Poyo, Gerald Eugene (1996). Tejano Journey, 1770–1850. University of Texas Press. ISBN9780292765702.
Chapter 1, Community and Autonomy (Gerald E. Poyo), pp. 1-13[edit]
p. 1 - During the reign of Charles III of Spain, the Crown began encroaching on local affairs in New Spain
pp. 2-3 - San Antonio de Bexar - From Buffer to Community
Presidio San Antonio de Bexar was a buffer settlement on northwest New Spain, and garrisoned by soldiers from Mexico.
The missions were established by Franciscan priests as pueblos for local Indians.
Canary Islanders established the civilian villa of San Fernando de Béxar.
Over the decades, prior to the 1759-1788 reign of Carlos III, intermarriage happened in Bexar and ranching became a big economy. Civilians became used to self-government with little interference from the Crown and evolved their own independent identity.
Galvez ordered a 1772 reorganization of the frontier defense system. Los Adaes (capital of Spanish Texas, but located near present-day Natchitoches, Louisiana) was replaced by Bexar as the frontier outpost.
pp. 5-9 - In Defense of Autonomy
p. 5 - Isleños, Canary Islanders, had life-time appoints as community authority figures:
Six regidores (councilmen)
alguacil (constable)
escribano (scribe)
mayordomo (overseer of lands)
procurador (legal officer)
alcades ordinarios (municipal magistrates)
justica mayor (senior magistrate) not necessarily Isleño
Technically under the governor of Los Adaes, but the remoteness made them in practice autonomous.
p. 6 - Beginning with governor Angel Martos y Navarrete in 1762, governors became more involved in local issues.
Investigation found officials and non-officials alike running an illegal distribution of booze with impure additives. They were all fined.
pp. 7 -8 - Ripperdá ordered repairs to the guardhouse and barracks and was stonewalled by politicians being politicians. Every level pointed at somebody else and said, "It's not our job. It's theirs." And they tried to pawn off the expense and manual labor on the citizens. The fight went all the way up to Mexico City. In frustration, Ripperdá suspended the city council. Viceroy Antonio María de Bucareli y Ursúa ordered him to restore the council.
p. 8 - Ripperdá's successor Domingo Cabello y Robles tried to get a new barracks and jail in 1785, and got the same stonewalling.
p. 9-13 - Economic Reform and Commercial Restriction
p. 9 - Creation of the Provincias Internas 1770s shifted economic burden from the Crown to local.
pp. 9-10 - Ranching became profitable. Civilians/ranchers trespassed on mission lands and rounded up cattle. A squabble ensued over who owned what. Teodoro de Croix claimed all of it in the name of the Crown. Everybody violated the ruling at will and were indicted when caught.
p. 11 - The influential Luis Antonio Menchaca family was arrested for violating the ruling.
pp. 11-13 - Settlers did illegal trading with French Louisiana. The Crown passed restrictions. The trade continued anyway.
Chapter 2, Rebellion on the Frontier (Jesus de la Teja), pp. 15-30[edit]
pp. 16 - 17 - From Autonomy to Crossroads Province
Tejanos may not have been happy with Spain, but they tended to flip-flop on their support, whichever direction worked at any given moment.
pp. 27-29 - Aftermath: Pardons and Reconciliations
Reconciliations happened with conditional pardons, on a case by case basis.
Chapter 3, Under the Mexican Flag (Andreas Tijerina), pp. 33-47[edit]
p. 33
Tejano introduction to Texas was as colonizers who were there to defend the northern boundary of New Spain, and thus became a culture unto themselves. They traded directly with the United States
pp. 34-37 Settlers on the Frontera
Under Mexican Texas, not a lot of willing immigrants from Mexico.
Tejano populations concentrated in La Bahia/Goliad, Nacogdoches and San Antonio de Bexar.
Largely descendants of presidio soldiers, Tejanos were culturally disconnected from urban cultures in Mexico.
English became the predominate language, and Tejanos began to alter how they spelled Spanish words.
Mexicans (in Mexico) looked with disdain upon the Tejano culture.
Isolated from the rext of Mexico, Tejanos felt they were the under appreciated military defense for Mexico. They felt they were on their own, and developed their communities accordingly.
pp. 37-39 - Tejanos and the Mexican Republic
Tejanos wanted autonomy, but Mexico made Texas a department under Coahuila.
Erasmo Seguin and the 1824 Constitution; Erasmo initially wanted Texas to be recognized as a territory. After observing the chaos in the Mexican government, Seguin decided Texas was better off aligning itself with Coahuila. Coahuila y Tejas, with headquarters in Saltillo, was created by the new constitution. Tejanos hated the idea.
Baron de Bastrop succeeded in the establishment of a sub governor in Bexar.
Saltillo decreased the Bexar ayuntamiento to half its size.
Juan Seguin and Luciano Navarro demanded an additional alcalde for Bexar.
pp. 39-41 A Tejano Economic Vision
Tejanos saw their economy tied to trade with the U. S. and pushed a liberal agenda of open commerce.
1825 colonization law passed
A policy to attract US cotton planters; settlers could claim unsurveyed land; 10-year tax exemption incentive; allowing colonists to remain Protestant; Anglo Americans appointed as land agents.
Tejanos got an exemption from the anti-slavery law, and had the colonization law rephrased to refer to slaves as indentured servants.
pp. 41-43 - Tejano Politics and the Centralist Threat
Unstable political events in Mexico that led to the rise of Santa Anna
Anti-immigration Law of April 6, 1830
pp. 43-47 - Tejanos and Anglos
Tejanos liked Stephen F. Austin, but saw threats from later US empresarios. i.e. Green DeWitt given an 1825 colonization contract that overlapped land already belonging to Tejanos, as well as the Haden Edwards Fredonian Rebellion.
October Convention of 1832 at San Felipe de Austin for an annulment of Article 11 of the colonization law of 1830, which prohibited foreign settlement as well as customs reform, recognition of squatters as valid immigrants, and a separate state for Texas.
Tejanos and Anglos began to distrust each other.
Chapter 4, Efficient in the Cause (Stephen L. Hardin), pp. 49-71[edit]
p. 49 Hardin uses the term "Anglo-Celtic Americans"
pp. 49-52 - Heritage
"Presidiales" - members of the presidio garrisons.
Tejanos developed warfare skills from Indian conflicts, in particular Comanche and Apache.
"Compania volante" - the flying company - Teodoro de Croix reorganized as companies of local rancheros given military training; a blended technique of ranchero cattle skills and lightening strike methods of Indians.
Oct 22, Juan Seguin brought news of Tejano support of the federalist cause.
Within days, 40 Tejano volunteers showed up with Salvador Flores and Manuel Leal.
Oct 23, Austin appointed Juan Seguin as captain and told him to raise a company of rancheros as express riders and guides
Nov 15, Austin ordered Flores to burn off grazing flora on the opposite side of the Nueces, where Mexican reinforcements would be approaching; Flores was also to patrol the Rio Grande border crossings for approaching Mexican troops.
p. 54 - After 3 Tejanos joined 62 Anglo Americans in signing a compact with George Collinsworth at the Battle of Goliad, Mexican general Vicente Filisola essentially wrote off all families in Victoria as opportunistic traitors.
p. 55 - Surrender of Cos
p. 56 - Battle of the Alamo; Neil and Travis rely on local Tejanos
pp. 57-58 - Santa Anna offered amnesty to all Tejanos; Bowie advised the Tejanos to accept the terms and flee; when 2 of the Bexar Tejanos arrive at Gonzales and report to Houston, he had them arrested as spies.
p. 58 - Seguin etal. accompany Houston during the Runaway Scrape
pp. 59-61 - Battle of San Jacinto
p. 61 Thomas Rusk on May 30 ordered Juan Seguin to recruit a battalion of soldiers.
pp. 61-64 - Centralist Tejanos
pp. 61-63 - Captain Manuel Sabriego at La Bahia tried to capture federalists, especially Carbajal, at Victoria. Unsuccessful, Sabriego was captured by Collinsworth who sent him as a prisoner to Austin in Gonzales. Sabriego gave a sob story to Austin, and Austin released him. Austin was gullible. Sabriego continued his activities against the federalists, but was captured by Philip Dimmitt.
pp. 63-64 - Dimmitt and his mis-treatment of local Tejanos and pillaging of their properties probably did more than Sabriego to covert locals to centralists.
pp. 64 - 70 - Loyalties, Violence and Survival
pp. 64-65 - Santa Anna drafted into service all Tejanos not fighting with the Americans. Tejanos tended to jump sides.
pp. 65,66 - Benavides rescue of Isaac D. Hamilton, only to turn him over to centralist forces. Hamilton was rescued by Francita Alavez.
pp. 66-67 - Burleson drafted Antonio Menchaca into service; Menchaca's memoirs insisted Bowie and Seguin insist Enrique Esparza accept Santa Anna's amnesty.
pp. 68-69 - Bowie and Benavides cruelty towards a herder in Bexar.
p, 69 - Juan Seguin helped find runaway slaves.
Chapter 5, Between Two Worlds (Timothy J. Matovina), pp. 73-87[edit]
p. 73 - San Antonio Tejanos are both native Texans and Catholic
pp. 74 - 76 - the Tejano Dilemma
During the revolution, divided families fought on both sides. When Mexico tried the 1842 reconquest in March by Ráfael Vásquez and September by Adrián Woll, the Tejanos in Bexar did whatever necessary to placate either side and protect their own nests. Distrust reigned, as both Anglos and Mexicans made accusations aimed at Tejanos.
pp. 76-80 - The Politics of Accommodation
pp. 77-78 - Juan Seguin, José Antonio Navarro, José Francisco Ruiz and José Rafael Calixto de la Garza are the only Tejanos in the Republic legislature, and try to get legislation passed, including translating the legislation into Spanish.
pp. 79-80 - General Felix Huston ordered Seguin to destroy San Antonio and Bexar to prevent any advantage should Mexico try to recapture Texas. Seguin refused. Sam Houston intervened. Tejanos were the majority in San Antonio, but Anglos were increasing. Anglos and Tejanos intermarried.
pp. 81 - 85 - Catholic Allegiance and Local Traditions
p. 81 - Protestants began proselytism, trying to convince Catholics theirs was an inferior religion, but Catholics were not interested.
p. 82 - The Catholic Church made some personnel and jurisdiction changing, placing San Antonio under New Orleans
p. 83 - 84 - Bexar Tejanos kept their religious fetes, and newer Catholic hierarchy were unfamiliar with them. Responsibilities for organizing the fetes fell to the locals. Anglos and Tejanos celebrated the Catholic fiestas together.
Chapter 6, The Cordova Revolt (Paul D. Lack), pp. 89-109[edit]
pp. 89-90 - Vicente Córdova born in 1798; east Texas Mexican competed for land, power and resources with everybody else.
pp. 90-93 - Nacogdoches Tejanos and the Texas Rebelliion (Lack is unclear on dates, but this is probably 1835)
pp. 90 - Tejanos in east Texas were centralists, political minorities who thought Big Brother Mexico could shield them from being over-run by the Anglo majority.
pp. 90-91 - Mexicans refused to participate in the Anglo meetings/conventions/consultations.
p. 91 - Jose Antonio Menchaca (1795 - ?) was procurador and warned the governor that Nacogdoches Anglos were planning a rebellion, part of which was to disarm Mexicans in Nacogdoches, asking the government to protect the Mexicans. The government gave lip service but no action.
pp. 91-92 - Vicente Córdova was captain of the local (Mexican) militia, who supported (at least by non-participation) centralist Mexico. The militia members declined in number, and Córdova finally dissolved the militia.
pp. 92-93
Anglo hanky panky at the Feb 1, 1836 polls in Nacogdoches (to choose delegates for the Washington-on-the-Brazos, Texas convention). Interloper soldiers from the United States voted in the election; thereby, tilting the election results in favor of those who wanted independence.
Mexicans in Nacogdoches accused of conspiring with Santa Anna and the Cherokee.
April 9, 1836 - Alcalde David A. Hoffman ordered the Mexicans to join the Texian militia, as a separate group, or move elsewhere.
Anglo militia units harassed Tejano units, but a peaceful (such as it was) co-existance was worked out between the two.
Houston viewed the east Texas Tejanos as a threat and did not want them in his army.
Nacogdoches Tejanos never reocgnized Texas independence.
pp. 93 - 95 - Unequal Before the Law (under the Republic of Texas)
Even though Houston urged that no one should discriminate against Tejanos in Nacogdoches, it happened in every way possible. Discrimination very similar to the treatment of black Americans prior to the 1960s civil rights legislation. They had separate polling places, and Anglos tried to get the Tejano votes legallly tossed out. They were physically mistreated, and otherwise, short of slavery, Anglos tried to get rid of them.
pp. 95 - 99 - Conspiracy Rumors and Rising Tensions
p. 95
Houston's failure to negotiate a treaty with the Cherokee.
Somebody who didn't like Córdova spread rumors he coordinated Indian attacks on Anglos
pp. 96 - 97
1837 - Conspiracy theories abound - about Cherokees, and about the Nacogdoches Tejanos allegedly conspiring with Mexicans in Matamoros.
Everything has racial overtones: Disputes over land titles, runaway slaves find refuge with Indian tribes, squabbles over horse stealing, and you-name-it.
Fear mongering was rampant.
Tejanos write a letter to Houston, asking to be left alone to life their lives in peace. The letter was delayed in transit for months and never reached Houston before the grits hit the fan.
Tejanos got tired of being treated like sub-humans, and serve notice of intent to do something about it.
pp. 98 - 99 (1838)
Indian tribes such as the Cherokee weren't feeling too good about Anglos either, broken treaties in particular.
Vicente Filisola stood ready in Matamoros with men and munitions.
June 1838, Julián Pedro Miracle served as messenger for Filisola. Although Córdova read the message from Filisola and met with Indian tribes, the tribes did not immediately commit to action. Miracle was killed on August 20, and the Texans got confiscated the letter.
pp. 99 - 104 - The Revolt
p. 99 - The only recorded account of this was written by the Anglo side of the incident,
pp. 100-101
August 6, 1838, the flashpoint was the capture and (apparent) murder of William Finley
Houston offered conditional armistice
Rusk and his militia went in pursuit
pp. 102-104
The battle raged for months through 1839
Mexican forces from Matamoros never arrived; Valentín Canalizo replaced Filisola and advised to take the fight to Bexar.
The rebellion failed, and Córdova fled to Mexico.
pp. 104-106 - Controlling the People
Houston issued statements that the Tejanos should be allowed to return home.
Rusk arrested the Tejano males who did.
pp. 106-108 - Trials
36 Tejanos were indicted for treason
Chapter 7, Finding Their Way (Ana Carolina Carrillo Crimm), pp. 111-123[edit]
pp. 112-113 - Family and Community
Goliad populated by soldiers (and their descendants) of La Bahia, and lived on undistributed lands.
Martín De León received 1824 colonization grant from the Provincial Deputation of Texas, and for every 100 families he settled in the Victoria area, he received 22,142 acres (1 league), consequently welcoming Anglos and Mexicans alike.
pp. 113-115 - A Threat to Tradition
Empresarial land speculators were a problem. In Goliad, the Powers and Hewetson 1839 effort to colonize Irish families on mission lands being redistributed to civilians. The governor directed P&H to accept land claims from Mexican families who were already there but did not own title. P&H ignored the governor. Carlos de la Garza was among the Mexican families who had been working the land, but did not own a title, and was a political conservative.
pp. 115-118 - Embracing Liberalism
The extended De León family encouraged Anglo immigration.
Victoria founded in 1824, but initially came under the jurisdiction of Goliad, which saw the anti-immigration Law of April 6, 1830 as a solution to their problems.
Victoria separated from Goliad. Because of María del Refugia De León's marriage to José María Jesús Carbajal, the extended De León family sided with Carbajal's federalist/liberal political views.
When Martín De León died in 1830, the family was the largest land holder in Victoria.
pp. 119-120 - Tejanos in the War
The extended De León family joined Carbajal on the Texian side of the revolution.
Carlos de la Garza formed the Guardias Victorianas, a coalition of Tejano and Karankawa, who provided guerrilla tactics military assistance to Mexican General José de Urrea at the Battle of Refugio and Battle of Coleto, and help stymie Fannin's escape efforts.
pp. 120-123 - A New Era
Brigadier General Thomas Jefferson Rusk ordered the evacuation of Victoria, forcing the De León family to flee to New Orleans. When the family returned years later, everything they owned was gone. Rusk never punished Carlos de la Garza for his activities.
