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Christian views (attitudes and beliefs) about women vary considerably today and have varied even more throughout the last two millennia, evolving along with or counter to the societies in which Christians have lived. All of the major world religions, including institutionalized Christianity, deprecate women to some degree. Since the first century, organized Christianity has interpreted the Bible as prescribing a gender-based hierarchy, claimed up to the present by Complementarians and traditionalists to be scripturally mandated. The hierarchical theology has placed woman under the man's authority — in the church, in marriage, and elsewhere. It has excluded women from church leadership positions that give women any kind of authority over men. The primary biblical authority cited by proponents of male dominance/female submission include:

== Evidence that God's design was for male/female role differentiation

Gen. 2 - Male God-given authority over female

There are at least four features of this chapter which support the idea of male-headship (i.e., male God-given authority over female).

1. The order of creation (male created first) indicates God's design of male priority in the male/female relationship. This is also Paul's observation both in 1 Cor. 11:8 and 1 Tim. 2:13.
2. God gives instructions to Adam, before the creation of Eve, not to eat fruit of the forbidden tree (2:16-17). Implied in this is Adam's responsibility to instruct his future wife and guard her from violating this prohibition (hence, the significance in 3:6 that the woman gave to the man "who was with her," showing he failed to guard his wife as he should have).
3. Eve was created to be Adam's helper. While it is true that this same Hebrew term is often used of God's "helping" people, it is clear that Paul understands Eve's role as helper to require that woman ought to be under the rightful authority of man (see 1 Cor. 11:9-10 - "man was not created for the woman's sake, but woman for the man's sake. Therefore the woman ought to have a symbol of authority on her head").
4. Adam's naming of Eve indicates, in an OT cultural context, Adam's right of authority over the one whom he named. And interestingly, Adam named his wife twice, first when she was formed from his flesh (2:23), and second after they had both sinned (3:20), indicating that his rightful authority over her continued after sin had come.

Gen. 3:1-7 - Adam held responsible for Eve's sin

Eve was tempted and deceived by the serpent and ate the forbidden fruit, and then gave it also to Adam. Eve, that is, sinned first. Despite this fact, God seeks out Adam after their sin to inquire why they were hiding (3:8ff). God approaches Adam, not Eve, as the one ultimately responsible for the sin. Likewise, Paul clearly teaches that the line of sin in the human race begins with Adam (Rom. 5:12ff; 1 Cor. 15:22). But he does this in full recognition of the fact that Eve sinned first (1 Tim. 2:14). Adam only rightly bears the responsibility as the head of the sinful human race, when Eve sinned first, if he is viewed by God and Paul as having authority and ultimate responsibility over the woman.

Gen. 3:16 - Sin disrupted the God-intended role of male-headship and female-submission

Complementarians understand the curse of the woman to mean that sin would bring about in Eve a wrongful desire to rule over her husband (contrary to God's created design), and that in response, Adam would have to assert his rule over her. Eve is told "your desire shall be for your husband, and he shall rule over you." This means, in light of 4:7, Eve's desire will be to rule illegitimately over Adam.

1 Cor. 11:1-16 - Women need to display, in the church, their submission to male leadership

Paul uses Gen. 2 to support his contention that women need to display, in the church, their submission to male leadership. The woman ought to have a symbol of authority on her head (11:10), because she is the glory of man (11:7), because she originated from man (11:8), and because she was created for the man's sake (11:9). Because Paul links the woman's submissive role in the Church to God's created design, it is evident that these instructions to the church at Corinth are not applicable only there, but instead are applicable universally in the Church.

1 Cor. 14:34-36 - Women are to display their submission to male headship and learn quietly from qualified males only

Clearly this prohibition on women speaking cannot be absolute, for Paul previously acknowledged women prophesying (1 Cor. 11:5). What complementarians hold on this, though, is usually one of two positions: either that women may never be involved in an official capacity of teaching the corporate assembly, presumably with men present, or that women may not function in the elder role of judging prophecies (a la Grudem, Carson). In either case, what is clear is the principle that women are to display their submission to male headship and learn quietly from those (qualified males only) responsible for the teaching ministry of the church.

1 Tim. 2:8-15 - Women are to submit to male leadership and teaching

Again here, Paul links his command that women receive instruction with submissiveness rather than teaching or exercising authority over men (2:11-12) with God's created design for man and woman. Women are to submit to male leadership and teaching because Adam was created first (2:13), and because Eve was deceived and sinned first (2:14). And again, it is evident that these instructions can only rightly be seen as universally applicable for the Church, because the basis for them is God's created design.

Eph. 5:22-33 - Wives are to be subject to their husbands

Wives are to be subject to their husbands in response to their submission to the Lordship of Christ (5:22). The reason for this, says Paul, is that the husband is head of the wife as Christ is head of the Church (5:23). The next verse makes the matter even more explicit: "as the church is subject to Christ, so also wives to their husbands in everything" (5:24). The key notion here is the parallel of the headship of the husband with the headship of Christ. As the Church submits to Christ as the one who has rightful authority over her, so the wife is to submit to her husband as the one who has rightful authority over her. Husbands, for their part, are to love their wives as Christ loves the Church (5:25-29). When husbands truly love their wives and wives submit to their husbands, we see the sinful distortion of the male female relationship defeated and a return, then, to what God intended in his creation of man and woman.

1 Pet. 3:7a - Fundamental gender difference between a husband and his wife

While the second half of this verse stresses the equal honor accorded to women along with men (as fellow-heirs of the grace of life), the first half of the verse clearly indicates the fundamental gender difference between a husband and his wife. She, according to Peter, is a "weaker vessel," and she needs to be treated with tenderness and understanding as such. This implies that 1) while she is fully equal in essence (3:7b), she likewise is constitutionally different from him as a woman (3:7a), and 2) the husband bears particular God-sanctioned responsibility to care for his wife, indicating his leadership and primary responsibility in their relationship.

Trinitarian analogy to the male/female relationship

Complementarians understand the Trinity to present an analogy to the male/female relationship, as God designed it. God is one in essence and three in persons. The three persons of the God-head are absolutely equal in essence (in fact, they each share fully, simultaneously and without division the one divine essence), but they are distinct in function. Specifically, their distinction of function is marked by an intrinsic relation of authority within the God-head, by which the Son is subject to the Father, and the Spirit to the Son. 1 Cor. 11:3 states part of this: "God is the head of Christ." The clearest biblical example of Christ's subjection to the Father is in 1 Cor. 15:28 where the exalted and victorious Son "will also be subject to the One who subjected all things to Him." Given this understanding of the Trinity, it makes sense for Paul to say what He does in 1 Cor. 11:3. He speaks here of three authority lines that exist: Christ is the authority (head) over every man, man is the authority (head) over a woman, and God (the Father) is authority (head) over Christ. Just as the persons of God are equal in essence and yet they relate within a structure of lines of authority, so too men and women are equal in essence while relating within a similar structure of lines of authority.

According to the Gospel accounts, Jesus went far beyond the customs and outlook of his environment by not conforming to the cultural mentality unfavorable to women. Instead, he reacted against inequalities based on sexual differences by calling women to follow him.

Two different Christian views about women

Only since the 1970s have more moderate views emerged. Today they are known as the Christian Egalitarian and Complementarian views of women and men:

• Christian Egalitarians' interpretation of scripture bring them to the conclusion that the manner and teaching of Jesus, affirmed by the Apostle Paul, abolished gender-specific roles in either the church or marriage. One verse has been seen as a fanfare of freedom by what historically have been three oppressed groups: racial minorities, slaves, and women. This verse has been called by authors the "Magna Carta of spiritual emancipation."

There is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus (Galatians 3:28).

Christian Egalitarians take that verse at face value, understanding it to acknowledge the elaborate system of inequalities existing since shortly after the Creation. But the Founder of Christianity, Jesus Christ, abolished those systems for all eternity. Within his church, "in Christ," is the one sanctuary, the one oasis, the one protected place where there are no longer any secondary distinctions of race, national origin, slavery, or gender. A true benefit of being a Christian, then, is that all are one "in Christ."

• Complementarian Christian views, also known as Traditional or Hierarchical views, interpret Galatians 3:28 to refer only of equal availability of all to salvation. They claim that the freedoms offered in Christ do not apply to male-preference in marriage, the ordination of women, racism, or any other form of discrimination. Essentially, they believe that other verses written by New Testament writers Paul (who wrote the book of Galatians) and Peter trump the freedom proclamation penned by Paul in Galatians 3:28. They understand the overarching views of both Old and New Testaments to prescribe a male-priority based hierarchy and gender roles in the church, in marriage, and elsewhere. These prescribed gender roles only recently have come to be ameliorated by some Complementarians as being "different but equal." Male priority still exists as a requirement of scripture, they say, but the two genders are now described as having "complementary" roles in the church and home.

History

Christianity emerged from Judaism. The earliest Christians, and Jesus himself, were nurtured in Hebrew Scriptures of Ancient Judiasm (Old Testament), and worshiped in Jewish synagogues and in the Temple at Jerusalem There was a double standard that favored men over women. It was manifested in various ways. A difference in religious privilege between women and men was built into the architecture of the Temple at Jerusalem. According to the Mishnah, the first work of Rabbinic Judaism and a major source of Rabbinic Judaism's religious texts, and writings of early historian Josephus: the Temple was segregated by gender, and women's access to the Temple was limited by the laws about flux, menstruation, and childbirth – all considered to be ritually defiling. Women could not offer sacrifices, could not bear legal witness, and only men could be priests.

Other indications that Ancient Judaism was a patriarchal religion are seen in the masculine pronouns most often used in references to God. Yet, all illustrations of God apparently are metaphors or anthropomorphisms since Jesus said "God is spirit, and his worshippers must worship in spirit and in truth (John 4:24UK). In Matthew 23:37 and Luke 13:34, Jesus likens himself to a mother hen or a nesting, brooding, mother bird--departures from the masculine stereotypes of God.

Creation narratives in Genesis 1 and 2

Many theologians believe that there are two main accounts of the Creation events. They suggest that each of the two stems from separate original sources and perhaps was penned by two separate writers. They based their conclusion on observations such as the following:

• Each has a distinctively unique writing style as would be expected if authorship differed.

• Themes overlap from the first to the second account.
• There are several factual differences as if reported from two different writer perspectives.
• Each uses different names of God (YHWH, Elokim).
• The one described as possibly the first account is found in {{niv|Genesis|1:1-2:3|Genesis 1:1 through 2:3}. It describes man as created in the image of God, and created as male and female (Gen. 1:27UK), with no hint of female subordination. Jesus quotes this part of Genesis 1:27.
• The second Gen. 2:7–25UK Creation account gives the basis for the view that the "husband is the head of the wife" (Eph. 5:23UK). Jesus quoted only verse 24 from this account to teach that the two in marriage become one flesh. He blended Genesis 1:27 and 2:24 to stress the oneness of husband and wife and the indissoluable nature of that union.

According to the Creation narrative in Genesis 2:18–24UK, Eve, the first woman, was created out of the side of Adam, the first man. Traditionally, it has been called Adam's rib.Interpreters often consider this to indicate a natural inferiority of women within the creation story. Eve's weakness has sometimes been blamed for causing Adam's fall, and thus for humanity's fall into original sin. This claim was frequently made during the Middle Ages. In addition, those who argue that Judaism is founded upon patriarchal principles point out that religious and governmental authority within Jewish cultures has usually been restricted to the male gender.

However, even in the Jewish scriptures there are countercurrents to this patriarchal emphasis. "And God said, 'Let us make man in our image, after our likeness'" (Genesis 1:26).

The Old Testament presents strong female role models, like the Judge Deborah, Judith and Esther, who were depicted as saving the Hebrew people from disaster. In the book of Proverbs, the divine attribute of Holy Wisdom is presented as female.

Women's roles in the early Christian Church

From the beginning of the early Christian church, starting with Jesus, women were important members of the movement. The gospels of the New Testament often mention Jesus speaking to women publicly and openly against the social norms of the time. He reached out to the marginalized in his society and thus, his appeal was great. He had female followers who were his sponsors and Mary Magdalene is recorded to be the first person to have the privilege of seeing Jesus after resurrection. As time went on and the disciples continued to spread Jesus' message by word of mouth, groups of Christians organized within the homes of believers. Those who could offer their home for meetings were considered important within the movement and assumed leadership roles.

By the time Paul began his missionary movement, women were important agents within the different cities. The Pauline letters mention women such as Chloe, Priscilla (Prisca), Euodia and Syntyche as well as Phoebe.

Chloe, a prominent woman of Corinth, appears to be the head of a household of an extended family. She and her household told Paul of the divisions in the congregation of Corinth.1 Cor. 1:11

Priscilla is mentioned seven times in the Bible, as a missionary partner with the Apostle Paul and the wife of Aquila. Out of seven times Priscilla and Aquila are mentioned as a couple, her name appears before Aquila's five times.

Phoebe, another woman mentioned in Pauline letters, He attaches to her three titles: diakonos meaning a deacon (lit. "servant") sister, and prostasis meaning leader and president. There is no difference when the title of the deacon is used for Phoebe and Timothy. The office of the deacon eventually became mainly associated with women and their close work with the poor.

Outside of written religious sources there is also objective evidence to support women's prominent status and roles within the early Christian church. A second century letter of a Roman governor, Pliny the Younger, to Roman emperor Trajan, demonstrates that female servants were leaders in a church in Bythnia. Pliny wrote the letter, dated 112 C.E., asking for advice on how he should handle a situation where Christians were said to have been stirring up trouble. He said he captured and tortured two female maidservants called deaconesses. These women must have been considered important church leaders since the term was similarly applied to Phoebe in the Pauline letters.

Art has also been an important objective source showing women in leadership roles. The first or early second century fresco called Fractio Panis depicts a Eucharist ceremony. All the participants, including the main person who is performing the ceremony, are women. A mosaic found in a Roman basilica portrays Mary, two saints and a veiled woman. An inscription states that the veiled woman is Theodora Epicopa which means Bishop Theodora, Epicopa being the Latin feminine term for bishop. On a Greek island called Thera, a commemorative inscription has been discovered on a burial site. It named Epiktas, a female name, as a priest.

Jesus' interactions with women

This section presents some of the New Testament records of Jesus' interactions with women. According to New Testament scholar Dr. Frank Stagg and classicist Evelyn Stagg, the synoptic Gospels of the canonical New Testament contain a relatively high number of references to women. The Staggs find it "remarkable" that in light of the unfavorable attitudes toward women that prevailed in the world into which Jesus came, there is no recorded instance where Jesus disgraces, belittles, reproaches, or stereotypes a woman. Jesus treats each of them with dignity and respect. These writers claim that examples of the manner of Jesus are instructive for inferring his attitudes toward women and show repeatedly how he liberated and affirmed women.

Peter's mother-in-law

Matthew 8:14–15, Mark 1:30–31, Luke 4:38–39. When Jesus came into Peter's house, he saw Peter's mother-in-law lying in bed with a fever. He healed the woman of fever by touching her hand. She rose and began to wait on him.

Jesus and his mother

Jesus in the Temple in Jerusalem (Luke 2:41–52). The canonical Gospels offer only one story about Jesus as a boy — Luke's story about the boy Jesus in the Jerusalem Temple. According to Luke, his parents, Joseph and Mary, took the 12-year-old Jesus to Jerusalem on their annual pilgrimage to the Passover. Mary and Joseph started their journey home without Jesus, thinking he was somewhere in the caravan with kinsmen or acquaintances. When his parents found him three days later, Mary said, "Son, why have you treated us like this? Your father and I have been anxiously searching for you." The boy Jesus respectfully but firmly reminded her of a higher claim he must answer: "Didn't you know I had to be about my Father's business?"

The wedding at Cana of Galilee (John 2:1–11). Mary told Jesus the wine was in short supply. Today his reply may seem curt: "Woman, what have I to do with you? My hour is not yet come" (John 2:4).

New Testament scholar Dr. Frank Stagg and classicist Evelyn Stagg maintain that neither here nor elsewhere does Jesus renounce the mother-son relationship as such, but here as in Luke 2:49 he declares his vocational (ministerial) independence of his mother. He has an "hour" to meet, and Mary, though his mother, can neither hasten nor hinder its coming.

Most scholars believe that in Jesus' reply to his mother there was no disrespect. According to Matthew Henry's Commentary, he used the same word when speaking to Mary with affection from the cross.

Scholar Lyn M. Bechtel disagrees with this reading. She writes that the use of the word "woman" in reference to Jesus' mother is "startling. Although it would not be improper or disrespectful to address an ordinary woman in this way (as he often does: see John 4.21, 8.10, 20.13, 15), it is inappropriate to call his mother 'woman'" (Bechtel 1997, p. 249). Bechtel further argues that this is a device Jesus uses to distance himself from Judaism.

However, Bishop William Temple suggests there is no English phrase that represents the original "Woman, leave me to myself." "In the Greek it is perfectly respectful and can even be tender — as in John 19:27…. We have no corresponding term; 'lady' is precious, and "madam" is formal. So we must translate simply and let the context give the tone."

Mary Magdalene

Mary Magdalene (also called Miriam of Magdala) is among the women depicted in the New Testament who accompanied Jesus and his twelve apostles, and who also helped to support the men financially (Luke 8:2–3). According to Mark 15:40, Matthew 27:56, John 19:25, and Luke 23:49, she was one of the women who remained at Jesus' crucifixion. The New Testament says she saw Jesus laid in a tomb. Mark 16:9 says that after his resurrection, Jesus appeared first to Mary Magdalene. The New Testament also says that Jesus had cast seven demons out of her.

Asbury Theological Seminary Bible scholar Ben Witherington III confirms the New Testament account of Mary Magdalene as historical: "Mary was an important early disciple and witness for Jesus." He continues, "There is absolutely no early historical evidence that Miriam's relationship with Jesus was anything other than that of a disciple to her Master teacher."

The woman bent double

According to Luke13:10–17 Jesus saw a crippled woman while he taught in a synagogue on the Sabbath. He called to the woman, laid his hands on her body, and healed her.13:13 He was criticized by the unnamed leader of the synagogue for healing the woman on the Sabbath. In response, Jesus called the woman a "daughter of Abraham, whom Satan hath bound" and rebuked the leader for hypocrisy. The Staggs emphasize that this is the only reference in New Testament to "a daughter of Abraham." They conclude that Jesus spoke of this woman as though she belonged to the family of Abraham just as much as did the sons of Abraham.

A widow of Nain

The Gospels describe two miracles of Jesus raising persons from the dead. In both incidents the dead are restored to women. Jesus restored an only son to an unnamed widow Luke 7:11–17 and to Mary and Martha their brother Lazarus.John 11:1–44

A widow's offering

The story of a poor widow's casting of "two copper coins" into the Temple treasury appears in Mark 12:41–44 and in Luke 21:1–4. What a poor widow gave was "all her living." Women had only limited access to the Temple in Jerusalem. There Jesus found the most praiseworthy piety and sacrificial giving — not in the rich contributors — but in a poor woman.

A woman who anointed Jesus' feet

Jesus was an invited dinner guest in the home of a Pharisee. All at the table were men. During the meal a woman known as "a sinner" entered the room and anointed Jesus' feet with her tears and with some ointment. Her tears fell upon his feet and she wiped them with her hair. Women of the time had few options, and it is most likely (but not certain) that her sin was the familiar one of prostitution. The grammar of Luke 7:47 permits the understanding that the woman was forgiven because she loved much. To Jesus the woman's obviously great love is evidence that she knew herself to have been forgiven much. This particular sinner had the courage to publicly express her love for the one who saw her — not as a sex object to be exploited — but as a person to be accepted as having worth.

A woman who touched Jesus' garment

Jesus practiced the ministry of touch, sometimes touching the "untouchables" and letting them touch him. Among the things considered defiling (disqualifying one for the rituals of religion) was an issue of blood, especially menstruation or hemorrhage. One such had been plagued with a flow of blood for 12 years, no one having been able to heal her. She found the courage in a crowd to force her way up to Jesus, approaching him from behind so as to remain inconspicuous, and simply touching his garment (Mark 5:27). When she touched Jesus' garment, the flows of blood stopped. Jesus turned and asked who touched him. The disciples tried to brush aside the question, protesting that in such a crowd no individual could be singled out. Jesus pressed his inquiry and the noble woman identified herself and declared to the crowd the blessing that had come to her. Jesus treated her not only as having worth but as doing a responsible thing. He did not rebuke her for what the cultic code of holiness would have considered as having defiled him. Rather, he relieved her of any sense of guilt for her seemingly rash act and said, "Daughter, your faith has saved you. Go in peace!" (Mark 5:34).

Fontaine writes, "The 'chutzpah' shown by the woman who bled for 12 years as she wrests her salvation from the healer's cloak is as much a measure of her desperation as it is a testimony to her faith" (Fontaine 1996, p. 291). She writes that "the Bible views women as a group of people who are fulfilled, legitimated, given full membership into their community, and cared for in old age by their children" (Fontaine 1996, p. 290), and that barren women risked ostracism from their communities. Fontaine notes that when disabled people are healed, the act "emphasizes primarily the remarkable compassion of the one doing the good deed, not the deserving nature or dignity of the recipient" ((Fontaine 1996, p. 290). She writes that they "serve as marvelous plot devices that show off the power of God or the anointed one" (Fontaine 1996, p. 294).

A woman rebuked

In the scenes preserved in the Gospels, Jesus almost always takes a positive stance toward women. He never denigrates womanhood as such. Luke 11:27–28 reports that as Jesus was speaking on one occasion, a woman from the crowd lifted her voice and cried out, "Blessed be the womb that bore you and the breasts that nursed you." Jesus gave her what appears to have been a curt answer: "On the contrary, blessed are those hearing the word of God and observing it." He was making the point that compliance with God's word is what makes one blessed, not motherhood as such, not even the mothering of Jesus.

A Syrophoenician woman

The story in Mark 7:24–30 and its parallel in Matthew 15:21–28 is unlike any other in the canonical Gospels. Jesus seems harsh toward the woman as he first denies her request for help for her daughter. He also appears to be condescending and denigrating of her as he says, "First let the children be fed, for it is not fitting to take the brand of the children and throw it to the dogs" (Mark 7:27). In the context, "the children" seem to be Jews and "the dogs" Gentiles.

She is identified as "a Greek, a Syrophoenician by race" (vs 25f.). The point is not that she is a woman but that she is Gentile, not Jewish. "Dogs" was epithet of the day for Gentiles, and Jesus appears to be on the side of Jewish contempt for Gentiles. In both Mark and Matthew, non-Jews are likened to "dogs," and a woman deeply concerned for her daughter's condition is brushed off until she herself prevails in her discourse with Jesus. Why Jesus appeared harsh to a disadvantaged person and also lost the brief debate with her is still debated among authorities. Three interpretations seem possible:

1. Jesus could have been instructing his disciples, first assuming a familiar Jewish prejudice toward non-Jews and then abandoning it as its unfairness was exposed. The story may have served as an object lesson about prejudice to his disciples as a barrier is broken down between Jews and Gentiles.
2. Jesus may have been testing the woman's faith. Jesus' parting word to her is one of affirmation and acclaim. She passed his test.
3. A third possibility suggests a deep struggle within Jesus as he dealt with the claims of both Jew and Gentile. Jesus demonstrated a universal perspective of that day. He had openness to Jews who were outside of accepted circles (publicans, sinners, prostitutes). He also went out of his way to affirm Samaritans (for example, the woman at the well) who as an ethnic group had mutual animosity with the Jews. It is clear that he had to give himself unreservedly to Israel and yet also to the rest of the world. Jesus may have been having a deep honest struggle within himself over the claims of two worlds upon him.</ref>

As to the manner of Jesus with women, he did not substitute uncritical deference for prejudice against women. He related to women as persons with words and dignity. In this story as elsewhere, Jesus is seen as capable of manifesting a critical stance toward woman and at the same time being respectful of her self-affirmation as she boldly countered his own remarks.

Jesus and the woman taken in adultery

The story appearing in most Bibles as John 7:53–8:11 does not seem to have been original to the Gospel of John or any other New Testament writing. It is absent from the two oldest copies of the Gospel of John known to us. Whether or not the story is historical cannot be determined, but it does ring true to what otherwise is known about Jesus. It is hardly a story that the Church would have invented. It could be historical, a story that first lived outside the canonical Gospels.

Jesus was teaching in the Temple in Jerusalem. Some scribes and Pharisees interrupted his teaching as they brought in a woman who had been taken in the very act of adultery. They stood her before him, declared the charge, reminded him of Moses' command that such women be stoned, and then asked, "What do you say?" After a time of silence, Jesus stooped down and wrote with his finger on the ground. The text includes no hint of what he wrote. The woman's accusers were after Jesus, not just her. She to them was a worthless object to be used to trap Jesus. Finally, Jesus stood up and said to the accusers, "Let the one among you who is without sin cast the first stone." He stooped down once more and again wrote on the ground. In his answer Jesus did not condone adultery. He compelled her accusers to judge themselves and find themselves guilty — of this sin and/or others. No one could pass the test, and they slipped out one by one, beginning with the eldest.

When Jesus and the woman were finally alone, he asked her a simple question, "Woman, where are they? Did no one condemn you?" She simply replied, "No one, Lord." His final word to the woman was one of affirmation and commission: "Neither do I condemn you. Go, and from now on sin no more." While acknowledging that she had sinned, he turned her in a new direction with real encouragement. Jesus rejected the double standard for women and men and turned the judgment upon the male accusers. His manner with the sinful woman was such that she found herself challenged to a new self understanding and a new life.

The woman at the well in Samaria

The long account about Jesus and a woman of Samaria, found in John 4:1–4 is highly significant for understanding Jesus in several relationships: Samaritans, women, and sinners. By talking openly with this woman Jesus crossed a number of barriers which normally would have separated a Jewish teacher from such a person as this woman of Samaria. Jesus did three things that were highly unconventional and astonishing for his cultural-religious situation:

1. He as a man discussed theology openly with a woman.
2. He as a Jew asked to drink from the ritually unclean bucket of a Samaritan.
3. He did not avoid her, even though he knew her marital record of having had five former husbands and now living with a man who was not her husband.

The disciples showed their astonishment upon their return to the well: "They were marveling that he was talking with a woman" (John 4:27). A man in the Jewish world did not normally talk with a woman in public, not even with his own wife. For a rabbi to discuss theology with a woman was even more unconventional. Jesus did not defer to a woman simply because she was a woman. He did not hesitate to ask of the woman that she let him drink from her vessel, but he also did not hesitate to offer her a drink of another kind from a Jewish "bucket" as he said to her, "Salvation is of the Jews" (John 4:22). Salvation was coming to the Samaritan woman from the Jews. Although she was a Samaritan, she needed to be able to drink from a Jewish "vessel" (of salvation) and Jesus no more sanctioned Samaritan prejudice against Jew than Jewish prejudice against Samaritan.

The key to Jesus' stance is found in his perceiving persons as persons. He saw the stranger at the well as someone who first and foremost was a person — not primarily a Samaritan, a woman, or a sinner. This evangelized woman became an evangelist. She introduced her community to "a man" whom they came to acclaim as "the Savior of the world" (John 4:42). Jesus liberated this woman and awakened her to a new life in which not only did she receive but also gave. The Bible says she brought "many Samaritans" to faith in Christ (v. 39). If the men in John 1 were the first "soul winners," this woman was the first "evangelist" in John's gospel.

Mary and Martha

Luke and John show that Jesus had a close relationship with the sisters Mary and Martha. They are featured in three major stories:

1. A tension between the two sisters over roles (Luke 10:38–42));
2. Grief at the death of their brother Lazarus, followed by his being raised (John 11:1–44); and
3. The anointing of Jesus by Mary (explicitly in John 12:1–8); presumably in Mark 14:3–9; Matthew 26:6–13).

Tension over roles

Only Luke relates the story of tension between Martha and Mary on the occasion of the visit of Jesus to their home.Lk. 10:38–42 While Martha prepared the meal, Mary sat at the feet of Jesus and "she was hearing his word."10:39 Martha became distracted and frustrated over having to serve the meal without any help from her sister. Finally she openly shared her feelings, stood over Jesus who was either seated or reclining, and complained: "She came to him and asked, "Lord, don't you care that my sister has left me to do the work by myself? Tell her to help me!" Jesus gently rebuked Martha for being so distracted and troubled over many things, when only one thing was necessary. He then affirmed Mary and her choice of "the good part" which would not be taken from her.

Mary's choice was not a conventional one for Jewish women. She sat at the feet of Jesus and was listening to his teaching and religious instruction. Jewish women were not permitted to touch the Scriptures; they were not taught the Torah itself, although they were instructed in accordance with it for the proper regulation of their lives. A rabbi did not instruct a woman in the Torah. Not only did Mary choose the "good part," but Jesus related to her in a teacher-discipleship relationship. He admitted her into "the study" and commended her for her choice. In the tradition of that day, women were excluded from the altar-oriented priestly ministry, and the exclusion encroached upon the Word-oriented ministry for women. Jesus reopened the Word-ministry for woman. Mary was at least one of his students in theology.

Jesus vindicated Mary's rights to be her own person — to be Mary and not Martha. He showed his approval of a woman's right to opt for the study and not be compelled to be in the kitchen. Jesus established his own priorities in declaring, "Man shall not live by bread alone, but by every word proceeding out through the mouth of God.Mt. 4:4 Martha needed to be reminded of the priority of Word over bread. Luke's account of Jesus at the home of Mary and Martha puts Jesus solidly on the side of the recognition of the full personhood of woman, with the right to options for her own life. By socializing with both sisters and in defending Mary's right to a role then commonly denied to Jewish women, Jesus was following his far-reaching principle of human liberation.

The grieving sisters

John 11:1–44 is about the raising of Lazarus from four days in the tomb. The central figure, however, is Jesus, identified as "the resurrection and the life." When the brother of Mary and Martha became ill, they sent for Jesus. For some undisclosed reason, Jesus did not arrive until four days after Lazarus died. The grieving sisters, Martha first and then Mary, met Jesus. Jesus raised Lazarus from the dead and then proclaimed himself as "the resurrection and the life." Martha gently reproached Jesus, "Lord, had you been here, my brother would not have died." She hastened to express full confidence that God would grant whatever Jesus asked him to grant. Martha reflected a spiritual understanding beyond that required for preparing and serving a meal (John 11:21–27). Apparently, Martha and not just Mary had benefited from the study.

Mary stayed in the house until Jesus called for her. When Martha went to get her, Mary came quickly fell at Jesus' feet (Mary is at the feet of Jesus in every appearance recorded in John's gospel). She repeated the words Martha already had used: "Lord, had you been here my brother would not have died." Jesus was deeply moved upon seeing Mary and her friends weeping. They invited Jesus to come and see the tomb where Lazarus had been laid. Jesus burst into tears. The Jews standing by understood this as reflecting Jesus is love for Lazarus, "see how he loved him" (v. 36). The foursome of Jesus, Mary, Lazarus, and Martha had a close relationship as persons, with neither denial of gender differences nor preoccupation with it. Here were persons of both genders whose mutual respect, friendship and love carried them through experiences of tension, grief, enjoy. Apparently Jesus was secure enough to develop such a relationship with two sisters and their brother without fear for his reputation. When necessary, he could oppose them without fear of chauvinism. Jesus had much to do with the liberation and growth of Martha and Mary.

The anointing at Bethany

(Matthew 26:6–13; Mark 14:1–3; John 12:1–3) Only John identifies Mary with the anointing in Bethany; the woman remains unnamed in Mark and Matthew. Jesus is quoted as assuring that the story of a woman's sacrificial love and devotion to him will have a place in the gospel wherever preached (Matthew 26:13. Mary probably anticipated Jesus' death, but that is not certain. At least her beautiful deed gave Jesus needed support as he approached his awaited hour. Each of the two sisters Mary and Martha had their own way of ministering to Jesus: Martha, perhaps being more practical, served him a meal; Mary lavishly anointed him.

Women who ministered with Jesus

(Luke 8:1–3) Luke's gospel is unique in documenting that there were many women who not only benefited personally from Jesus is ministry but who ministered to him and with him even to the point of accompanying him and the Twelve on evangelistic journeys. Most prominent among these is Mary Magdalene. Luke 8:1–3 in the Greek text is one long sentence. Its three main focal points are Jesus, the Twelve, and certain women. Jesus is traveling through cities and towns, preaching the Kingdom of God, evangelizing, and accompanied by the Twelve. Other than mentioning that the Twelve were with him, nothing more is said of them here. The chief motive of the paragraph seems to be to bring certain women, of whom there were "many," in the focus. This passage represents them as recipients of healing at different levels of need and as actively participating with Jesus and the Twelve in their travels, with special reference to their financial support. Luke says there were many of them and that these included women prominent in the public life of the state as well as in the church.

Luke's account specifies two categories of healing: evil spirits and infirmities. Jesus liberated and humanized people who otherwise were being enslaved or destroyed by forces within themselves and in society. Jesus healed many women of "evil spirits and infirmities." Only of Mary Magdalene does Luke provide any detail of her healing, stating that "seven demons" had been cast out. Presumably these "many" women had been healed of various illnesses, physical, emotional, and mental. No specific data is provided on Mary Magdalene's "seven demons." It's significant that women whose conditions subjected them to scorn and penalty found in Jesus a Liberator who not only enabled them to find health, but whom he dignified as full persons by accepting their own ministries to himself and to the Twelve.

It is significant that women had an open and prominent part in the ministry of Jesus. Luke's word for their "ministering" is widely used in the New Testament. Its noun cognate, diakonos, is variously translated "minister," "servant," and "deacon" (the latter in Romans 16:1 for Phoebe and in the pastoral letters). In summary, Jesus attracted to his movement a large number of women, ranging from some in desperate need to some in official circles of government.

Twelve and no women

Each of the four listings in the New Testament indicates that all of the Twelve were men (Mark 3:13–19; Matthew 10:1–4; Luke 6:12–16, Acts 1:13). The names vary in the four lists, but their male identity is clear. Why were the Twelve all men? The fact that they were is often cited as biblical evidence that pastors should all be male. The New Testament gives no clear answer why the example of Jesus in choosing his apostles is not a complete overcoming of male bias. Several considerations may be placed alongside this one. Jesus advanced various principles that went beyond their immediate implementation. For example, he clearly repudiated the Jew-Samaritan antipathy, affirming not only his own Jewish kin but also the Samaritan. Yet, there are no Samaritans among the Twelve. Jesus affirmed both women and Samaritans as persons with fullest right to identity, freedom, and responsibility, but for some undisclosed reason he included neither in the circle of the Twelve. Perhaps custom here was so entrenched that Jesus simply stopped short of fully implementing a principle that he made explicit and emphatic: "whoever does the will of God is my brother, and sister, and mother" (Mark 3:35). By selecting 12 Jewish males, Jesus may have been offering a parallel to the 12 patriarchs or 12 tribes of Israel, each headed by a son of Jacob. The Twelve could dramatize both the continuity with national Israel and the discontinuity which looked beyond national Israel to a new fellowship inclusive of any who come by faith.

However the restriction of the Twelve to Jewish men is to be accounted for, Jesus did introduce far-reaching principles which bore fruit even in a former rabbi, the Apostle Paul, who at least in vision could say, "There is not any Jew nor Greek, not any slave nor free, not in male and female; for you are all one in Christ Jesus" (Galatians 3:28). Further, the inclusion of "many" women in the traveling company of Jesus represents a decisive move in the formation of a new community. The Twelve are all men and also are all Jews, but even at this point women "minister" to them. Unless one would argue that "apostolic succession" (however adapted) is for Jews only, it cannot be argued that it is for men only.

A likely explanation is that Jesus began where he was, within the structures of Judaism as he knew it in his upbringing. His closest companions initially may have been Jews, men, and men of about his own age. He began there, but he did not stop there. Even in the early stages of his mission, women were becoming deeply involved at the power center of Jesus' movement.

Jesus on family relationships

Jesus ate with a Pharisee leader one evening, where he invited the gathered guests to follow him (Matthew 12:46). The guests gave reasons why they could not follow him, including marriage and recent financial acquisitions (Luke 14:18–20). Jesus responded, "If anyone comes to me and does not hate father and mother, wife and children, brothers and sisters — yes, even life itself — such a person cannot be my disciple" (Luke 14:26). Various expositors suggest that "hate" is an example of comparative hyperbolic biblical language, prominent in some Eastern cultures even today, to imply "love less than you give me," "compared to Christ," the Semitic idea of "lower preference," a call to count the cost of following Jesus.

When Jesus was told that his mother and brothers waited for him outside and wanted to speak to him, Jesus created a novel definition of family. He said to the people who were gathered to hear him speak, "Who is my mother? and who are my brethren? And he stretched forth his hand toward his disciples, and said, 'Behold my mother and my brethren! For whosoever shall do the will of my Father which is in heaven, the same is my brother, and sister, and mother'" (Matthew 12:48–50).

Biblical interpretations supporting equality for men and women

The following are just a few of the scriptural references that can be interpreted to allow greater equality between men and women:

• "In the last days, God says, I will pour out my Spirit on all people. Your sons and daughters will prophesy, your young men will see visions, your old men will dream dreams. Even on my servants, both men and women, I will pour out my Spirit in those days, and they will prophesy."Acts 2:17–18

• "There is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus." Gal. 3:28

• "The husband should give to his wife her conjugal rights, and likewise the wife to her husband. For the wife does not have authority over her own body, but the husband does; likewise the husband does not have authority over his own body, but the wife does."1 Cor. 7:3–5

• Paul is accompanied by house-church leaders Priscilla and Aquila. Priscilla, a female, is a prominent figure in Paul's ministry.
• A disciple named Junia is mentioned of note among the apostles.Rom. 16:7 While Junia's gender is not perfectly clear in the Greek, there is evidence that she was a woman. One of the earliest Christian commentators on the subject, John Chrysostom (349–407) wrote: "how great the wisdom of this woman must have been that she was even deemed worthy of the title of apostle." Without exception, the Church Fathers in late antiquity identified Andronicus' partner in Romans 16:7 as a woman, as did a 9th century church record which recorded iounia with an acute accent, meaning feminine. When later medieval copyists of Romans 16:7 could not imagine a woman being an apostle, they wrote the masculine name "Junias."
• In Romans 16:1–2, Phoebe is commended as a deacon — not a deaconess. Paul's word for women's "ministering" is widely used in the New Testament. Its noun cognate, diakonos, is variously translated "minister," "servant," and "deacon" (the latter in Romans 16:1 for Phoebe and in the pastoral letters). Paul uses the same word for himself. Paul writes this as a recommendation for Phoebe.

• Jesus' stories often centered on deeds of compassion and generosity. Many of his parables involved women. An example is the Parable of the widow's mite, in which a relatively tiny gift from an impoverished woman is regarded by Christ as being a generous gift, equal with a lavish gift from a rich man, because the money was needed more by the poor woman — the rich man could easily afford to be generous.

Below are Scriptures that show women using their God-given gifts in both the Old and New Testaments:

• Exodus 15:20–21 and Micah 6:4; (Miriam is sent along with Moses and Aaron).
• Judges 4–5 (Deborah was both a prophetess and judge of Israel).
• 2 Kings 22:14–20 (Huldah was a prophetess).
• Isaiah 8:3 (Isaiah's wife is referred to as a prophetess).
• Matthew 28, Mark 16John 20 (Women were first to testify of Jesus' resurrection).
• Luke 2:36–38 (Anna the prophetess gave thanks and spoke of Jesus in the temple).
• Acts 2:16–18 (Promises that "your daughters will prophesy")
• Acts 21:8–9 (Philip's four daughters prophesied).
• Romans 16:1–2 (Paul commends Phoebe as a "servant" which is the Greek word diakonos (Strong's reference number G1249) which is also translated as "deacon" in 1 Tim. 3:18 Apostle Paul refers to himself with the same Greek word in 1 Cor. 3:5 (translated as "minister").
• Romans 16:3–4 (Paul refers to Priscilla and Aquila, a husband and wife team, as helpers in Christ. In Acts 18:24–26 Aquila and Priscilla taught and corrected Apollos so that he could understand the gospel more accurately).
• Romans 16:7 (Junia and her husband are listed as apostles).
• Romans 16:12 (Tryphena, Tryphosa, and Persis labored in the Lord).
• Philippians 4:3 (Women labored with Paul in the Gospel).

Biblical interpretations supporting unequal roles for women and men

There are many scriptural references that reveal distinct functions/roles between men and women at home and in the church:

• The Bible endorses different functions/roles between men and women in the home. (1 Peter 3:1–6; Eph 5:22, 25; Titus 2:4; Colossians 3:18–19). In general, men are exhorted to lead with love and consideration, while women are told to submit with loving reverence
• Both Paul and Peter refer to the Old Testament to justify the submission of woman to man; the creation of Eve after Adam (1 Corinthians 11:8–9) and the transgression of Eve before Adam (1 Timothy 2:12).
• 1Corinthians 14:34 states that women must not speak/preach in church "as also says the law" (KJV), but there is no reference in the Old Testament to support this. It is unknown which "law" the author refers to, and it possibly could refer to domestic civil laws of the first century. 1Corinthians 14:35 calls it "a shame for women to speak in the church," and that women should be taught only by their husbands. Many NT scholars have argued that a Greek particle that appears many times within Paul's writings — usually used when Paul is quoting a mistaken position and then refuting it — is used here. The particle comes directly at the beginning of 1Corinthians 14:36 and is translated "What?" in the KJV; this leads some to believe that Paul is actually quoting a prior Corinthian letter in 1Corinthians 14:34–35 and then refuting the proud Corinthian doctrine later.
• Colossians 3:18–23 in particular is addressed directly to specific groups: women are to submit to the leadership of their husband, men to love their wives and not to treat them with harshness, children to respect their parents, fathers not to frustrate their children, and slaves to obey their masters.
• 1 Peter 3:1–6 justifies submission on the grounds that "Sara obeyed Abraham, calling him lord" (KJV).

Distinct-gender churches argue that Paul taught that the same principles apply in a formal church setting:

• Paul addresses women in formal church settings to keep silent based on Torah law regarding female subjugation to men (1 Cor 14:34–35). However, there is debate as to how much this should be seen as Paul speaking to a specific congregation at a specific time, and whether the passage speaks directly to today's society.
• Women are told to learn in silence with attitudes of subjugation in church (1 Timothy 2:12–15). The word Paul uses for "silence" (hesuchia) is not a word that intimates total silence but rather refers to a quietness and an attitude that is appropriate for learning. As rabbinical students sit at the feet of the Rabbi to learn, so women are to do the same with the teachers in Ephesus (p. 90).
• Women are restricted from teaching and "usurping" authority over men in formal church settings (1 Timothy 2:12–15). "…to have authority over men": Paul does not use the traditional word for "authority" (exousia) but rather a word that is used only once in the New Testament, "authentein." It can be interpreted to mean to usurp authority or to "lord it over" another. Paul does not permit women to grasp the authority to teach away from those placed over the congregation and thereby usurp their authority. This simply leads to chaos and error (p. 90).
• Women seem not to be considered in verses that discuss the criteria for selecting bishops and deacons (Titus 1:5-, 1 Timothy 3:1–12, 14–15).
• Jesus did not choose any women to be apostles. After Jesus' ascension, the apostles seem not to have considered female candidates when choosing a replacement for Judas, or when choosing seven leaders (Luke 6:13; Acts 1:14–26; Acts 6:3). Jesus had several women followers, notably Mary Magdalene, but no female apostles.
• These exhortations were given to various church contexts and to traveling evangelists (Timothy, Titus) who were told to remain true to these specific teachings (removing the argument that they were cultural prescriptions), letters often circulated to all the churches, coincided (within the texts themselves) with teachings regarding family order, coincided with Torah, there is a consistency of doctrine in all letters of the NT, coincides with early church documents and traditions, and noted by Paul to be the commands of the Lord and traditions among "all the churches of God" (Areas: Corinth, Ephesus, Crete, etc.; 1 Corinthians 11:1–16; 1 Corinthians 14:33–38; 1 Timothy 3:14–15).

Current church views of women's roles

In general, the issues have been what the proper role of women is (a) in marriage; (b) in the church; (c) in society at large. Among the denominations, movements, and organizations that express or have previously expressed a view, there are four main views:

1. Full equality of roles and rights:
2. * American Baptist Churches USA
3. * Assemblies of God
4. * Baptist Union of Great Britain
5. * Christians for Biblical Equality
6. * Church of the Brethren
7. * Episcopal Church USA
8. * Evangelical Covenant Church
9. * Evangelical Lutheran Church in America
10. * Evangelische Kirche in Deutschland
11. * Free Methodist Church
12. * Presbyterian Church USA
13. * Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) — Quakers have always believed in the legitimacy of women's ministry, with only a few exceptions in the early years. In 1848 at a conference in Seneca Falls, New York, 100 men and women signed a declaration that "all men and women are created equally." Early leaders of the movement were Quaker, including Lucretia Mott.
14. * United Church of Canada
15. * United Church of Christ
16. * United Methodist Church
17. * Uniting Church in Australia
18. * Many others
19. Full secular equality but restricted ecclesiastical roles and privileges:
20. * Eastern Orthodox Church
21. * Presbyterian Church in America
22. * Orthodox Presbyterian Church
23. * Presbyterian Church of Australia
24. * Roman Catholic Church
25. * Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod
26. * Lutheran Church-Wisconsin Synod
27. * Many others
28. Restricted roles or rights in both secular and ecclesiastical life:
29. * Council on Biblical Manhood and Womanhood
30. * Jehovah's Witnesses
31. Forced restricted roles or rights
32. * Christian Reconstructionism
33. * Dominion theology
34. Mixed
35. * Southern Baptist Convention's official position is to prohibit females from becoming clergy, and to insist that a wife "graciously submit" to the leadership of her husband. Members of an individual ("local") Southern Baptist church are allowed to vote on matters of business of the church that include the hiring of a pastor. However, many churches that have chosen female clergy as their pastor have been disenfranchised by either local or state Baptist associations.

The above lists are examples and are obviously not exhaustive. It is not always clear which category a church or movement falls into. The fourth view — forced restricted roles or rights — has been criticized as contravening international norms of human rights and is not enforceable under various national constitutions and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

The Wesleyan tradition and the Holiness and Pentecostal movements, as well as a growing number of contemporary Charismatic churches which draw from them, have increasingly accepted women as leaders on an equal footing with men.

Roman Catholicism, although not in conformity with some modern Western views on this issue, has increasingly addressed the issue from the highest levels, including the Papal Office. For instance, Pope John Paul II has addressed this issue in his 1995 "Letter to Women", his 1996 "Address on Promoting the Well-Being of Women", and the 1988 Apostolic Letter "On the Dignity and Vocation of Women", for examples.

Other notes: There is a controversial passage in 1Corinthians 11:1–16 whereby women are allowed to speak in formal church settings with the condition that they are veiled. It may be argued that the ruling principle is not limitation, but that ministry should be done with an attitude of reverence and submission to those in authority, and God's design and order. Paul reveals through the guidelines and principles of gender distinction that God is concerned with the preservation of family, creation, and church order. Thus, men's leadership roles are formally endorsed throughout the pages of scripture as opposed to women's.

However, in scripture, one can find that outside contexts of formality, women operate in many gifts of the Spirit like evangelizing, prophesying, serving, praying, teaching, laboring in ministry, preaching (John 4:28–30; 1 Cor 11:1–16; Matt 27:55; Acts 1:14; Acts 18:26; Phil 4:3; Luke 2:36–38).

References and notes

• Bechtel, Lyn M. (1996), "A Symbolic Level of Meaning: John 2.1–11 (The Marriage in Cana)", in Athalya Brenner (ed.), A Feminist Companion to The Hebrew Bible in the New Testament (1st ed.), Sheffield, U.K.: Sheffield Academic Press

• Fontaine, Carole R. (1996), "Disabilities and Illness in the Bible: A Feminist Perspective", in Athalya Brenner (ed.), A Feminist Companion to The Hebrew Bible in the New Testament (1st ed.), Sheffield, U.K.: Sheffield Academic Press

• Kripal, Jeffrey John. (2007), The Serpent's Gift: Gnostic Reflections on the Study of Religion, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press

Catholic Church references

• "Declaration Inter Insigniores on the question of the Admission of Women to the Ministerial Priesthood." Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, October 15, 1976.
• Apostolic Letter Ordinatio Sacerdotalis (On Ordination to the Priesthood)." Pope John Paul II, May 22, 1994.
• "Apostolic Letter Mulieris Dignitatem (On the Dignity of Women)." Pope John Paul II, August 15, 1988.
• Catechism of the Catholic Church. Many Christians also see Mary as the prototypical Christian, as in the Bible she was the first to hear the Good News of Jesus' coming. She is one of the few of Jesus' followers reported to be present at his crucifixion. Thus she is a woman who is most imitated among Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox saints.

Literature on the history of women in the early Christian Church

• Torjesen, Karen Jo. When Women were Priests: Women's Leadership in the Early Church & The Scandal of their Subordination in the Rise of Christianity. New York, NY: Harper Collins Publisher, 1995.
• Wiley,Tatha. Paul and the Gentile Women: Reframing Galatians New York: Continuum, 2005.
• MacDonald, Margaret. "Reading Real Women Through Undisputed Letters of Paul." In Women and Christian Origins edited by Ross Sheppard Kraemer and Mary Rose D'Angelo. Oxford: University Press, 1999.
• Witherington, Ben III. Women in the Earliest Churches. Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988.

See also

• Christian egalitarianism
• Christian feminism
• Christians for Biblical Equality an egalitarian organization
• Complementarianism
• Female disciples of Jesus
• Katharine Bushnell Pioneer Christian feminist
• Old Testament views on women
• Quaker views of women
• Women as theological figures

External links

• Christians for Biblical Equality, an egalitarian organization
• The Council for Biblical Manhood and Womanhood, a complementarian organization
• "The Ministry of Women" — by William MacDonald