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Islamic eschatology is the pillar of Islamic theology concerning ideas of life after death, matters of the soul, and the "Day of Judgement," known as Yawm al-Qiyāmah (Arabic: يوم القيامة, IPA: [jawmu‿l.qijaːma], "the Day of Resurrection") or Yawm ad-Dīn (يوم الدين, Arabic pronunciation: [jawmu‿d.diːn], "the Day of Judgment").[1] The Day of Judgement is characterized by the annihilation of all life, which will then be followed by the resurrection and judgment by God. When al-Qiyamah will happen is not specified, but according to prophecy, primarily elaborated by hadith-literature, there are major and minor signs that will foretell its coming.[2][3] Many verses in the Qur'an mention the Last Judgment.[4][5]

The main subject of Surat al-Qiyama is the resurrection. The Great Tribulation is described in the hadith and commentaries of the ulama, including al-Ghazali, Ibn Kathir, Ibn Majah, Muhammad al-Bukhari, and Ibn Khuzaymah.[6][7] The Day of Judgment is also known as the Day of Reckoning, the Last Day, and the Hour (al-sā'ah).[8][9][10][11]

Unlike the Qur'an, the hadith contain several events, happening before the Day of Judgment, which are described as several minor signs and twelve major signs. During this period, terrible corruption and chaos would rule the earth, caused by the Masih ad-Dajjal (the Antichrist in Islam), then Jesus will appear, defeating the Dajjal and establish a period of peace, liberating Islam from cruelty. These events will be followed by a time of serenity when people live according to religious values.[12]

Like other Abrahamic religions, Islam teaches that there will be a resurrection of the dead followed by a final tribulation and eternal division of the righteous and wicked.[13] Islamic apocalyptic literature describing Armageddon is often known as fitna, Al-Malhama Al-Kubra (The Great Massacre) or ghaybah in Shī'a Islam. The righteous are rewarded with the pleasures of Jannah (Paradise), while the unrighteous are punished in Jahannam (Hell).

Sources for Islamic Eschatology

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Islamic scripture has a plethora of content on the Last Judgment and the tribulation associated with it. The two sources which are primarily referred to when exploring the topic of Islamic eschatology are the Qur'an itself and the hadith, or accounts of the actions and sayings of Prophet Muhammad during his lifetime.[14] One of the functions of the Qur'an as it relates to eschatology and the Day of Judgement is to serve as a reminder of Allah's intentions for humanity and as a warning for those who do not abide by Him.[15] Hadith are often referred to in tandem with the Qur'an in order to create a more detailed and comprehensive understanding of Islamic scripture. The compilation of hadith took place approximately two hundred years after the death of Muhammad.[16] The Last Judgment and the tribulation have also been discussed in the commentaries of ulama such as al-Ghazali, Ibn Kathir, and Muhammad al-Bukhari.[6][7] Scholarly discourse on eschatology and its sub themes often includes an exploration of hadith as they pertain to matters in the Qur'an, and serve as a source for clarification. [17] Hadith are generally viewed as being second in authority to the Qur'an, as the Qur'an is generally understood to be the verbatim word of Allah.[18]

Signs of the End Times

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In Islam, a number of major and minor signs foretell the end of days.[19] There is debate over whether they could occur concurrently or must be at different points in time, although Islamic scholars typically divide them into three major periods.[20]

  1. Sexual immorality appears among people to such an extent that they commit it openly, except that they will be afflicted by plagues and diseases unknown to their forefathers;
  2. People cheat in weights and measures (business, trades, etc.) and are stricken with famine, calamity, and oppression as a result;
  3. They withhold charity and hoard their wealth, and rain is withheld from the sky from them; there is rain only for animals;
  4. They break their covenant with God and His Messenger and God enables their enemies to overpower them and take some of what is in their hands;
  5. God causes those who do not live according to His book to fight among themselves.[note 1]

Major Signs

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Following the second period, the third will be marked by the ten major signs known as alamatu's-sa'ah al-kubra (the major signs of the end).[note 2] They are as follows:

  1. The false messiah—anti-Christ, Masih ad-Dajjal—shall appear with great powers as a one-eyed man with his right eye blind and deformed like a grape. Although believers will not be deceived, he will claim to be God, to hold the keys to heaven and hell, and will lead many astray.[21] In reality, his heaven is hell, and his hell is heaven. The Dajjal will be followed by seventy thousand Jews of Isfahan wearing Persian shawls.[note 3]
  2. The return of Isa (Jesus), from the fourth sky, to kill Dajjal.[22]
  3. Ya'jooj and Ma'jooj (Gog and Magog), a Japhetic tribe of vicious beings who had been imprisoned by Dhul-Qarnayn, will break out. They will ravage the earth, drink all the water of Lake Tiberias, and kill all believers in their way. Isa, Imam Al-Mahdi, and the believers with them will go to the top of a mountain and pray for the destruction of Gog and Magog. God eventually will send disease and worms to wipe them out.[note 4][23]
  4. A huge black cloud of smoke will cover the earth.[note 5]
  5. The Dabbat al-ard, or Beast of the Earth, will come out of the ground to talk to people.[note 6]
  6. The sun will rise from the west.[24][25]
  7. Three sinkings of the earth, one in the east,[note 7]one in the west,[note 8]and one in Arabia.[note 9]
  8. The second blow of the trumpet will be sounded, the dead will return to life, and a fire will come out of Yemen that shall gather all to Mahshar Al Qiy'amah (The Gathering for Judgment).[26]

Minor Signs

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  1. The coming of fitna (tribulations) and removal of khushoo' (fearfulness of God, taqwah, reverence, etc.)[note 10]
  2. The coming of Dajjal, presuming himself as an apostle of God.[note 11][jargon]
  3. A person passing by a grave might say to another the following: "I wish it were my abode."[note 12]
  4. The loss of honesty, as well as authority put in the hands of those who do not deserve it.[note 13]
  5. The loss of knowledge and the prevalence of religious ignorance.[note 14]
  6. Frequent, sudden, and unexpected deaths.[note 15]
  7. Increase in pointless killings.[note 16]
  8. Acceleration of time.[note 17]
  9. Rejection of Hadith.[note 18]
  10. The spread of riba (usury, interest), zina (adultery, fornication), and the drinking of alcohol.[note 19]
  11. Widespread acceptance of music.[note 20]
  12. Pride and competition in the decoration of mosques.[note 21]
  13. Women will increase in number and men will decrease in number so much so that fifty women will be looked after by one man.[note 22]
  14. Abundance of earthquakes.[note 23]
  15. Frequent occurrences of disgrace, distortion, and defamation.[note 24]
  16. When people wish to die because of the severe trials and tribulations that they are suffering.[note 25]
  17. Jews fighting Muslims.[note 26]
  18. When paying charity becomes a burden.[note 27]
  19. Nomads will compete in the construction of very tall buildings.[note 28]
  20. Women will appear naked despite their being dressed.[note 29]
  21. People will seek knowledge from misguided and straying scholars.[note 30]
  22. Liars will be believed, honest people disbelieved, and faithful people called traitors.[note 31]
  23. The death of righteous, knowledgeable people.[note 32]
  24. The emergence of indecency (obscenity) and enmity among relatives and neighbours.[note 33]
  25. The rise of idolatry and polytheists in the community.[note 34]
  26. The Euphrates will uncover a mountain of gold.[note 35]
  27. The land of the Arabs will return to being a land of rivers and fields.[note 36]
  28. People will increasingly earn money by unlawful (Haram) ways.[note 37]
  29. There will be much rain but little vegetation.[note 38]
  30. Evil people will be expelled from Al-Madinah.[note 39]
  31. Wild animals will communicate with humans, and humans will communicate with objects.[note 40]
  32. Lightning and thunder will become more prevalent.[note 41]
  33. There will be a special greeting for people of distinction.[note 42]
  34. Trade will become so widespread that a woman will help her husband in business.[note 43]
  35. No truly honest man will remain and no one will be trusted.[note 44]
  36. Only the worst people will be left; they will not know any good nor forbid any evil (i.e. No one will say there is no god but Allah).[note 45]
  37. Nations will call each other to destroy Islam by any and every means.[note 46]
  38. Islamic knowledge will be passed on, but no one will follow it correctly.[note 47]
  39. Muslim rulers will come who do not follow the guidance and tradition of the Sunnah. Some of their men will have the hearts of devils in a human body.[note 48]
  40. Stinginess will become more widespread and honorable people will perish.[note 49]
  41. A man will obey his wife and disobey his mother, and treat his friend kindly while shunning his father.[note 50]
  42. Voices will be raised in the mosques.[note 51]
  43. The leader of a people will be the worst of them.[note 52]
  44. People will treat a man with respect because they fear the evil he could do.[note 53]
  45. Much wine will be drunk.[note 54]
  46. Muslims shall fight against a nation who wear shoes made of hair and with faces like hammered shields, with red complexions and small eyes.[note 55]
  47. The emergence of the Sufyani within the Syria region.[note 56]
  48. The truce and joint Roman-Muslim campaign against a common enemy, followed by al-Malhama al-Kubra (Armageddon), a Roman vs. Muslim war.[note 57]
  49. The Black Standard will come from Khorasan, (see Hadith of black flags) nothing shall turn them back until it is planted in Jerusalem.[note 58]
  50. Quran will be forgotten and no one will recall its verses.
  51. All Islamic knowledge will be lost to the extent that people will not say "Lā ilāha illā llāh" (There is no god but Allah), but instead old people will babble without understanding, "God, God".
  52. People will fornicate in the streets "like donkeys."
  53. The first trumpet blow will be sounded by Israfil, all that is in heaven and earth will be stunned and die except what God wills, and silence will envelop everything for forty undetermined periods of time.
  54. There will be disagreement concerning succession. Then a man will emerge from Madina. He will hurry to Makkah, and the people of Makkah will come out to him and urge him and try to force him to accept the Bai'aa.[note 59]
  55. Mecca will be attacked and the Kaaba will be destroyed.[note 60]
  56. A pleasant breeze will blow from the south that shall cause all believers to die peacefully.
  57. The Moon will split in two, but non-believers will insist it isn't happening for real.[note 61]
  58. There are two groups of ummah whom God will free from the fire: The group that invades India (Ghazwa-e-Hind), and the group that will be with Isa bin Maryam.[note 62][27]
  59. Emergence of an army, from Yemen, that will make Islam dominant.[note 63][28]

One of the last of the minor signs, and which will signal the coming of the 10 Major signs

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  1. The appearance of the Mahdi.[29][30][31][32]

Predestination

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Orthodox Islam teaches predestination for both good and evil.[33] It teaches that everything that has happened and will happen has already been determined.[33] Free will and predestination have been discussed by many Muslim theologians, but the free will believers, also known as al-qadariyya, have been overruled.[33] The prophet Muhammad expressed predestination multiple times during his mission.[33] Death is also seen as a homecoming.[34] When people visit tombs, they are having a specific spiritual routine.[34] The correct way to visit someones tomb is to recite parts of the Qur'an and pray for the deceased. [34]

Appearance

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The Mahdi

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Diagram of "Plain of Assembly"(Ard al-Hashr) on the Day of Judgment, from autograph manuscript of Futuhat al-Makkiyya by Sufi mystic and philosopher Ibn Arabi, ca. 1238. Shown are the 'Arsh (Throne of God), pulpits for the righteous (al-Aminun), seven rows of angels, Gabriel (al-Ruh), A'raf (the Barrier), the Pond of Abundance, al-Maqam al-Mahmud (the Praiseworthy Station; where the prophet Muhammad will stand to intercede for the faithful), Mizan (the Scale), As-Sirāt (the Bridge), Jahannam (Hell) and Marj al-Jannat (Meadow of Paradise).[35]

Mahdi (Arabic: مهدي) meaning "guided one," is a messianic figure in Islamic tradition. He makes his first appearance in the hadiths and is thought as the first sign of the third period.[26] Hadith reports state that he will be a descendant of Muhammad through Muhammad's daughter Fatimah and cousin Ali. The Mahdi will be looked upon to kill al-Dajjal,[citation needed] to end the disintegration of the Muslim community, and to prepare for the reign of Jesus, who will rule for a time thereafter. The Mahdi will fulfill his prophetic mission, a vision of justice and peace, before submitting to Jesus' rule.[36] The physical features of Mahdi are described in the hadith—he will be of Arab complexion, of average height, with a big forehead, large eyes, and a sharp nose. He will have a mole on his cheek, the sign of the prophet on his shoulder, and be recognized by the caliphate while he sits in his own home. As written by Abu Dawud, "Our Mahdi will have a broad forehead and a pointed (prominent) nose. He will fill the earth with justice as it is filled with injustice and tyranny. He will rule for seven years."[37] In some accounts, after the seven years of peace, God will send a cold wind causing everyone with the smallest measure of human-kindness or faith, to die and carry them straight to heaven. Therefore, only the wicked will remain and be victims of terrible animals and Satan, until the day of resurrection.[38] Otherwise, the Mahdi will kill Satan before the last day, in most Shia accounts.

Though the predictions of the duration of his rule differ, hadith are consistent in describing that God will perfect him in a single night, imbuing him with inspiration and wisdom, and his name will be announced from the sky. The Mahdi will bring back worship of true Islamic values, and bring the Ark of the Covenant to light. He will conquer Istanbul and Mount Daylam and will regard Jerusalem and the Dome as his home. His banner will be that of the prophet Muhammad: black and unstitched, with a halo. Furled since the death of Muhammad, the banner will unfurl when the Mahdi appears. He will be helped by angels and others that will prepare the way for him. He will understand the secrets of abjad.[12]

Amr bin Shuaib learned from his grandfather that the Messenger of God said, "In Dhu al-Qi'dah (Islamic month), there will be fight among the tribes, Muslim pilgrims will be looted and there will be a battle in Mina in which many people will be slain and blood will flow until it runs over the Jamaratul Aqba (one of the three stone pillars at Mina). The man they seek will flee and will be found between the Rukn (a corner of the Kaaba containing the Black Stone) and the Maqam of Prophet Abraham (near Ka'ba). He will be forced to accept people's Bay'ah (being chosen as a Leader/Caliph). The number of those offering Bay'ah will be the same as the number of the people of Badr (Muslim fighters who participated in the Battle of Badr at time of Prophet Mohammad). Then, the dweller of Heaven and the dweller of the Earth will be pleased with him."[39]

Sunni and Shia Perspectives on the Mahdi
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Sunni and Shi'a Islam have different beliefs regarding the identity of Mahdi. Historically, Sunni Islam considers religious authority as being derived from the caliph, who was appointed by the companions of Muhammad at his death. The Sunnis view the Mahdi as the successor of Mohammad; the Mahdi is expected to arrive to rule the world and reestablish righteousness.[40] Some Sunnis share a belief that there may be no actual Mahdi, but that a series of mujaddid will instead lead to an Islamic revolution of a renewal of faith and avoidance of deviation from God's path. Sunni tradition has attributed such intellectual and spiritual attributes to numerous Muslims at the end of each Muslim century from the origin of Islam to the present day.[41] This classical interpretation is favored by Sunni scholars like Ghazali.[citation needed]

Contrarily, Shi'a Islam vested religious authority in those of the bloodline of Muhammad, favoring his cousin and son by marriage, Ali. Ali was appointed the first Imam; and according to Twelver interpretation, he was followed by eleven more. Muhammad al-Mahdi, otherwise known as the Twelfth Imam, went into hiding in 873 at the age of four. His father was al-`Askari, who had been murdered; and so he was hidden from the authorities of the Abbasid Caliphate. He maintained contact with his followers until 940, when he entered the Occultation. Twelverism believes that al-Mahdi is the current Imam, and will emerge at the end of the current age. Some scholars say that, although unnoticed by others present, the Mahdi of Twelver Islam continues to make an annual pilgrimage while he resides outside of Mecca.[42] In contradistinction, Sunni Islam foresees him as a separate and new person.[43] The present Ayatollahs of Iran see themselves as joint caretakers of the office of the Imam until he returns.[44]

The Mahdi is not described in the Qurʾān, only in hadith, with scholars suggesting he arose when Arabian tribes were settling in Syria under Muawiya. "They anticipated 'the Mahdi who will lead the rising people of the Yemen back to their country' in order to restore the glory of their lost Himyarite kingdom. It was believed that he would eventually conquer Constantinople."[40]

Raj`a

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Raj`a(Arabic: الرجعة, romanizedāl rj'ah, lit.'Return')in Islamic terminology, refers to the Second Coming, or the return to life of a given past historical figure after that person's physical death.[45] Shia believes that before the Day of Judgement, Muhammad al-Mahdi will return with a group of chosen companions. This return is more properly known as zuhur or 'appearance', as the Hidden Imam is believed to have remained alive during his occultation since the year 874.[45]The return of these historical figures will herald the beginning of the Last Judgment. The purpose of this return is the establishment of justice for those who were oppressed and died oppressed: the oppressors are punished directly by the oppressed during this future reappearance.[46]

Some Sunni scholars do believe in Raj’a, believing in the return of number of people such as Seven Sleepers synchronous with the appearance of the Mahdi.[47] Jalaluddin Al-Sayuti wrote about the Raj`a but in a different way from the Shia. According to him, in contrast to Shia belief, the return of the Prophet Muhammad is not limited to a specific time in the future. Al-Sayuti did not mention if any other religious figures will return after death before the resurrection.[48] According to Abu 'Abdullah Al-Qurtubi, raj`a is understood as the lack of physical presence of a prophet, who marks his apparent death by absence in the physical world but will reappear, from time to time, to those who are pure in heart.[49]

Isa

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Isa is the Arabic name for Jesus, and his return is considered the third major sign of the last days (the second being the appearance of Jesus's nemesis Masih ad-Dajjal). Although Muhammad is the preeminent Prophet in Islam, Jesus is mentioned in the Quran, and so is Idris (Enoch), who is said not to have died but to have been raised up by God.[50] Thus, in accordance with post-Quranic hadith, Jesus conceivably will return to Earth as a just judge before the Day of Judgment.[51] As written in hadith:

Abu Hurayrah narrates that the Messenger of God said, "By Him in whose hands my soul rests! It is definitely close in that time that Isa, Son of Maryam descends amongst you as a just ruler. He will break the cross, kill the swine and abolish jaziya. And money will abound in such excess that no one will accept it.

— Ahmad bin Hambal, al-Musnad, vol 2, p. 240[26]

Hadith reference both the Mahdi and Isa simultaneously and the return of the Mahdi will coincide with the return of Isa, who will descend from the heavens in al-Quds at dawn. The two will meet, and the Mahdi will lead the people in fajr prayer. After the prayer, they will open a gate to the west and encounter Masih ad-Dajjal. After the defeat of ad-Dajjal, Isa will lead a peaceful forty-year reign until his death. He will be buried in a tomb beside Muhammad in Medina.[52] Though the two certainly differ regarding their role and persona in Islamic eschatology, the figures of the Mahdi and Isa are ultimately inseparable, according to the Prophet. Though Isa is said to descend upon the world once again, the Mahdi will already be present.

What will be your reaction when the son of Mary (Jesus) descends and your Imam is from among yourselves? (Sahih Muslim, bab nuzul 'isa, Vol. 2; Sahih Bukhari, kitab bad' al-khalq wa nuzul 'isa, Vol. 4)

Resurrection and Final Judgement (Ma'ad)

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The resurrection and final judgement are fundamental beliefs in Islam. According to the Quran, without them, the creation of humanity would be in vain[53].[54]Thus the Day of Judgment, al-Qiyāmah, (also known as the Day of Reckoning or Resurrection, the Last Day, or the Hour) is one of the six articles of faith in Sunni Islam, and one of seven in Shia Islam.[8][9][10][11][55][56][29] It is believed in Islam that the Qur'an states Allah will resurrect everyone from their graves on the day of judgement. [57] It is believed that the time is coming and that there shall be no doubt that Allah will do as promised.[57] Just as Allah created the people, they will be brought back to the same form.[57] Allah will double the deeds of his most faithful servants.[57]

Major Events

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Destruction of the Kaaba and the Beast of the Earth

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Before doomsday, an Abyssinian, with short legs, will attack Mecca and destroy the Kaaba.[58] Another sign is the appearance of the da'ba-tul-ard, or the Beast of the Earth.

The entire world will be engulfed by dukhan or smoke,[30][59] for forty days,[citation needed] and there will be three huge earthquakes.[citation needed] The Qur'an will be taken to heaven and even the huffaz will not recall its verses. Finally, a pleasant breeze will blow that shall cause all believers to die, but infidels and sinners will remain alive. A fire will start, from Hadramawt in Yemen, that will gather all the people of the world in the land of Mahshar, and al-Qiyamah will commence.[26]

Resurrection of the Dead

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In the Qur'an, barzakh (Arabic: برزخ) is the intermediate state for the soul, until the day of resurrection.

The eighth sign is a breeze bearing a pleasant scent, which will emanate from Yemen, causing the awliya, sulaha and the pious to die peacefully once they inhale it.[citation needed] After the believers die, there will be a period of 120 years during which the world will contain only kafirs, sinners, oppressors, liars, and adulterers; and there will be a reversion to idolatry.[citation needed]

The ninth sign is the rising of the sun from the west after a long night. After midday, the sun will set again. According to hadith:

Abu Hurayrah states that the Messenger of God (saw) as said, "The Hour will not be established until the sun rises from the West and when the people see it they will have faith. But that will be (the time) when believing of the soul, that will have not believed before that time, will not benefit it.

— Ibn Maja, as-Sunan, vol. 2 p 1352-53[26]

The final signs will be nafkhatu'l-ula, when a trumpet will be sounded for the first time, and which will result in the death of the remaining sinners. Then there will be a period of forty years, after which the eleventh sign is the sounding of a second trumpet to signal the resurrection as ba'as ba'da'l-mawt. As written in the Qur'an:

The Trumpet will (just) be sounded, when all that are in the heavens and on earth will swoon, except such as it will please God (to exempt). Then will a second one be sounded, when, behold, they will be standing and looking on!

— Sura 39 (Az-Zumar), ayah 68[60]

All will be naked and running to the Place of Gathering, while the enemies of God will be travelling on their faces with their legs upright. Finally, there will be no more injustice:

Surely God does not do injustice to the weight of an atom, and if it is a good deed He multiplies it and gives from Himself a great reward.

— Sura 4 An-Nisa, ayah 40[61]

Separation of the Righteous and the Damned at al-Qiyamah

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At divine judgment, each person's Book of Deeds will be read, in which "every small and great thing is recorded,"[62] but with actions before adolescence omitted. Records shall be given with the right hand if they are good, and the left if they are evil. Even the smallest acts will not be ignored:

Then shall anyone who has done an atom's weight of good, see it!
And anyone who has done an atom's weight of evil, shall see it.

— Qur'an, Sura 99 Az-Zalzala, ayat 7-8[63]

This will be followed by perfect, divine, and merciful justice. The age of the hereafter, or the rest of eternity, is the final stage after the Day of Judgment, when all will receive their judgment from God.

Indeed, those who believed and those who were Jews or Christians or Sabeans [before Prophet Muhammad][64] – those [among them] who believed in God and the Last Day and did righteousness – will have their reward with their Lord, and no fear will there be concerning them, nor will they grieve.

— Qur'an, Sura 2 Al-Baqara, ayah 62[65]

The dead will stand in a grand assembly, awaiting a scroll detailing their righteous deeds, sinful acts, and ultimate judgment.[66][67] Muhammad will be the first to be resurrected.[68]

If one did good deeds, one would go to Jannah, and if unrighteous, would go to Jahannam. Punishments will include adhab, or severe pain, and khizy or shame.[69][69] There will also be a punishment of the grave (for those who disbelieved) between death and the resurrection.[70]

Resurrection Theories

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Although Islamic philosophers and scholars were in general agreement on a bodily resurrection after death, interpretations differ in regard to the specifications of bodily resurrection. Some of the theories are the following:

  • The return to the same material body, someone had during lifetime, that will be restored.[71]
  • Conjunction of the soul with a Mithali body, which is congenial to the worlds of Barzakh and the Akhirah.[72]
  • Resurrection with a Hurqaliyati body, accordingly a second invisible body, that survives death.[73]

Last Judgment in the Qur'an

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Interpretations of the Qur'an yield the following specifics:

  1. The exact time of the Last Judgement will occur is known only to God.[74]
  2. Muhammad cannot bring it forward.[75]
  3. Those who have been dead, when resurrected, will believe that a short time has passed between death and resurrection.[76]
  4. Nothing will remain except God.[77] According to the Qur'an, God will resurrect all, even if they have turned to stone or iron.[78]
  5. Those that have accepted false deities will suffer in the afterlife.[79]

Eschatological Views in the Early Muslim Period

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One of the primary beliefs pertaining to Islamic eschatology during the Early Muslim Period was that all humans could receive Allah's Mercy and were worthy of salvation.[80] These early depictions even show how small, seemingly insignificant deeds were enough to warrant mercy.[81] Most early depictions of the end of days depict only those who reject Tawhid- blasphemers- were set for certain hell. However, everybody is held responsible for their own actions. Concepts of rewards and punishments were seen as beyond this world, a view that is held even today.[81]

Limbo Theory of Islam

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The fate awaiting all people after their death is either Gardens, or heaven, and the Fire, or hell. Traditional interpretations all agree that, at minimum, these are two of the possible fates that await the dead (90).[82] However, some have interpreted 7:46, "And there will be a veil between them. And upon the Heights are men who know all by their marks. They will call out to the inhabitants of the Garden, 'peace be upon you!' They will not have entered it, though they hope" (Study Qur'an 91). Some have taken the mention of this veil between heaven and hell as an allusion to there being individuals who are not immediately sent to their ultimate destination immediately, this has been referred to as the "limbo" theory of Islam (90).[82]

The Current Existence of the Afterlife

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There was considerable debate regarding whether heaven and hell exists currently or not.[83] (92) The Mu'tazila argued that heaven and hell both cannot exist until the trumpet blasts that bring in the end times occurs, as the Qur'an states that once the trumpet sounds, all except Allah will be destroyed (92).[83] However, the Ash'ariya argued that although the trumpet's sounding will precede all being destroyed, recreation was a constant process (92).[83] Furthermore, as Adam and Eve once resided in the Garden of Eden, the garden already exists. Also, hadith reports pertaining to the Night Journey state that Muhammad saw visions of both the Garden and the Fire (92).[83] Thus, both destinations would already exist.

The Concept of Eternity

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In Classical Islam, there was a consensus among the theological community regarding the finality of the Gardens, faithful servants of Allah would find themselves in this heaven for eternity.[84] However, there was some in the early Muslim community held a concept that stated that hell may not be eternal in of itself.[84] These views were based upon interpretations viewing that the upper levels of Hell will only last for as long as Allah deemed was needed, once Muslims had their sins purged, these levels would perhaps be closed.[84] These interpretations are centered on verses 11:106-107, stating, "As for those who are wretched, they shall be in the Fire, wherein there shall be for them groaning and wailing, abiding therein for so long as the heavens and the earth endure, save as thy Lord wills. Surely thy Lord does whatsoever He wills".[85] To this end, the Qur'an itself gives a conflicting account of Hell, stating that Hell will endure as long as Heaven will, which has been established as eternal, but also the Qur'an keeps open the possibility that Allah may yet commute a sentence to Hell. In a sense, these levels of Hell were interpreted to have a similar function as Purgatory in Christianity, with the exception to this comparison being that Gehenna is for the punishment of the sinner's complete body as opposed to the only the soul being punished in Purgatory.[84] Arguments questioning the permanence of Hell take the view that Hell is not necessarily solely there to punish the evil, but to purify their souls. To clarify, the Garden is the reward while the Fire is for purification; divine mercy and divine anger are not one and the same (94).

Islamic Eschatology in Literature

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Ibn al-Nafis wrote of Islamic eschatology in Theologus Autodidactus (circa AD 1270), where he used reason, science, and early Islamic philosophy to explain how he believed al-Qiyamah would unfold. This was told in the form of a theological fiction novel.[86]

Imran Nazar Hosein wrote numerous books that deal with Islamic eschatology (Ilmu Ākhir al-Zamān – Knowledge of the later days), among which the most famous is Jerusalem in the Qur'an.[87]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ Sunan Ibn Maajah 4019
  2. ^ Sahih Muslim, Book 41, Hadith 6931
  3. ^ Muslim, Book 41, Hadith 7034
  4. ^ Quran 21:96
  5. ^ Sahih Muslim
  6. ^ Quran 27:82
  7. ^ Sahih Muslim
  8. ^ Sahih Muslim
  9. ^ Sahih Muslim
  10. ^ Sahih Muslim, Book 1, Hadith 0213
  11. ^ Dawud, Book 37, Hadith 4319
  12. ^ Sahih Muslim, Book 41, Hadith 6947
  13. ^ Sahih Bukhari, Volume 8, Book 076, Hadith 503
  14. ^ Sahih Bukhari Volume 1, Book 3, Hadith Number 81
  15. ^ Sahih Muslim Book 41, Hadith 7040
  16. ^ Sahih Bukhari Volume 9, Book 88, Number 184
  17. ^ Imam Ahmed, recorded in Muslim
  18. ^ Abu Dawud Book 35, Hadith 4587
  19. ^ Sahih Muslim Book 41, Hadith 7015
  20. ^ Sahih Bukhari Volume 7, Book 69, Hadith 494
  21. ^ Sahih ibn Majah 610
  22. ^ Sahih Bukhari Volume 1, Book 3, Hadith 81
  23. ^ Sahih Bukhari Volume 9, Book 88, Hadith Number 237
  24. ^ Al-Adab Al-Mufrad 485, Book 1, Hadith 3
  25. ^ Sahih Bukhari Volume 9, Book 88, Hadith Number 231
  26. ^ Sahih Musim Book 41, Hadith Number 6985
  27. ^ Sahih Bukhari Volume 009, Book 088, Hadith Number 236
  28. ^ Sahih Bukhari Volume 009, Book 088, Hadith Number 237
  29. ^ Sahih Muslim Book 40, Hadith Number 6840
  30. ^ Musnad Imam Ahmad (no.21,334 and no.21,335
  31. ^ Sunan At-Tirmidhi 2209
  32. ^ Sahih Bukhari Volume 1, Book 3, Hadith Number 81
  33. ^ Musnad Ahmad
  34. ^ Abu-Dawud, Book 30, Number 4239 (and others)
  35. ^ Sahih Muslim Book 041, Hadith Number 6918
  36. ^ Sahih Muslim Book 5, Hadith 2208
  37. ^ Al-Bukhari
  38. ^ Reported by Anas and declared Sahih by Hasan al Albani
  39. ^ Sahih Muslim Book 7, Hadith Number 3188
  40. ^ Musnad Ahmad
  41. ^ Ahmad
  42. ^ Musnad Ahmad
  43. ^ Musnad Ahmad
  44. ^ Sahih Bukhari
  45. ^ Ahmad
  46. ^ Musnad Ahmad
  47. ^ Tirmidhee 2653 and Ibn Maajah 4048
  48. ^ Sahih Muslim 1847
  49. ^ Mujamma'uz-Zawaa'id 7/327
  50. ^ Sunan al-Tirmidhi
  51. ^ Sunan al-Tirmidhi
  52. ^ Sunan al-Tirmidhi
  53. ^ Sunan al-Tirmidhi
  54. ^ Sunan al-Tirmidhi
  55. ^ Sahih Muslim, Book 41, Hadith 6960
  56. ^ Sahih Muslim, Book 41, Hadith 6926
  57. ^ Narrated with sound chains from Dhu Mikhbar al-Najashi by Abu Dawud, Ahmad, Ibn Majah, Ibn Hibban, and al-Hakim who declared it sahih and al-Dhahabi concurred. See Shaykh Shu`ayb Arna'ut's documentation of this hadith in his edition of Sahih Ibn Hibban (15:101-103 #6708-6709).
  58. ^ Sunan At-Tirmidhi 2269 (Weak) https://muflihun.com/tirmidhi/33/2269
  59. ^ The Promised Deliverer (Kitab Al-Mahdi) Dawud : Book 36 : Hadith 4273
  60. ^ Muslim, Book 41, Hadith 6953
  61. ^ Qu'ran Surah Al-Qamar 54:1-2
  62. ^ Sunan an-Nasa'i 3175
  63. ^ Hadith of Aden-Abyan

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Islamic Eschatology". Retrieved 29 August 2015.
  2. ^ "Major Signs before the Day of Judgment". Shaykh Ahmad Ali.
  3. ^ "Signs of Qiyaamah".
  4. ^ Hasson, Isaac. Last Judgment. Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān.
  5. ^ Gardet, L. Qiyama. Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān.
  6. ^ a b Gardet, L. Qiyama. Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān.
  7. ^ a b Quran 74:38
  8. ^ a b Quran 71:18
  9. ^ a b Quran 31:34
  10. ^ a b Quran 74:47
  11. ^ a b Quran 2:8
  12. ^ a b Yahya, Harun (12 May 2010). Portents And Features Of The Mahdi's Coming. Global Publishing. Kindle Edition. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  13. ^ "Eschatology - Oxford Islamic Studies Online". Oxfordislamicstudies.com. 6 May 2008. Retrieved 3 July 2017.
  14. ^ Hadith as Scripture. Musa, Aisha Y. Palgrave Macmillan. 2008. ISBN 1282050737. OCLC 823841821.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  15. ^ Nerina., Rustomji, (2009). The garden and the fire : heaven and hell in Islamic culture. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0231511833. OCLC 807246704.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. ^ Ben David, Mikhah (20 February 2011). What does it mean that "the Mahdi will rule according to the Judgment of David and Solomon"?. New Dawn Publications.
  17. ^ Melchert, Christopher (25 September 2015), Lange, Christian (ed.), "5 Locating Hell in Early Renunciant Literature", Locating Hell in Islamic Traditions, Brill, pp. 101–123, doi:10.1163/9789004301368_006, ISBN 9789004301368, retrieved 30 March 2019
  18. ^ Renard, John (2014). Islamic Theological Themes: A Primary Source Reader. Oakland, California: University of California Press. pp. 7–8. ISBN 978-0-520-28189-9.
  19. ^ "The lesser and greater signs of the Day of Resurrection - islamqa.info". islamqa.info. Retrieved 15 January 2018.
  20. ^ Hooper, Rev. Richard (20 April 2011). End of Days: Predictions of the End From Ancient Sources. Sedona, AZ. p. 156. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  21. ^ Christine Huda Dodge. The Everything Understanding Islam Book: A complete guide to Muslim beliefs, practices, and culture. p. 182.
  22. ^ John L. Esposito. What Everyone Needs To Know About Islam. p. 28.
  23. ^ Javed Ahmad Ghamidi. Islam: A Concise Introduction. p. 46.
  24. ^ طلوع الشمس من مغربها [Rising of the sun from the west] (in Arabic).
  25. ^ Alwi Shihab. Examining Islam in the West. p. 16.
  26. ^ a b c d e Yahya, Harun (1 January 2008). Clarity Amidst Confusion: Imam Mahdi and the End of Time. Global Publishing. Kindle Edition. p. 64. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help) Cite error: The named reference "Mahdi2" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  27. ^ "Hadith – The Book of Jihad – Sunan an-Nasa'i – Sunnah.com – Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم)". sunnah.com. Retrieved 3 March 2017.
  28. ^ "Hadeeth about 12,000 coming out of Aden-Abyan". islamweb.net. Retrieved 18 December 2018.
  29. ^ a b Richardson, Joel (7 April 2006). Antichrist: Islam's Awaited Messiah. Pleasant Word-A Division of WinePress Publishing. p. 284. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  30. ^ a b Jon R. Stone. Expecting Armageddon: Essential Readings in Failed Prophecy.
  31. ^ "Hadith – Book of Tribulations – Sunan Ibn Majah – Sunnah.com – Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم)". sunnah.com. Retrieved 3 March 2017.
  32. ^ "Hadith – Book of Tribulations – Sunan Ibn Majah – Sunnah.com – Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم)". sunnah.com. Retrieved 3 March 2017.
  33. ^ a b c d Arthur,, Jeffery, ([©1958]). Islam; Muhammad and his religion. Indianapolis,: Bobbs-Merrill. ISBN 0672603489. OCLC 846858. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  34. ^ a b c 1922-2003., Schimmel, Annemarie, (1994). Deciphering the signs of God : a phenomenological approach to Islam. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0791419819. OCLC 29389666. {{cite book}}: |last= has numeric name (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  35. ^ Begley, Wayne E. The Garden of the Taj Mahal: A Case Study of Mughal Architectural Planning and Symbolism, in: Wescoat, James L.; Wolschke-Bulmahn, Joachim (1996). Mughal Gardens: Sources, Places, Representations, and Prospects Dumbarton Oaks, Washington D.C., ISBN 0884022358. pp. 229-231.
  36. ^ Waldman, Marilyn Robinson. "Eschatology: Islamic Eschatology". Encyclopedia of Religion. Detroit: Macmillan Reference (subscription required).
  37. ^ Abu Dawud, Sahih, 2.208 and Fusul al-muhimma, 275
  38. ^ Hava Lazarus-Yafeh Some Religious Aspects of Islam: A Collection of Articles Brill Archive 1981 ISBN 9789004063297 p.52
  39. ^ Naeem Bin Hammad's book Kitab Al-Fitan (8584\503\4) أخرج ( ك ) نعيم بن حماد (986), والحاكم
  40. ^ a b Arjomand, Said Amir (December 2007). "Islam in Iran vi., the Concept of Mahdi in Sunni Islam". Encyclopaedia Iranica. XIV (Fasc. 2): 134–136.
  41. ^ Waldman, Marilyn Robinson. "Eschatology: Islamic Eschatology". Encyclopedia of Religion. Detroit: Macmillan Reference (subscription required).
  42. ^ Peterson, Daniel C. "Eschatology". Oxford Islamic Studies. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islamic Studies (subscription required).
  43. ^ Rogers, Ed (26 October 2011). Islam and the Last days. Connection Publishing.
  44. ^ Aslan, Reza (2006). No god but Allah : the origins, evolution, and future of Islam. New York: Random House. ISBN 1-4000-6213-6.
  45. ^ a b Momen, Moojan (1985). An Introduction to Shi`i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelve. Yale University Press. ISBN 0300035314.
  46. ^ Islam and the Modern Age, Volume 24, Page 61, Zakir Hussain Institute of Islamic Studies, 1993.
  47. ^ Staff, Writer. "Raj'a in view of Sunni Islam". eshia. encyclopaedia of Mahdiism.
  48. ^ Marwan Khlifat, Warakibtu Assafeena 1st Ed P.644 مروان خليفات. وركبت السفينة: 644
  49. ^ Al Tathkira Fi Ahwal Al Mawta Vol 1.P212, ar. التذكرة في أحوال الموتى وأمور الآخرة. 1/212
  50. ^ Quran. "al-Imran 3:55".
  51. ^ Poston, Larry (January 2010). "The Second Coming of 'Isa: an Exploration of Islamic Premillennialism". The Muslim World. 100: 108–109. doi:10.1111/j.1478-1913.2009.01304.x.
  52. ^ Oxford Islamic Studies Online. "Eschatology". Oxford University Press (subscription required).
  53. ^ [Quran 23:115-116]
  54. ^ Sebastian Günther, Todd Lawson Roads to Paradise: Eschatology and Concepts of the Hereafter in Islam (2 vols): Volume 1: Foundations and the Formation of a Tradition. Reflections on the Hereafter in the Quran and Islamic Religious Thought / Volume 2: Continuity and Change. The Plurality of Eschatological Representations in the Islamicate World Thought (SET) BRILL 2016 9789004333154 page 50
  55. ^ Richardson, Joel (7 April 2006). Antichrist: Islam's Awaited Messiah. Pleasant Word-A Division of WinePress Publishing. p. 284. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  56. ^ "Six Articles of Faith in Islam". Retrieved 29 August 2015.
  57. ^ a b c d Arthur,, Jeffery, ([©1958]). Islam; Muhammad and his religion. Indianapolis,: Bobbs-Merrill. ISBN 0672603489. OCLC 846858. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  58. ^ Muslim, Book 41, Hadith 6951
  59. ^ Quran 44:10
  60. ^ Quran 39:68
  61. ^ Quran 4:40 (Translated by Shakir)
  62. ^ Quran 54:52–53
  63. ^ Quran 99:7–8
  64. ^ Tafsir At-Tabari, Vol.1, Page 323
  65. ^ "Quran 2:62"
  66. ^ [Quran 74:38]
  67. ^ Muhammad, S. Umar (1999). Muslims' Eschatological Discourses on Colonialism in Northern Nigeria. Oxford University Press. pp. 59–84. JSTOR 1466033.
  68. ^ Esposito, John (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512558-4, p.264
  69. ^ a b "Reward and Punishment", Encyclopedia of the Qur'an(2005)
  70. ^ Leor Halevi, [1].
  71. ^ Joseph Hell Die Religion des Islam Motilal Banarsidass Publishe 1915 page 201
  72. ^ Zailan Moris Revelation, Intellectual Intuition and Reason in the Philosophy of Mulla Sadra: An Analysis of the al-hikmah al-'arshiyyah Routledge ISBN 978-1-136-85866-6 page 107
  73. ^ Juan Cole Sacred Space And Holy War: The Politics, Culture and History of Shi'ite Islam I.B.Tauris 2002 ISBN 978-1-860-64736-9 page 55
  74. ^ Quran 33:63
  75. ^ Quran 6:57
  76. ^ Quran 17:52
  77. ^ Quran 28:88
  78. ^ Quran 17:49
  79. ^ Quran 11:17
  80. ^ Locating Hell in Islamic traditions. Lange, Christian,. [Place of publication not identified]. ISBN 9789004301214. OCLC 945783598.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: others (link)
  81. ^ a b I., Smith, Jane (1981). The Islamic understanding of death and resurrection. Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck, 1935-. Albany: State University of New York Press. p. 84. ISBN 0873955064. OCLC 6666779.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  82. ^ a b Smith, Jane I. (1981). The Islamic understanding of death and resurrection. Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck, 1935-. Albany: State University of New York Press. p. 90. ISBN 0873955064. OCLC 6666779.
  83. ^ a b c d Smith, Jane I. (1981). The Islamic understanding of death and resurrection. Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck, 1935-. Albany: State University of New York Press. p. 92. ISBN 0873955064. OCLC 6666779.
  84. ^ a b c d Smith, Jane I. (1981). The Islamic understanding of death and resurrection. Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck, 1935-. Albany: State University of New York Press. p. 93. ISBN 0873955064. OCLC 6666779.
  85. ^ The study Quran : a new translation and commentary. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein,, Dagli, Caner K.,, Dakake, Maria Massi, 1968-, Lumbard, Joseph E. B., 1969-, Rustom, Mohammed, (First edition ed.). New York, NY. p. 585. ISBN 9780061125867. OCLC 879553018. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: others (link)
  86. ^ Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis, Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait (cf. Ibn al-Nafis As a Philosopher, Encyclopedia of Islamic World)
  87. ^ Jerusalem in the Qur'an by Imran N. Hosein.

Sources

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Category:Islamic eschatology