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Kingdom of Strathclyde or Cumbria

The list of monarchs of Scotland concerns the Kingdom of Scotland. According to tradition, the state was created by Cináed I of Scotland in 843, however modern historiography would tend to see his grandson Constantine II of Scotland as the creator of the kingdom of Alba which became Scotland. The independent kingdom changed in nature following the Acts of Union in 1707. Today, Scotland exists as one of the constituent countries and nations of the United Kingdom, alongside England, Wales and Northern Ireland.

Although genealogists divide the monarchs of Scotland into "Houses", based on continental European ideas of dynasties, it appears that the kings and queens of Scotland, insofar as they thought about their ultimate origins, traced their descent from Fergus Mór, the legendary founder of Dál Riata said to have flourished in the late 5th century. James VI is recorded as saying that he was a "Monarch sprunge of Ferguse race". After the Restoration of 1660, when Jacob de Wet was commissioned to produce portraits of Scotland's past and present rulers for Holyrood Palace, the series began with Fergus Mór.

From the reign of Macbeth of Scotland, Scottish monarchs most commonly employed the style King of Scots or Queen of Scots, with the exception of the final three: William III, Mary II and Anne used the style "of Scotland" rather than "of Scots" (see Style of the monarchs of Scotland). The Gaelic styles rí Alban (King of Scotland) and ard-rí Alban (High-King of Scotland) were in use from the time of Constantine II.

Kings 843–1286

Cináed I and his kin ruled, first as kings of the Picts, then as kings of Alba, from the 840s until 1286, with a number of interruptions by members of other kin groups. They are referred to in genealogical sources as the House of Alpin until the death of Máel Coluim II in 1034, as as the House of Dunkeld thereafter until the death of Alexander III in 1286.

Kings of the Picts 843–900

Although tradition makes Cináed I and his descendants kings of Scots, Irish and Scots sources continue to use the term king of the Picts for most of the 9th century. It is uncertain at what time the Pictish kingdom became the Kingdom of Alba, a process probably related to the instability of the Viking Age which brought an end to the long dominance of the kingdom of Fortriu in northern central and eastern Scotland.

Cináed I (Modern Gaelic: Coinneach I mac Alpin; Old Gaelic: Cináed mac Ailpín), ruled c.843 to 858.
Domnall I (Domhnall I; Domnall mac Ailpín), ruled 858 to 862.
Constantine I (Causantín mac Cináeda), ruled 862 to 877.
Áed (Áed mac Cináeda), ruled 877 to 878.
Giric (Giric; Giric mac Dungail), ruled 878 to 889. Giric is associated, perhaps in error, with Eochaid (Eochaidh; Eochu). His relationship, if any, to the family of Cináed I is uncertain and he may have been a member of the House of Moray who claimed descent from the Cenél Loairn in later times.
Domnall II (Domhnall II; Domnall mac Causantín), ruled 889 to 900.

Kings of Alba 900–1005

The long reign of Constantine II is seen as beginning of the Kingdom of Alba, a kingdom with its centre south of the Mounth in Atholl, Strathearn, Fife, Gowrie and the Mearns. The formerly Northumbrian lands in Lothian were gradually conquered in this period, a process which did not end until later in the 11th century. The rival Kingdom of Strathclyde maintained a separate existence throughout the period.

Constantine II (Causantín mac Áeda), ruled 900 to 943, abdicated and entered the monastery at Saint Andrews where he died in 952.
Máel Coluim I (Calum I; Máel Coluim mac Domnaill), ruled 943 to 954.
Indulf (Indulbh; Idulb mac Causantín), ruled 954 to 962.
Dub (Dubh; Dub mac Maíl Choluim), ruled 962 to 967.
Culen (Cuilean; Cuilén mac Iduilb), ruled 967 to 971.
Cináed II (Coinneach II; Cináed mac Maíl Choluim), ruled 977 to 995, perhaps losing power in the 970s for some years.
Amlaíb (Amlaíbh; Amlaíb mac Iduilb), ruled from after 973 to 977, a rival king in the reign of Cináed II.
Constantine III (Constantín III; Causantín mac Cuilén), ruled 995 to 997.
Cináed III (Coinneach III; Cináed mac Duib), ruled 997 to 1005.

Kings of Alba 1005–1097

The Kingdom of Strathclyde was conquered in this period, although the Máel Coluim, son of an earlier king of Strathclyde, was restored to power for a short period in the reign of Macbeth. Lothian as far south as the Tweed was fully conquered and the Kings of Alba began to influence events in the Earldom of Orkney, whose Earls were related by marriage.

Máel Coluim II (Calum II; Máel Coluim mac Cináeda), ruled 1005 to 1034.
Donnchad I (Donnchadh I; Donnchad mac Crínáin), ruled 1034 to 1040.
MacBeth (MacBeatha; Mac Bethad mac Findláich), ruled 1040 to 1057. Macbeth was a descendant of the Kings or Mormaers of Moray. He was probably not related closely to previous kings.
Lulach (Lulach mac Gillai Comgain), ruled 1057 to 1058. Lulach was a descendant of previous kings through his mother Gruoch and of the Kings or Mormaers of Moray by his father Gille Coemgáin of Moray.
Máel Coluim III (Calum III; Máel Coluim mac Donnchada), ruled 1058 to 1093.
Domnall III (Domhnall III; Domnall mac Donnchada), ruled 1093 to 094, deposed.
Donnchad II (Donnchadh II; Donnchad mac Maíl Choluim), ruled for half a year in 1094.
Domnall III (Domhnall III; Domnall mac Donnchada), second reign from 1094 to 1097. Died in captivity.

Kings of Scots 1097–1286

The sons of Máel Coluim III and Saint Margaret of Scotland and their descendants presided over far-reaching changes in the kingdom of Scots, in particular from the time of the Scoto-Norman David I and his successors. In this period the kingdom was extended north and west. The Mormaerdom of Moray was conquered in 1130, Sutherland and Caithness passed under Scots control from that of the Earldom of Orkney, and the descendants of Somerled, who ruled the kingdom of the Isles, were brought under Scots influence. While the kingdom was extended to include Cumbria and the Earldom of Northumberland during the reign of David I, while the Kingdom of England was weakened by civil war, the Scots were unable to keep these lands when David I died and the powerful and energetic Henry II of England faced the inexperienced Malcolm IV.

This period also saw considerable changes in the practices of succession, changing from brother following brother, as seen from 1094 to 1125, to son following father, as in 1214 and 1249. The Meic Uilleim, descendant of William fitz Duncan, raised several rebellions to support their claims to the throne, but were eventually defeated. Associated with these changes, many foreign settlers arrived in Scotland, most notably Normans and Flemings, bringing with them new customs and aiding the kings in their creation of a new Scoto-Norman kingdom.

Edgar (Eagar/Eadgar; Etgair mac Maíl Choluim), ruled 1097 to 1107.
Alexander I (Alasdair I; Alaxandair mac Maíl Choluim), ruled 1107 to 1124.
Saint David I (Daibhidh I; Dabíd mac Maíl Choluim), ruled 1124 to 1153.
Malcolm IV (Calum IV; Máel Coluim mac Enric), ruled 1153 to 1165.

William I (Uilleam I; Uilliam mac Enric), ruled 1165 to 1214.
Alexander II (Alasdair II ), ruled 1214 to 1249.
Alexander III (Alasdair III), reigned 1249 to 1286, regency to 1262.

Interregnum, Civil War and Wars of Independence 1286–1371

From the death of Alexander III in March 1286 until the accession of Robert II in 1371, the kingdom of the Scots faced repeated crises in the succession, interregnums, civil wars and invasions. This period saw the Balliol and Bruce families contest the throne, and invasions by the English kings Edward I, Edward II and Edward III. The period closed with the death of David II and the succession of Robert II, first of the Stewart kings.

Guardians of Scotland

The death of Alexander III in March 1286 left Scotland without an obvious heir to the throne. Alexander's widow Yolande de Dreux was pregnant with the heir to the throne but the child was still-born or died soon after birth in November 1286. This left Alexander's granddaughter Margaret, Maid of Norway, then aged three, as the heir to the throne. Margaret died in Orkney in late September or early October 1290, as yet uncrowned, leaving the succession disputed.

Guardians 1286–1292

Balliol and Bruce

The Great Cause, while it involved many claimants to the throne, was in fact a dispute between two families, that of Bruce and that of Balliol. These were descended from the daughters of David, Earl of Huntingdon, younger brother of Kings Malcolm IV and William. Bruce had, it appears, been named as his heir by Alexander III earlier in his reign. Edward I of England agreed to adjudge the matter, and found for John Balliol, the descendant of David's elder daughter.

John, crowned 30 November, 1292 at Scone, abdicated under duress 10 July, 1296 at Brechin but still recognised as king by the Scots until the 1300s.

In the absence of King John, exiled to France, the Scots appointed Guardians to rule in his absence.

Guardians of Scotland
- Andrew de Moray (1297)
- William Wallace (1297–1298)
- Robert Bruce, Earl of Carrick (1298–1300)
- John II Comyn, Lord of Badenoch (1298–1301)
- William Lamberton, Bishop of St Andrews (1299–1301)
- Sir Ingram de Umfraville (1300–1301)
- John de Soules (1301–1304)
- John III Comyn, Lord of Badenoch (1302–1304)

In 1306, Robert Bruce killed John Comym during a conference in Greyfriars Church, Dumfries. Bruce and his allies then opened hostilities against Edward I and his allies. The murder of Comyn placed his kinsmen and allies on the side of Edward I, and what had previously been a war between Scots and English became a civil war. Bruce and his allies eventually prevailed, and the Treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton was signed on 17 March, 1328, making peace with England.

The Balliol family, represented by John's son Edward, still claimed the throne, and had support from those dispossessed by Robert I in the wars. Edward Balliol's invasion in 1332 met with great success, and the child-king David II was sent to France since nowhere in Scotland was safe.

House of Bruce (Bruis)

Robert I the Bruce (Raibeart I) (1306–1329)
David II (Daibidh II) (1329–1371)

House of Balliol

Edward Balliol (Eideard) (Antiking 1329 – 1363)

House of Stewart (French: Stuart; Gaelic: Stiùbhart)

Robert II (Raibeart II) (1371–1390)
Robert III (Raibeart III) (1390–1406)
James I (Seumas I) (1406–1437)
James II (Seumas II) (1437–1460)
James III (Seumas III) (1460–1488)
James IV (Seumas IV) (1488–1513)
James V (Seumas V) (1513–1542)
Mary I (Mairi) (1542–1587)

House of Stuart-Lennox

James VI (Seumas VI) (1587–1625), Union of the Crowns with Kingdom of England from (1603)
Charles I (Teàrlach I) (1625–1649)
Charles II (Teàrlach II) (1649–1685) (See also English Interregnum). Charles II's coronation at Scone on 1 January, 1651 was the last to take place in Scotland.

James VII (Seumas VII) (1685–1689)
Mary II (Mairi II) (1689–1694), co–monarch
William II (Uilleam II) (1689–1702), co-monarch until 1694
Anne (Anna) (1702–1714), though the Scottish throne was replaced with that of the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707

From 1707, the titles King of Scots and Queen of Scots are incorrect. Hence, this list runs up to 1707; for monarchs after that date, see List of British monarchs.

Succession order and claimants

The inheritance of the kingship was contested in Scotland until well after the death of King MacBeth - it was basically elective, except that the choice of candidates was only from among the derbfine (those whose great-grandfather had been king), but in practice the winner was chosen by the biggest battalions (until, after 1296, Edward Longshanks concentrated minds - and it was English claims of overlordship which finally drove Scotland to accept the certainty of primogeniture as the basis of succession to the crown).

A highly detailed presentation of succession patterns of this realm is given at competitors for the Crown of Scotland. Many quirks of the succession rights are there.

The Scottish-Gaelic tradition followed that of the Irish-Gaels, i.e choosing from among the derbfine, agnates of the royal family, using the precautionary practice of tanistry. Others claim, quoting Bede, who says he's quoting others ("alii dicunt"), that the Pictish tradition favoured matrilineal descent. That is, the head of the kingdom, as well as of sub-kingdoms and chieftaincies, etc., always inherited the crown through his mother, as a ranking princess royal, not through his father. (See, e.g., The Lion in the North: A Personal View of Scotland's History, by John Prebble ISBN 0-14-003652-0 ; among other works.) Thus, you, as king, would not be succeeded by your own son but would normally be succeeded by your mother's other sons; then by your sisters' sons; then, your maternal aunt's sons; and so on, travelling through the female line of the royal house. This combination of male succession through matrilineal descent produced a cumbersome system under which the throne passed cyclically from brother to brother, then uncle to nephew, and then cousin to cousin, before starting over as brother to brother, uncle to nephew, etc. {See, e.g., The Lion in the North: A Personal View of Scotland's History, by John Prebble; among other works.}

On the other hand, the whole idea of matrilinear descent is thoroughly exposed as an unnecessary complication, by Alfred P. Smyth wielding Occam's razor in "Warlords and Holy Men" ISBN 0-7486-0100-7, which argues for a more down-to-earth interpretation of the succession (such as we know it) to the crown of Alba. The Gaels and the Cruithne ("Prydyn", "Picts") had been contesting for years for control of Albania - Scotland north of the Forth-Clyde; the Britons of Strathclyde had by no means been subdued after Degsastan, and were still able to put an occasional king into Pictavia - in fact, the Britons of Dumbarton (AlClutha - the Rock of the Clyde) enjoyed overlordship in several periods, imposing kings on the Picts, their near-cousins. One of history's biggest "What-if"s argues that if the later Vikings hadn't needed the Clyde-Forth nexus between Dublin and York (believe it!) then the diocese of Glasgow might have become the religious centre of northern Britain, as it indeed was of Greater Cumbria - Kentigern vs Cuthbert.

The later status of Strathclyde as the tanist's toy kingdom suggests that at times Pictavia had been so used by the Gaels when in ascendancy - perhaps given to a British son-in-law as a sop.

Máel Coluim II tried to get around this system by killing off all of the agnate heirs between himself and his grandson, Duncan; except for Prince Lulach of Moray, who was just five years old at the time and - more importantly - was rumoured to be half-witted (thus, he survived). Duncan I did become king, but Lulach's step-father, Mac Bethad - rendered "Macbeth" in English - successfully claimed the throne in his own right and on Lulach's behalf. Lulach and Macbeth were from the most Pictish regions of the realm, basing their rights on the matrilineal Pictish order of succession - or so some say.

Duncan I's son, Malcolm III Canmore, ultimately returned from exile in England and took the throne from Macbeth (1040-1057) and Lulach (the latter reigning 1057-1058, after the death of Macbeth in battle against Malcolm). Malcolm, married to Margaret Athelingsdaughter, whose womb carried the right-by-primogeniture to the throne of England, was succeeded by his brother, as Duncan II Bàn, who was deposed by his nephew, a fan of primogeniture, but then took the throne again from the youngling, until the youngster got the big battalions. So Malcolm Canmore was succeeded by four of his own sons - one of whom, Edgar (1097-1107), changed the official language of Scotland from Gàidhlig (then still a Scottish dialect of Old Irish) to Inglis (then a language more similar to Northern English (Anglian) than the southern, "Saxon" dialects of English; the Viking invasions would soon re-write the dialect map). Gaelic dominance of Scotland ended during the reign of Alexander I (Alasdair I)(1107-1124), and the old Celtic system of derbfine + tanistry finally gave way to the more "European" system of primogeniture when Edward I of England began swashing his buckler, because it was seen how easily anyone with a claim to the throne through being of the derbfine could be corrupted by foreign gold; as the kings of Scots had married beyond their borders, so had their ideas of succession been adapted to foreign patterns.

In later medieval era, feudal succession patterns emerged in Scotland in succession patterns of fiefs, real estates and some hereditary territorial officces, and the royal succession floowed suit. Feudal primogeniture or proximity of blood was strongly as a basis of succession then. Daughters had a relatively high success when claiming the succession when there were no sons.

Edward I's decision in 1292 case supported the principle of primogeniture, in its cognatic form.

There have been alleged medieval renunciations to the crown of Scotland, validity of which were contested.

Illegitimate birth apparently left descendants with some sort of rights to succession, though not very strong. Obviously, legitimate birth was preferred.

When in fully Gaelic realms, inheritance through women was difficult, it was quite accepted in Scottish succession. After the accession of Duncan I of Scotland (the House of Dunkeld), in all subsequent succession twists, grandsons and nephews from female descent were accepted candidates. In 1292 Patrick de Dunbar, 7th Earl of Dunbar claimed the crown as the agnate of the House of Dunkeld, being (a) the closest agnate, and (b) a candidate based on tanistry of agnates of the house where Alexander III belonged to. He descended, in an allegedly legitimate unbroken male line, from a younger brother of King Duncan I of Scotland (who allegedly also was a younger son of Bethoc of Scotland, the male line being that of Lords of Dunbar, originally Earls of Northumbria, later Earls of Dunbar (see Earl of March). He however did not win the contest, as heirs who descended through female line but were genealogically closer, were preferred over him.

John Balliol, son of John Balliol by his wife Devorguilla, daughter of Alan, Lord of Galloway by his wife Margaret, eldest daughter of David, Earl of Huntingdon, son of Henry, Earl of Huntingdon, son of King David I was the primogenitural heir in legitimate, cognatic line. Adjudication deemed his right as the strongest, and accordingly he was crowned as the king.

Robert de Brus, Lord of Annandale, son of Robert de Brus the Lord of Annandale by his wife Isabella, second daughter of David, Earl of Huntingdon, son of Henry, Earl of Huntingdon, son of King David I, who had been Regent of Scotland sometime during minority of King and was occasionally recognized as a Tanist of the Scottish Throne, pleaded tanistry and proximity in degree of kinship to the deceased King. His right apparently was regarded as the second strongest.

From the advent of feudal era in Scotland, the kingship of Scots evolved together with their right to succession of England inherited from the Anglosaxon royal dynasty through St Margaret of Scotland. After the Balliols, the rights, reckoned on basis of feudal primogeniture, continued to counts of Coucy and then to Bourbons of Vendome, uniting with the Navarrese crown in person of the future Henry IV of France. Currently it is held by Alice, Duchess of Calabria - as advertised in her son's website.

The Jacobite claim, based on feudal primogeniture (the prevalent Scottish succession order) descent from Stewarts, namely from Charles I, is detailed in a separate article and currently belongs to Franz, Duke of Bavaria. They happen to represent also the claim from king Stephen of England.

When Robert II of Scotland, the first Stewart on the throne, had succeeded, he made the parliament to confirm the succession order due to several reasons. First, his eldest children's legitimacy was questionable due to his problematic marital alliances. secondly, the Bruce succession set by force of arms was still something to get settled against competitors.

That succession order was Semi-Salic and stipulated all children of his two marriages eligble, despite any controversy in their births outside matrimony. First, all the male-line descent from him was entitled to succession (as in agnatic primogeniture) before any female or descendant through female descent could succeed. Then, after exhaustion of all males, female succession became allowed.

Indeed, in decades before the birth of the future Mary, Queen of Scots, there existed at least two and possibly more male-line branches of Robert II's dynasty. The longest-surviving of them was the main royal line up to James V of Scotland, but the second-longest survivor line, that of Duke of Albany of the second creation, went extinct only some seven years prior (John Stewart, 2nd Duke of Albany and count-consort of Auvergne, died as late as in 1536). Had they provided one more generation, Mary would have not succeeded her father, and the throne would have passed to Albany branch of Stewarts.

However, James V being the last-surviving male-line Stewart descended from Robert II, he was entitled to leave the kingdom to his daughter, in absence of other agnates.

At the time of Mary's birth, the next heir were Hamiltons, Earl of Arran and his family, all of them already from female descent.

After Mary's accession, it is unclear whether any Salic provision was any longer in force. That became never a practical issue, since the junior royal Stuart dynasty never developed any agnate cadet branch in a way that a female would have been before it in the order of succession. However, if the provision were left and Scotland yet a separate kingdom, Victoria's accession in England would have separated Scotland - as would have Elizabeth II's, too. They both had uncles of male line who would have been more entitled to succession in pattern devised by Robert II.

References

An ancient, but useful work of reference for this article up to the year 1383 is John of Fordun's Chronicle of The Scottish Nation edited by W.F. Skene (Edinburgh, 1872)