩ has a secondary accent if the word contains more than three syllables. In the inflected forms there is only penultimate stress.[123]

Verbs[edit]

Like Polish and Kashubian, Slovincian has lost the Proto-Slavic imperfect and the aorist forms. The l-participle has taken its place as the past tense form. The other differences in tense are either expressed through paraphrases or remain formally unmarked. The supine has also disappeared. Most participles have been lost. The Slovincian future tense, perfect, pluperfect, conditional and passive form have periphrastic formations.[146]

The lemma forms of verbs is the infinitive, ending in ⟨-c⟩.[147] Verbs can be divided into five main classes, each with several subclasses.[148]

Slovincian has perfective and imperfective aspects verbs much like Kashubian or Polish.[149]

Conjugation[edit]

Present tense personal endings[150]
infinitive (wiezc)
Singular Plural Dual
1st -ã, -m -më -ma, -më
2nd -sz -ce -ta, -te
3rd -∅ -ó -ta, -te

Dual forms for neuter subjects are not used.[151]

The imperative is formed in two ways, depending on whether the stem ends in a consonant or a vowel. Stems ending in a consonant form the imperative by adding ⟨-i⟩ (⟨-ë⟩ after hard consonants.) Stems ending in a vowel add the ending ⟨-j⟩, which can sometimes disappear. The third person singular imperative is the same as the second person imperative, and the third person plural and dual imperative is formed with ⟨nô⟩ and the third person plural/dual present form[152]

The active present participle has the ending ⟨-õcy⟩ for all verbs and is inflected as a long adjective.[153][154] The present adverbial participle is formed ⟨-õcë⟩, forms without ⟨-ë⟩ do not occur, and is indeclinable.[155]

The past tense is formed using the old l-participle and declines for gender and number:[155]

  • Masculine singular: ⟨-l⟩
  • Feminine singular: ⟨-la⟩
  • Neuter singular: ⟨-lô⟩
  • Virile plural: ⟨-ly⟩
  • Non-virile: ⟨-le⟩

The masculine singular ending ⟨-l⟩ disappears if a verb has an consonantal stem (classes IA, IIA., IIB and sometimes III1A and V).[156]

  • pjêc ("to bake") (stem pjêk-) > pjêk ("masculine singular past")

The feminine singular and masculine dual contract in classes IB, IC, III1B—E, III2, IVB, IVC. and some of classes III1A and V.[157]

  • *bьrala > ˈbrala > ˈbra
  • *xъtěla > cela > ca

In classes IIG and with some classes of III1A, in the feminine singular and masculine dual, the ⟨-l-⟩ disappears and contraction occurs; in the masculine singular, to ⟨-ón-⟩ and in other forms the ⟨-l-⟩ combines with the nasal vowel;

  • *tisnąlъ > ˈcësnón
  • *tisnąla > cësˈnã (pronounced cesˈnã)
  • *tisnąlo > ˈcësnanô

The past participle is formed with ⟨-ly, -ty, -ny, -jôny⟩ and inflected as a long adjective. These participles have completely collapsed in stress: the past participle Regardless of the suffix with which it is formed, it has an active or passive meaning depending on the verbal term. ⟨-ly⟩ is common in classes IA, IIA, IIB, and often in classes III2A, III2B, IVB, as well as some verbs of class V. ⟨-ty⟩ is used in class III1A. ⟨-ny⟩ is with classes IB, IC, III1B, III1C, III1D, III2C, III2D, IVC, and subclasses of III1A. and III2A. and some classes III2A, III2B, IVB, as well as some classes of V and IIC. ⟨-jôny⟩ is only found in the verbs of class IVA.[158]

A verbal noun, which is a declinable neuter noun, can be formed from every verb with the suffixes ⟨-cé, -njé, and -ênjé⟩. ⟨-cé⟩ is common wherever the past participle is formed by ⟨-ty⟩ (class III1A), except for some verbs ending with ⟨r⟩, which form the verbal noun from the present stem. ⟨-njé⟩ is used in classes IB, IC, III1B—E, III2, IVB, IVC, and some verbs of the classes III1A, V, IA, IIC, and III1A2a. ⟨-ênjé⟩ is used in class IVA.[159]

The present tense of the perfective verb is usually used as the future tense, e.g. B. jo‿ˈpôjadã ("I will go (by vehicle)") next to jo‿ˈjadã "I am going (by vehicle)". An imperfective future is formed with the bõdã+ the l-participle, e.g. B. jo‿tô‿ˈbõdã ˈczynjél ("I will be doing that"), but this construction is rare. Sometimes the perfective future is the same as the imperfective present: jo‿ˈrzúcã ("I will throw/I am throwing) from the infinitives rzëcac (impferfective) and rzëcëc (pronounced rzëcec; perfective).[160]

A perfect tense and the pluperfect tense can be formed through paraphrasis, bëc l-participle/mjêc + l-participle or a past passive participle. If bëc is used, the participle agrees in gender and number. If mjêc is used, the participle will either be in the neuter singular, or, much more regularly in gender and number.[161][143]

The conditional is formed by combining an l-participle with the particle bä, which has a shortened form b.[162]

The passive voice can be formed using bëc + a passive participle or by using sã, however the active is usually preferred.[162]

Class I[edit]

⟨-t, -d, -s, -z, -k, -g, -r⟩ stems belong to class IA.[163]

Class IA[164]
Infinitive
ˈplêsc "to plait"
Present tense Singular Plural Dual
1st ˈplôtã ˈplêcemë ˈplêcema, ˈplêcemë
2nd ˈplêcesz ˈplêcece ˈplêceta, ˈplêcete
3rd ˈplêce ˈplôtõ ˈplêcete, ˈplêcete
Imperative Singular Plural Dual
1st — plêˈcëmë plêˈcëma
2nd ˈplêcë plêˈcëce plêˈcëta, plêˈcëte
3rd ˈplêcë ˈplôtõ —
active present participle plêˈcõcy
present adverbial participle plôˈtõcë
past participle ˈplôtly
Verbal noun plêˈcênjé
Past forms Singular Plural Dual
Masculine: ˈplót, plôt
Feminine: ˈplôtla
Neuter: ˈplôtlô 		Virile: ˈplêtly
Non-virile: ˈplôtle 		Virile: ˈplôtla
Non-virile: ˈplôtle
Class IA[164]
Infinitive
ˈrzêc "to speak"
Present tense Singular Plural Dual
1st ˈrzêkã ˈrzêczemë ˈrzêczema, ˈrzêczemë
2nd ˈrzêczesz ˈrzêczece ˈrzêczeta, ˈrzczete
3rd ˈrzêczë ˈrzêkõ —
Imperative Singular Plural Dual
1st — ˈrzêczimë ˈrzêczima, ˈrzêczimë
2nd ˈrzêczi ˈrzêczice ˈrzêczita, ˈrzêczice
3rd ˈrzêczi ˈrzêczita —
active present participle ˈrzêkõcy
present adverbial participle ˈrzêkõcë
past participle ˈrzêkly
Verbal noun rzêčˈênjé
Past forms Singular Plural Dual
Masculine: ˈrzêk
Feminine: ˈrzêkla
Neuter: ˈrzêklô 		Virile: ˈrzêkly
Non-virile: ˈrzêkle 		Virile: ˈrzêkla
Non-virile: ˈrzêkle
Class IB[165]
Infinitive
ˈpjoc "to sing"
Present tense Singular Plural Dual
1st ˈpôjã ˈpôjemë ˈpôjema, ˈpôjemë
2nd ˈpôjesz ˈpôjece ˈpôjeta, ˈpôjete
3rd ˈpôje ˈpôjõ —
Imperative Singular Plural Dual
1st — ˈpójmë, ˈpôjmë ˈpójma, ˈpójmë, pôˈjima, pôˈjimë
2nd ˈpój, ˈpôji ˈpójce, pôˈjice ˈpójta, ˈpójte, pôˈjita, pôˈjite
3rd ˈpój, ˈpôjy ˈpójce, pôˈjyce —
active present participle pôˈjõcy
present adverbial participle pôˈjõce
past participle ˈpjóny
Verbal noun ˈpjênjé
Past forms Singular Plural Dual
Masculine: ˈpjôùl
Feminine: ˈpja
Neuter: ˈpjalô 		Virile: ˈpjêly
Non-virile: ˈpjale 		Virile: ˈpja
Non-virile: ˈpjale
Class IC[166]
Infinitive
ˈlgac "to (tell a) lie"
Present tense Singular Plural Dual
1st ˈlgã ˈlżêmë ˈlżêma, ˈlżêmë
2nd ˈlżêsz ˈlżêce ˈlżêta, ˈlżête
3rd ˈlżê ˈlgõ —
Imperative Singular Plural Dual
1st — ˈlżëmë ˈlżëma, ˈlżëmë
2nd ˈlżë ˈlżëce ˈlżëta, ˈlżëte
3rd ˈlżë ˈlżëta, ˈlżëte —
active present participle ˈlgõcy
present adverbial participle ˈlgõcë
past participle ˈlgóny
Verbal noun ˈlganjé
Past forms Singular Plural Dual
Masculine: ˈlgôùl
Feminine: ˈlga
Neuter: ˈlgalô 		Virile: ˈlgêly
Non-virile: ˈlgale 		Virile: ˈlga
Non-virile: ˈlgale
Class IC[166]
Infinitive
ˈdôżdac "to wait"
Present tense Singular Plural Dual
1st ˈdôżdã ˈdôżdżemë ˈdôżdżema, ˈdôżdżemë
2nd ˈdôżdżesz ˈdôżdżece ˈdôżdżeta, ˈdôżdżete
3rd ˈdôżdże ˈdôżdõ —
Imperative Singular Plural Dual
1st — ˈdôżdżimë ˈdôżdżima, ˈdôżdżimë
2nd ˈdôżdżi ˈdôżdżice ˈdôżdżita, ˈdôżdżite
3rd ˈdôżdżi ˈdôżdżita, ˈdôżdżite —
active present participle dôˈżdõcy
present adverbial participle dôˈżdõcë
past participle dôˈżdóny
Verbal noun dôˈżdanjé
Past forms Singular Plural Dual
Masculine: ˈdôżdôùl
Feminine: dôżdżˈa
Neuter: ˈdôżdalô 		Virile: ˈdôżdêly
Non-virile: ˈdôżdale 		Virile: dôˈżda
Non-virile: ˈdôżdale

Class II[edit]

Class II[167]
Infinitive
ˈkrasc "to steal"
Present tense Singular Plural Dual
1st ˈkradnjã ˈkradnjemë ˈkradnjema, ˈkradnjemë
2nd ˈkradnjesz ˈkradnjece ˈkradnjeta, ˈkradnjete
3rd ˈkradnje ˈkradnjõ —
Imperative Singular Plural Dual
1st — kradˈnjimä kradˈnjima, kradˈnjimä
2nd ˈkradnji kradˈnjice kradˈnjita, kradˈnjite
3rd ˈkradnji ˈkradnjõ —
active present participle kradˈnjõcy
present adverbial participle kradˈnjõcë
past participle ˈkradly
Verbal noun kradˈnjênjé
Past forms Singular Plural Dual
Masculine: ˈkrod
Feminine: ˈkradla
Neuter: ˈkradlô 		Virile: ˈkradly
Non-virile: ˈkradle 		Virile: ˈkradla
Non-virile: ˈkradle
Class II[167]
Infinitive
ˈcygnõc "to pull"
Present tense Singular Plural Dual
1st ˈcygnjã ˈcygnjemë ˈcygnjema, ˈcygnjemë
2nd ˈcygnjesz ˈcygnjece ˈcygnjeta, ˈcygnjete
3rd ˈcygnje ˈcygnjõ —
Imperative Singular Plural Dual
1st — cëgˈnjimë cëgˈnjima, cëgˈnjimë
2nd ˈcëgnji cëgˈnjice cëgˈnjita, cãgˈnjite
3rd ˈcëgnji cëgˈnjice —
active present participle cygˈnjõcy
present adverbial participle cygˈnõcë
past participle cygˈnjôny
Verbal noun cygˈnjênjé
Past forms Singular Plural Dual
Masculine: ˈcygnón
Feminine: ˈcygnã
Neuter: ˈcygnanô 		Virile: ˈcygnany
Non-virile: ˈcygnane 		Virile: ˈcygnã
Non-virile: ˈcygnane

Class III[edit]

Class III1A comprises verbs with stem-final ⟨i, ë, ú, ô, a, n, m, r, rz⟩.[168]

  • III1A1a: stem vowel is ⟨y⟩ from Proto-Slavic *i
  • ˈbjic > ˈbjijã
  • III1A1b: stem vowel is ⟨ë⟩ from Proto-Slavic *i, *y
  • ˈszëc > ˈszëjã
  • III1A1c: stem vowel is ⟨ú⟩ from Proto-Slavic *u
  • ˈczúc > ˈczújã
  • III1A1d: stem vowel is ⟨ë⟩ from Proto-Slavic *u
  • ˈklëc > ˈklëjã
  • III1A1e: stem vowel is ⟨ë⟩ from Proto-Slavic *ô
  • ˈklôc > ˈklôjã
  • III1A1f: stem vowel is ⟨a⟩ from Proto-Slavic *ô
  • ˈklôc > ˈklôjã
  • III1A2a: stem consonant is ⟨n, m⟩
  • ˈcyc > ˈtnã
  • III1A2b: stem consonant is ⟨r, rz⟩ with no vowel
  • drżéc > drzą
  • III1A2c: stem consonant is ⟨r, rz⟩ with a vowel
  • ˈpôrc > ˈpôrzã
Class III1A1b[169]
Infinitive
ˈszëc "to sew"
Present tense Singular Plural Dual
1st ˈszëjã ˈszëjemë ˈszëjema, ˈszëjemë
2nd ˈszëjesz ˈszëjece ˈszëjeta, ˈszëjete
3rd ˈszëje ˈszëjõ —
Imperative Singular Plural Dual
1st — ˈszymë ˈszyma, ˈszymë
2nd ˈszy ˈszyca ˈszita, ˈszitë
3rd ˈszy — —
active present participle szëˈjõcy
present adverbial participle szëˈjõcë
past participle ˈszëty
Verbal noun ˈszëcé
Past forms Singular Plural Dual
Masculine: ˈszél
Feminine: ˈszëla
Neuter: ˈszëlô 		Virile: ˈszëli
Non-virile: ˈszële 		Virile: ˈszëla
Non-virile: ˈszële
Class III1A2a[170]
Infinitive
'trzéc "to grate, to shred"
Present tense Singular Plural Dual
1st ˈtrzã ˈtrzêmë ˈtrzêma, ˈtrzêmë
2nd ˈtrzêsz ˈtrzêce ˈtrzêta, ˈtrzête
3rd ˈtrzê ˈtrzõ —
Imperative Singular Plural Dual
1st — ˈtrzëmë ˈtrzëma, ˈtrzëmë
2nd ˈtrzë ˈtrzëce ˈtrzëta, ˈtrzëte
3rd ˈtrzë — —
active present participle ˈtrzõcy
present adverbial participle ˈtrzõce
past participle ˈcarty
Verbal noun ˈtrzênjé
Past forms Singular Plural Dual
Masculine: ˈcar
Feminine: ˈcarla
Neuter: ˈcarlô 		Virile: ˈcêrli
Non-virile: ˈcarle 		Virile: ˈcarla
Non-virile: ˈcarle
Class III1A2b[170]
Infinitive
ˈcic "to cut"
Present tense Singular Plural Dual
1st tnjã ˈtnjêmë ˈtnjêma, ˈtnjêmë
2nd ˈtnjêsz ˈtnjêce ˈtnjêta, ˈtnjête
3rd ˈtnjê ˈtnjõ —
Imperative Singular Plural Dual
1st — ˈtnjimë ˈtnjima, ˈtnjimë
2nd ˈtnji ˈtnjice ˈtnjita, ˈtnjite
3rd ˈtnjy — —
active present participle ˈtnjõcy
present adverbial participle ˈtnjõcë
past participle ˈcãty
Verbal noun ˈcacé
Past forms Singular Plural Dual
Masculine: ˈcón
Feminine: ˈcã
Neuter: ˈcanô 		Virile: ˈcany
Non-virile: ˈcane 		Virile: ˈcã
Non-virile: ˈcane
Class III1A2c[171]
Infinitive
ˈpôrc "to separate"
Present tense Singular Plural Dual
1st ˈpôrzã ˈpôrzemë ˈpôrzema, ˈpôrzemë
2nd ˈpôrzesz ˈpôrzece ˈpôrzeta, ˈpôrzete
3rd ˈpôrze ˈpôrzõ —
Imperative Singular Plural Dual
1st — pôˈrzëmë pôˈrzëma, pôˈrzëmë
2nd ˈpôrzë pôˈrzëce pôˈrzëta, pôˈrzëte
3rd ˈpôrzë — —
active present participle pôˈrzõcy
present adverbial participle pôˈrzõcë
past participle ˈpôrty
Verbal noun ˈpôrcé
Past forms Singular Plural Dual
Masculine: ˈpór
Feminine: ˈpôrla
Neuter: ˈpôrlô 		Virile: ˈpôrly
Non-virile: ˈpôrlw 		Virile: ˈpôrla
Non-virile: ˈpôrlëw

Class III1B comprises verbs whose past stems and the infinitive stems are the same as the verbal stem, augmented by the suffix -a-.[171]

Class III1B[172]
Infinitive
ˈsoc "to sow"
Present tense Singular Plural Dual
1st ˈsêjã ˈsêjemë ˈsêjema, ˈsêjemë
2nd ˈsêje̯sz ˈsêjece ˈsêjeta, ˈsêjete
3rd ˈsêje ˈsêjõ —
Imperative Singular Plural Dual
1st — ˈsémë ˈséma, ˈsémë
2nd ˈsé ˈséce ˈséta, ˈséte
3rd ˈsé — —
active present participle sêˈjõcy
present adverbial participle sêˈjõcë
past participle ˈsóny
Verbal noun ˈsênjé
Past forms Singular Plural Dual
Masculine: ˈsôùl
Feminine: ˈsa
Neuter: ˈsalô 		Virile: ˈsêly
Non-virile: ˈsale 		Virile: ˈsa
Non-virile: ˈsale

Class III1Ca comprises verbs whose past and infinitive stems are the same as the verbal stem, augmented by the suffix -a- and have e-present tenses amd III1Cb has je-present tenses. Class III1D comprises verbs whose past and infinitive stems are the same as the verbal stem, augmented by the suffix -ja-.[172]

  • Class III1Ca: ˈbrac > ˈbjêrzã
  • Class III1Cb: ˈdrapac > ˈdrapjã
Class III1Cb[173]
Infinitive
ˈklêpac "to knock, to rap"
Present tense Singular Plural Dual
1st ˈklêpjã ˈklêpjemë ˈklêpjema, ˈklêpjemë
2nd ˈklêpjesz ˈklêpjece ˈklêpjeta, ˈklêpjete
3rd ˈklêpje ˈklêpjõ —
Imperative Singular Plural Dual
1st — klêˈpjimë klêˈpjima, klêˈpjimë
2nd ˈklêpji klêˈpjice klêˈpjita, klêˈpjite
3rd ˈklêpji — —
active present participle klêˈpjõcy
present adverbial participle ˈklêpjõcë
past participle klêˈpóny
Verbal noun klêˈpanjé
Past forms Singular Plural Dual
Masculine: ˈklêpôùl
Feminine: kleˈpa
Neuter: ˈklêpalô 		Virile: ˈklêpaly
Non-virile: ˈklêpale 		Virile: ˈklêpa
Non-virile: ˈklêpale

Class III1E comprises verbs whose past and infinitive stems are the same as the verbal stem, augmented by the suffix -ě-.[174]

Class III1E[174]
Infinitive
ˈcêc "to want"
Present tense Singular Plural Dual
1st cã ˈcêmë ˈcêma, ˈcêmë
2nd ˈcêsz ˈcêce ˈcêta, ˈcête
3rd ˈcê ˈcõ —
Imperative Singular Plural Dual
1st — — —
2nd — — —
3rd — — —
active present participle ˈcõcy
present adverbial participle ˈcõcë
past participle —
Verbal noun ˈcênjé
Past forms Singular Plural Dual
Masculine: ˈcôl
Feminine: ˈca
Neuter: ˈcalô 		Virile: ˈcêly
Non-virile: ˈcale 		Virile: ˈca
Non-virile: ˈcale

Class III2Aa comprises verb stems that start with a except for some primary verbs denominative and deverbative verbs. Class III2Ab comprises verb stems that with ě, only denominatives.[174]

  • Class III2Aa: ˈkaszlac > ˈkaszlã
  • Class III2Ab: ˈstarzec > ˈstarzejã
Class III2Aa[175]
Infinitive
ˈtrzëmac "to hold"
Present tense Singular Plural Dual
1st ˈtrzymã ˈtrzymomë ˈtrzymoma, ˈtrzymomë
2nd ˈtrzymósz ˈtrzymoce ˈtrzymota, ˈtrzymote
3rd ˈtrzimo ˈtrzymõ —
Imperative Singular Plural Dual
1st — trzëˈmôùmë trzëˈmôùma, trzëˈmôùmë
2nd trzëˈmôù trzëˈmôùce trzëˈmôùta, trzëˈmôùte
3rd trzëˈmô — —
active present participle trzëmajˈõcy
present adverbial participle trzëmaˈjõcë
past participle trziˈmôny
Verbal noun trziˈmanjé
Past forms Singular Plural Dual
Masculine: ˈtrzimôùl
Feminine: trziˈma
Neuter: ˈtrzimalô 		Virile: ˈtrzimaly
Non-virile: ˈtrzmale 		Virile: trziˈma
Non-virile: ˈtrzmale
Class III2Aa[175]
Infinitive
ˈgrac "to play"
Present tense Singular Plural Dual
1st grã ˈgromë ˈgroma, ˈgromë
2nd ˈgrosz ˈgroce ˈgrota, ˈgrote
3rd ˈgro ˈgrõ —
Imperative Singular Plural Dual
1st — ˈgrôùmë ˈgrôùma, ˈgrôùmë
2nd ˈgrôù ˈgrôùcë ˈgrôùta, ˈgrôùtë
3rd ˈgrôù — —
active present participle graˈjõcy, ˈgrõcy
present adverbial participle graˈjõcë, ˈgrõcë
past participle ˈgróny
Verbal noun ˈgranjé
Past forms Singular Plural Dual
Masculine: ˈgrôùl
Feminine: ˈgra
Neuter: ˈgralô 		Virile: ˈgraly
Non-virile: ˈgrale 		Virile: ˈgra
Non-virile: ˈgrale
Class III2Ab[176]
Infinitive
ˈstarzec "to age"
Present tense Singular Plural Dual
1st ˈstarzejã staˈrzêjemë staˈrzêjema, staˈrzêjemë
2nd staˈrzêjesz staˈrzêjece staˈrzêjeta, staˈrzêjete
3rd staˈrzêjë staˈrzêjõ —
Imperative Singular Plural Dual
1st — staˈrzémë staˈrzéma, staˈrzémë
2nd ˈstarzé staˈrzéce staˈrzéta, staˈrzéte
3rd ˈstarzé — —
active present participle starzeˈjõcy
present adverbial participle starzeˈjõcë
past participle staˈrzaly
Verbal noun staˈrzenjé
Past forms Singular Plural Dual
Masculine: ˈstarzôùl
Feminine: ˈstarza
Neuter: ˈstarzalô 		Virile: ˈstarzely
Non-virile: ˈstarzale 		Virile: ˈstarza
Non-virile: ˈstarzale

Class III2C comprises verb past and infinitive stems are the same as the verbal stem, augmented by the suffix -a-, and includes verbs whose inflection starts with -u-. Class III2D past and infinitive stems are the same as the verbal stem, augmented by the suffix -ja- and whose inflection starts with -a-. III2Ca and III2Da comprise denominative verbs and III2Cb and III2Db are iteratives of a-verbs.[174] In III2C the imperative and active present participle suppleted by those of class III2D. This inflection only exists in the Kluki and Wierzchocino-Siecie dialects.[177] For Class III2D present tense and present adverbial participle are not present and are replaced by those of Class III2C.[178]

Class III2Ca[177]
Infinitive
daˈrôwac "to gift"
Present tense Singular Plural Dual
1st ˈdarújã daˈrújemë daˈrújema, daˈrújemë
2nd daˈrújesz daˈrújece daˈrújeta, daˈrújete
3rd daˈrújù daˈrújõ —
Imperative Singular Plural Dual
1st — ˈdarôùmä ˈdarôùma, ˈdarôùmë
2nd ˈdarôù ˈdarôùce ˈdarôùta, ˈdarôùte
3rd ˈdarôù — —
active present participle daraˈjõcy, darˈõcy
present adverbial participle darúˈjõcë
past participle darôˈwóny
Verbal noun darôˈwanjé
Past forms Singular Plural Dual
Masculine: daˈrôwôùl
Feminine: darôˈwa
Neuter: daˈrôwalô 		Virile: daˈrôwaly
Non-virile: daˈrôwale 		Virile: daˈrôwa
Non-virile: daˈrôwale
Class III2D[179]
Infinitive
daˈrac "to gift"
Present tense Singular Plural Dual
1st ˈdarújã daˈrújemë daˈrújema, daˈrújemë
2nd daˈrújesz daˈrújecë daˈrújeta, daˈrújete
3rd daˈrújù daˈrújõ —
Imperative Singular Plural Dual
1st — ˈdarôùmä ˈdarôùma, ˈdarôùmë
2nd ˈdarôù ˈdarôùce ˈdarôùta, ˈdarôùte
3rd ˈdarôù — —
active present participle daraˈjõcy, daˈrõcy
present adverbial participle darúˈjõcë
past participle daˈróny
Verbal noun daˈranjé
Past forms Singular Plural Dual
Masculine: daˈrôùl
Feminine: daˈra
Neuter: daˈralô 		Virile: daraly
Non-virile: daˈrale 		Virile: daˈra
Non-virile: daˈrale

Class IV[edit]

Class IV verbs end in ⟨-yc, -ëc⟩. Class IVAa comprises verbs whose stems end in ⟨p, b, f, w, m, n, k, zg, j⟩, and IVAb in the remaining consonants.

  • IVAa: ˈkúpjyc > ˈkúpjã
  • IVAb: ˈrzëcëc (pronounced ˈrzëcec) > ˈrzúcã
Class IVAa [180]
Infinitive
ˈczinjic "to make, to do"
Present tense Singular Plural Dual
1st ˈczinjã ˈczinjymë ˈczinjyma, ˈczinjymë
2nd ˈczinjysz ˈczinjyce ˈczinjita, ˈczinjïtä
3rd ˈczinjy ˈczinjõ —
Imperative Singular Plural Dual
1st — cziˈnjymë cziˈnjima, cziˈnjimë
2nd ˈczinji cziˈnjice cziˈnjita, cziˈnjite
3rd ˈczinji — —
active present participle cziˈnjõcy
present adverbial participle ˈczinjõcë
past participle czyˈnjôni
Verbal noun cziˈnjênjé
Past forms Singular Plural Dual
Masculine: ˈczinjél
Feminine: cziˈnjyla
Neuter: ˈczinjilô 		Virile: ˈczinjily
Non-virile: ˈczinjile 		Virile: ˈczinjila
Non-virile: ˈczinjile
Class IVAb [180]
Infinitive
ˈmlôcëc "to thresh"
Present tense Singular Plural Dual
1st ˈmlócã ˈmlócymë ˈmlócyma, ˈmlócymë
2nd ˈmlócysz ˈmlócyce ˈmlócyta, ˈmlócite
3rd ˈmlócy ˈmlócõ —
Imperative Singular Plural Dual
1st — mlôˈcëmë mlôˈcëma, mlôˈcëmë
2nd ˈmlôcë mlôˈcëce mlôˈcëta, mlôˈcëte
3rd ˈmlôcë — —
active present participle mlóˈcõcy
present adverbial participle ˈmlócõcë
past participle mlóˈcôny
Verbal noun mlóˈcênjé
Past forms Singular Plural Dual
Masculine: ˈmlócél
Feminine: mlóˈcëla
Neuter: ˈmlócëlô 		Virile: ˈmlócëly
Non-virile: ˈmlócële 		Virile: ˈmlócëla
Non-virile: ˈmlócële

Class IVBa preserves softening of the final consonant, whereas IVBb does not.[181]

Class IVBa[182]
Infinitive
ˈklëczec "to kneel"
Present tense Singular Plural Dual
1st ˈklëczã ˈklëczymë ˈklëczyma, ˈklëczymë
2nd ˈklëczysz ˈklëczyce ˈklëczyta, klȧčyte
3rd ˈklëczy ˈklëczõ —
Imperative Singular Plural Dual
1st — klë'czimë klë'czima, klë'czimë
2nd ˈklëczi klë'czice klë'czita, klë'czite
3rd ˈklëczi — —
active present participle klëˈczõcy
present adverbial participle klëˈczõcë
past participle klëˈczaly
Verbal noun klëˈczênjé
Past forms Singular Plural Dual
Masculine: ˈklëczôùl
Feminine: ˈklëcza
Neuter: ˈklëczalô 		Virile: ˈklëczely
Non-virile: ˈklëczale 		Virile: ˈklëcza
Non-virile: ˈklëczale
Class IVBb[182]
Infinitive
ˈsêdzec "to sit"
Present tense Singular Plural Dual
1st ˈsêdzã ˈsêdzymë ˈsêdzyma, ˈsêdzymë
2nd ˈsêdzysz ˈsêdzyce ˈsêdzyta, ˈsêdzyte
3rd ˈsêdzy ˈsêdzõ —
Imperative Singular Plural Dual
1st — sêˈdzëmë sêˈdzëma, sêˈdzëmë
2nd ˈsêdzë sêˈdzëce sêˈdzëta, sêˈdzëte
3rd ˈsêdzë — —
active present participle sêˈdzõcy
present adverbial participle sêˈdzõcë
past participle sêdzˈaly
Verbal noun sêˈdzênjé
Past forms Singular Plural Dual
Masculine: ˈsêdzôùl
Feminine: ˈsêdza
Neuter: ˈsêdzalô 		Virile: ˈsêdzely
Non-virile: ˈsêdzale 		Virile: ˈsêdza
Non-virile: ˈsêdzale

Class V[edit]

This class comprises nine base verbs (and their prefixed derivatives) which had the ending -m in the first person singular.[183]

Va includes verbs whose present tense roots do not have any special stem-forming element. Vb includes verbs with reduplication. Vc includes the future tense of bˈëc. Vd includes verbs with a nasal infix.[183]

  • Va: ˈjêsc > ˈjém
  • Vb: ˈdac > ˈdóm
  • Vc: ˈbóm
  • Vd: ˈmôc > ˈmõżesz/ˈmõsz
Class Va[183]
Infinitive
ˈbëc "to be"
Present tense Singular Plural Dual
1st ˈjêm ˈjêsmë ˈjêsma, ˈjêsmë
2nd ˈjês ˈjêsce ˈjêsta, ˈjêste
3rd ˈjê, ˈjêsta ˈsõ —
Class Va[184]
Infinitive
ˈjêsc "to eat"
Present tense Singular Plural Dual
1st ˈjém ˈjésmë ˈjésma, ˈjésmë
2nd ˈjés ˈjésce ˈjésta, ˈjéste
3rd ˈjé ˈjêdzõ —
Imperative Singular Plural Dual
1st — ˈjémë ˈjéma, ˈjémë
2nd ˈjés ˈjésce ˈjésta, ˈjéste
3rd ˈjés — —
active present participle jêˈdzõcy
present adverbial participle jaˈdõce
past participle jadly
Verbal noun jêˈdzênjé
Past forms Singular Plural Dual
Masculine: ˈjod
Feminine: ˈjadla
Neuter: ˈjadlô 		Virile: ˈjêdly
Non-virile: ˈjadle 		Virile: ˈjadla
Non-virile: ˈjadle
Class Va[185]
Infinitive
ˈwjêdzec "to know"
Present tense Singular Plural Dual
1st ˈwjém ˈwjésmë ˈwjésma, ˈwjésmë
2nd ˈwjés ˈwjésce ˈwjésta, ˈwjéste
3rd ˈwjé ˈwjêdzõ —
Imperative Singular Plural Dual
1st — ˈwjémë ˈwjéma, ˈwjémë
2nd ˈwjé ˈwjéce ˈwjéta, ˈwjéte
3rd ˈwjé — —
active present participle wjêˈdzõcy
present adverbial participle wjêˈdzõcë
past participle wjêˈdzly
Verbal noun wjêˈdzênjé
Past forms Singular Plural Dual
Masculine: ˈwjêdzôùl
Feminine: ˈwjêdza
Neuter: ˈwjêdzalô 		Virile: ˈwjêdzely
Non-virile: ˈwjêdzale 		Virile: ˈwjêdza
Non-virile: ˈwjêdzale
Class Va[186]
Infinitive
ˈmjêc "to have"
Present tense Singular Plural Dual
1st ˈmóm ˈmómë ˈmóma, ˈmómë
2nd ˈmos ˈmoce ˈmota, ˈmote
3rd ˈmo ˈmajõ, ˈmõ —
Imperative Singular Plural Dual
1st — ˈmjémë ˈmjéma, ˈmjémë
2nd ˈmjé ˈmjéce ˈmjéta, ˈmjéte
3rd ˈmjé — —
active present participle maˈjõcy
present adverbial participle maˈjõcë
past participle ˈmjóny
Verbal noun ˈmjênjé
Past forms Singular Plural Dual
Masculine: ˈmjˈôùl
Feminine: ˈmja
Neuter: ˈmjalô 		Virile: ˈmjêly
Non-virile: ˈmjale 		Virile: ˈmja
Non-virile: ˈmjale
Class Vc[187]
ˈbëc (future tense)
Future tense Singular Plural Dual
1st ˈbóm, ˈbõdã ˈbómë ˈbóma, ˈbómë
2nd ˈbõsz ˈbõce ˈbõta, ˈbõte
3rd ˈbõ — —

Verb stress alternations[edit]

Like nouns, verbs can have different stress patterns. The base form of the verb is the infinitive.

Affixless polysyllabic simple verbs have stress on the penultimate syllable of the infinitive, except drëˈżêc ("to shiver, to shake"); verbs whose stem ends in a consonant + eding ⟨-ac⟩ belonging to class III2D (⟨-újã⟩ in the first person present) always stress the first syllable, and all verbs ending in ⟨-oc⟩ can be stressed either on the penultimate or the final syllable.[188]

Prefixed verbs maintain the position of the stress as in the prefixless one, except for drëˈżêc which can have a left-shifting stress when prefixed, e.g. ˈzadrëżêc.[188]

Prefixed derived from monosyllabic verbs always show the stress on the very first syllable of the infinitive, except verbs ending in ⟨-nõc⟩, which show two alternative stresses if they are composed of with a polysyllabic prefix and three other verbs.[189]

  • jêsc ("to eat") > ˈnjêdôjêsc ("to not finish eating")
  • ˈrznõc > ˈrôzderznõc and rôzˈderznõc

All perfective verbs and some imperfective verbs prefixed with ⟨vë-⟩ have stress on the prefix.[190][189]

Present tense forms can have fixed and mobile stress patterns.[191]

The basic forms for the present tense is the first person singular, which always has stress on the initial syllable, with one exception, drëˈżêc ("to shiver, to shake"), which has fixed stress on the first syllable of the inflectional suffix. All other form have the stress on the last syllable before the inflectional suffix. Class III2A (verbs in ⟨-ac⟩) show a regular stress shift onto the inflectional suffix in the third person plural.[192][191]

drëˈżêc ("to shiver, to shake") and perfective verbs prefixed with ⟨wë-⟩ break this rule, and non-syllabic verb stems stick to this rule if they are composed with two prefixes or a bisyllabic prefix but have alternative forms with fixed stress. Only mobile stress is possible if the first prefix in such a verb is the negation particle ⟨njê-⟩.[193][194]

Athematical verbs with one prefixed syllable are regular, and only the third person plural has enough syllables for a stress shift. However, in combination with two prefixed syllables, they behave as if the prefix consists of one syllable, so the stress is fixed except in the third person plural.[192][195]

Non-prefixed verbs in the first person singular may shift the stress to the pronoun ⟨jo⟩ ("I") if it is before the verb (see Lorentz par 112). This stress shift is rare in monosyllabic present forms with a V1, but there are many exceptions[196][197]

Verbs also display three types of alternations.

The past tense of verbs in ending in ⟨-nãc⟩ emphasize the feminine singular ending, in the other forms they withdraw the accent to the first syllable.[198]

  • ˈcygnón > cygˈnã

A general rule for the past tense forms is that the accent in all forms is withdrawn as much as possible.[199]

Verb vowel alternations[edit]

If the infinitive has ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj ŭ⟩ as the stem vowel, (in class IA:Vsd), then there is no alternation, except for all verbs of class IA (except the stem ⟨-jõsc⟩ ("to carry, to bear") and a few class IIC verbs.[200]

Class IA verbs show regular ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj ŭ⟩ ~ ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ alternations; ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ in the infinitive and ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ everywhere else except the past masculine singular.[200]

Class IIC verbs with any alternation (not all have it) change ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ into ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ in the imperative and often in all l-forms where /-l/ isnˈt the final phoneme of the word.[200]

If verb has ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ as a stem vowel or a single vowel, verb classes IA (except lˈêsc ("to climb")), II, IIIA2, III2Ab, III2B, III2C, III2D, and IVB do not have a ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj ŭ⟩ ~ ⟨a, ô, e, ë, y, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ or ⟨a, ô, e, ë, y, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩~⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ alternation in the forms with an inflectional suffix vowel, but all other verbs are split into alternating and non-alternating (with ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj ŭ⟩ in the present and l-forms, and n-forms in the verbal noun) subclasses.[200]

The past tense always shows ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ in the masculine singular, ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ in all other cases except in classes IAa and IAc, where alternative forms with ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ can be found. This results in regular ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ ~ ⟨a, ô, e, ë, y, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ alternations.[201]

  • ⟨ôù~a⟩ before ⟨l⟩ in IB, IC, III1A1f, III1B, III1C, III1D, III1E, III2, IVB, IVC
  • ⟨ó~a⟩ before ⟨n⟩ in IIB, IIC, III1A2a
  • ⟨é~ë⟩, ⟨é~y⟩, ⟨ó~ù⟩, ⟨ó~ë⟩, and ⟨ó~ô⟩ before ⟨l⟩
  • ⟨é~ë⟩ in III1A1b and IVAb
  • ⟨é~y⟩ in III1A1a and IVAa
  • ⟨ó~ù⟩ in III1A1c
  • ⟨ó~ë⟩ in III1A1d
  • ⟨ó~ô⟩ in III1A1e

The infinitive can have either ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ or ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ in the final syllable. III1A1a, III1A1b, III1A1c, III1A1d, IVAa, and IVAb, the inflectional suffix vowel (or only vowel in verbs with only one) is conditioned by the preceding consonant.[202]

Classes III1A1a-e and III1A2c show the V2 of the infinitive for ⟨c⟩ forms of the verbal nouns. Class III1A2a shows ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩~⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ alternation. Classes IC, III1C, III1D, III1E, III2Aa, III2C, III2D, and IVC show the ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ of the infinitive for ⟨-n⟩ forms. Class III1A2b shows ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩~⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ alternation. Classes show III2Ab and IVB show ⟨ë~ê⟩ alternations and not ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩~⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ since ⟨ë⟩ is the archiphoneme of /ə/ and /ɛ/ in this position; The other classes have ⟨-ˈênjé) without any rule.[203]

In classes I, II, III1A2b, III1Ca, III1Cb, III1D, III1A2a, IVAa, IVAb, IVBa, and IVBb the inflectional suffix vowels ⟨ë⟩ and ⟨y⟩ in the imperative are conditioned by the preceding consonant. The imperative and present tense acquire a special treatment only when there is one vowel in the verb.[204]

In the following verb classes the vowel show regular alternations in the imperative on the basis of the present tense forms if it is the only vowel in the verb:[204]

  • III1A1a: ⟨y~i⟩
  • III1A1b: ⟨ë~i⟩
  • III1A1c: ⟨ù~ú⟩
  • III1A1d: ⟨ë~ú⟩
  • III1A1e: ⟨ô~ó⟩
  • III1B: ⟨ˈê~ˈé⟩

Classes III2Ab and III2B show a regular alternation ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩~⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ (⟨ˈê~éˈ⟩, the former in the present tense, the latter in the imperative.[205]

Two classes of verbs have two sets of alternations:[206]

  • IB: ⟨a~ôù, ó, o⟩ and /ô~ó/
  • III1B: /a~ôù, ó, o/ and ⟨ˈê~ˈé⟩

The second type of alternations:

Conditioned by final stem consonant ⟨t, d, s, z, n, r, l⟩.[207] Classes IB, III1B, and III2B show this alternation.[203]

The third type of alternation is rare.[207]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 107–108.
  2. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 110.
  3. ^ Stokhof 1973, p. 236.
  4. ^ a b Lorentz 1903, pp. 227.
  5. ^ a b c d e Stokhof 1973, p. 225.
  6. ^ a b Rudnicki 1913, pp. 121.
  7. ^ a b Lorentz 1903, pp. 228.
  8. ^ Stokhof 1973, p. 225—226.
  9. ^ a b Stokhof 1973, p. 226.
  10. ^ a b Stokhof 1973, p. 227.
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h Stokhof 1973, p. 230.
  12. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 234–235.
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h i Stokhof 1973, p. 231.
  14. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 235.
  15. ^ a b Lorentz 1903, pp. 232.
  16. ^ a b c d e f g h i Lorentz 1903, pp. 237.
  17. ^ Stokhof 1973, pp. 231–232.
  18. ^ Rudnicki 1913, pp. 124.
  19. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y Stokhof 1973, p. 232.
  20. ^ a b Lorentz 1903, pp. 239.
  21. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 232–233.
  22. ^ a b c d e f g h Lorentz 1903, pp. 237–238.
  23. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Rudnicki 1913, pp. 122.
  24. ^ a b Lorentz 1903, pp. 233–234.
  25. ^ a b c d e f g Lorentz 1903, pp. 238–239.
  26. ^ a b c d e f Lorentz 1903, pp. 230.
  27. ^ a b c d Lorentz 1903, pp. 231.
  28. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 244.
  29. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 245.
  30. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 246.
  31. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Stokhof 1973, p. 233.
  32. ^ Stokhof 1973, p. 232—233.
  33. ^ a b c Lorentz 1903, pp. 247–248.
  34. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 248.
  35. ^ a b c d Stokhof 1973, p. 228.
  36. ^ a b c Lorentz 1903, pp. 249–250.
  37. ^ a b c Lorentz 1903, pp. 252.
  38. ^ a b Lorentz 1903, pp. 253.
  39. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 261.
  40. ^ a b c d e f g Stokhof 1973, p. 234.
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  44. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 259.
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  47. ^ Stokhof 1973, p. 234—235.
  48. ^ a b Lorentz 1903, pp. 262.
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  50. ^ a b c Lorentz 1903, pp. 263.
  51. ^ a b Lorentz 1903, pp. 269.
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  53. ^ a b c Stokhof 1973, p. 235.
  54. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 267.
  55. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 267–268.
  56. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 240.
  57. ^ Stokhof 1973, p. 237.
  58. ^ Stokhof 1973, p. 238.
  59. ^ Stokhof 1973, p. 239—240.
  60. ^ a b Stokhof 1973, p. 240.
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  68. ^ a b c d e f Stokhof 1973, p. 249.
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  75. ^ a b c d Stokhof 1973, p. 252—254.
  76. ^ Stokhof 1973, p. 256—257.
  77. ^ Stokhof 1973, p. 256.
  78. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 243–244.
  79. ^ a b Stokhof 1973, p. 259—260.
  80. ^ a b c d e Stokhof 1973, p. 263—265.
  81. ^ Stokhof 1973, p. 264.
  82. ^ Stokhof 1973, p. 256—258.
  83. ^ a b c d e Stokhof 1973, p. 260—262.
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  95. ^ Stokhof 1973, p. 274—275.
  96. ^ Stokhof 1973, p. 275.
  97. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 171.
  98. ^ a b c d e f g Stokhof 1973, p. 276.
  99. ^ a b c d e f Stokhof 1973, p. 278.
  100. ^ Stokhof 1973, p. 279.
  101. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Stokhof 1973, p. 279—280.
  102. ^ a b c d Stokhof 1973, p. 281.
  103. ^ a b c d e f Stokhof 1973, p. 283.
  104. ^ Stokhof 1973, p. 284.
  105. ^ Rudnicki 1913, pp. 46–47.
  106. ^ a b Stokhof 1973, p. 301.
  107. ^ Stokhof 1973, p. 301—302.
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  110. ^ Stokhof 1973, p. 306.
  111. ^ Stokhof 1973, p. 308.
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  116. ^ a b c Lorentz 1903, pp. 284–285.
  117. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 285–286.
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  121. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 201–204.
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  123. ^ a b c d e Lorentz 1903, pp. 207.
  124. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 288.
  125. ^ Rudnicki 1913, pp. 128.
  126. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 272–273.
  127. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 275.
  128. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 273.
  129. ^ Rudnicki 1913, pp. 124–125.
  130. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 274.
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  132. ^ Rudnicki 1913, pp. 125.
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  139. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 281.
  140. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 281–282.
  141. ^ a b c Lorentz 1903, pp. 206.
  142. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 289–290.
  143. ^ a b Rudnicki 1913, pp. 129.
  144. ^ a b c Lorentz 1903, pp. 291.
  145. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 206–207.
  146. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 291–292.
  147. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 301–302.
  148. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 294–296.
  149. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 348–349.
  150. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 292–293.
  151. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 293.
  152. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 297–298.
  153. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 298–299.
  154. ^ Rudnicki 1913, pp. 126–127.
  155. ^ a b Lorentz 1903, pp. 299.
  156. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 299–300.
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  158. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 300–301.
  159. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 301.
  160. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 302.
  161. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 302–303.
  162. ^ a b Lorentz 1903, pp. 303.
  163. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 304.
  164. ^ a b Lorentz 1903, pp. 305.
  165. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 309–310.
  166. ^ a b Lorentz 1903, pp. 310–311.
  167. ^ a b Lorentz 1903, pp. 312–313.
  168. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 316–317.
  169. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 317.
  170. ^ a b Lorentz 1903, pp. 318–319.
  171. ^ a b Lorentz 1903, pp. 321.
  172. ^ a b Lorentz 1903, pp. 322.
  173. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 323–324.
  174. ^ a b c d Lorentz 1903, pp. 326.
  175. ^ a b Lorentz 1903, pp. 327–328.
  176. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 329.
  177. ^ a b Lorentz 1903, pp. 331.
  178. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 332.
  179. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 331–332.
  180. ^ a b Lorentz 1903, pp. 333–334.
  181. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 336.
  182. ^ a b Lorentz 1903, pp. 336–337.
  183. ^ a b c Lorentz 1903, pp. 339.
  184. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 340.
  185. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 340–341.
  186. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 341.
  187. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 344.
  188. ^ a b Stokhof 1973, p. 314.
  189. ^ a b Stokhof 1973, p. 315.
  190. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 215.
  191. ^ a b Stokhof 1973, p. 317.
  192. ^ a b Lorentz 1903, pp. 210.
  193. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 215–216.
  194. ^ Stokhof 1973, p. 318.
  195. ^ Stokhof 1973, p. 318—319.
  196. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 224–225.
  197. ^ Stokhof 1973, p. 319—320.
  198. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 212.
  199. ^ Lorentz 1903, pp. 211.
  200. ^ a b c d Stokhof 1973, p. 322.
  201. ^ Stokhof 1973, p. 323—324.
  202. ^ Stokhof 1973, p. 324.
  203. ^ a b Stokhof 1973, p. 325—326.
  204. ^ a b Stokhof 1973, p. 326.
  205. ^ Stokhof 1973, p. 327.
  206. ^ Stokhof 1973, p. 330.
  207. ^ a b Stokhof 1973, p. 320.

Bibliography[edit]

  • Mikkola, Jooseppi Julius (1897). Къ изученію кашубскихъ говоровъ: Нѣсколько замѣтокъ по кашубскимъ говорамъ въ сѣверо-восточной Помераніи. Императорская академія наукъ.
  • Lorentz, Friedrich (1903). Slovinzische Grammatik.
  • Lorentz, Friedrich (1905). Slovinzische Texte.
  • Lorentz, Friedrich (1908). Slowinzisches Wörterbuch: erster Teil. Vol. 1, A–O. St. Petersburg: Buchdruckerei der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
  • Lorentz, Friedrich (1912). Slowinzisches Wörterbuch: zweiter Teil. Vol. 2, P–Z. St. Petersburg: Buchdruckerei der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
  • Rudnicki, Mikołaj (1913). "Przyczynki do gramatyki i słownika narzecza słowińskiego". materyały i Prace Komisyi językowej. IV. Kraków.
  • Stokhof, W.A.L. (1973). The Extinct East-Slovincian Kluki-Dialect, Phonology and Morphology. The Hague: Mouton.
  • Sobierajski, Zenon; Trawińska, Maria (1997). Słownik gwarowy tzw. Słowińców kaszubskich. Vol. 1, A–C (1 ed.). Warsaw: Sławistyczny ośrodek wydawniczy.
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