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The history of Consumer Reports begins with the development of Consumer Reports from the consumer movement in the United States in the late 1920s, into its founding, and through its work in product testing, advocating for consumers, and doing educational outreach to consumers. Consumer Reports is best known for publishing both a magazine and a website called Consumer Reports.

Organizational and management history

[edit]

Founding

[edit]
Main article: History of Consumers' Research

Consumer Reports' history shares its origin with the general consumer movement advanced by Frederick J. Schlink and Stuart Chase when they published Your Money's Worth in 1927.[1] The book described how corporations manipulate consumers in the marketplace with unfair practices in selling foods, medicine, cosmetics, automobiles, and household equipment.[1] The book called for a nonprofit organization to have oversight of the marketplace.[1] The message of the book appealed greatly to the public, who also expressed interest in founding an organization.[1] In 1929 Schlink and Chase founded Consumers' Research as the first consumer organization in the world.[1]

Schlink founded the organization in New York City but soon moved it to the small town of Washington, New Jersey.[1][2] In 1933 Schlink and Arthur Kallet, a board member of Consumers' Research and former colleague of Schlink at the American Standards Association, published 100,000,000 Guinea Pigs, a book which compared all consumers to guinea pigs upon whom corporations test potentially unsafe products.[3] In 1935 employees at Consumers' Research complained of labor conditions and organized a strike in which Schlink and Consumers' Research vice president J. B. Matthews were unable to satisfy the protesters.[4] Kallet led some workers to fork from Consumers' Research and found Consumers Union on February 6, 1936.[5][6] At the founding labor practices were a concern and A. Philip Randolph agreed to serve on the board of the organization to advise about labor issues.[7][8] This organization published the first issue of Consumers Union Reports, later to be renamed Consumer Reports in May 1936.[6]

1930s-40s - In conflict with government and industry

[edit]

Critics called Consumers Union "un-American" from its inception until 1954 when the US government issued a statement clearing investigation of the organization.[9]

Background: industry defends itself against consumer organizations

[edit]
Main article: Early corporate opposition to the consumer movement

During the Recession of 1937–1938 public confidence in business was low and the new criticism from consumer groups weakened trust in advertising, media, and branded goods. The idea that the public were the "guinea pigs" on whom corporations tested products was an idea which spread after the publication of 100,000,000 Guinea Pigs and industry sought to counter it and the general concept of consumer regulation over industry to restore market confidence. Industry's strategies to counter the consumer movement included the following:

  • Founding commercially-backed equivalents of non-profit organizations like Consumers Union[10]
  • Running advertisements which said that consumers should trust corporations and advertisements[11]
  • Discrediting consumer organizations and their supporters, particularly by calling them "Un-American" and "Communist"[12]

1939 New York World's Fair

[edit]
CU exhibited live guinea pigs to remind consumers to not be guinea pigs

Consumers Union exhibited at the 1939 New York World's Fair. This was controversial because other exhibitors represented commercial interests and feared that Consumers Union would attack their products.[13]

The World's Fair was, among other things, a collaboration between business and government to help New York City recover from the Great Depression.[13] There was a Consumers Building at the fair to which consumers movement leaders were invited. CU president Colston Warne said, "This affair might give us the opportunity to insert a critical note toward the usual advertising ballyhoo that constitutes the center of the arena of a twentieth century world's fair."[14]

A few weeks before the fair opened the American Home Economics Association, the American Standards Association, Consumers Union, and a coalition of other consumer groups complained publicly to fair managers that they had been disallowed from reasonable participation in shaping the content of the pavilion, and that the exhibition seemed poised to present only business and retail interests and to exclude consumer interests.[15] In the end, CU was left with the only noncommercial consumer exhibit at the fair.[16] The fair organizers prohibited CU from sharing any publications which rated products by brand name.[16] CU's exhibit dramatized marketplace fraud and gave consumers purchasing advice.[16] It also included guinea pigs in an attempt to teach consumers that they do not have to be "guinea pigs" by letting corporations test dangerous products on them.[17]

Accusations of communism

[edit]

Hearst Corporation's Good Housekeeping magazine had a practice of awarding a "Good Housekeeping Seal of Approval" to products which the magazine endorsed. Consumers Union followed Consumers Research in continually complaining that the Hearst Corporation's Good Housekeeping Research Institute could not inform or protect consumers reliably because it had inadequate scientific testing and because it was commercially dependent on the advertisers whose products it reviewed.[18] In 1939 the Federal Trade Commission ended a four-year investigation of the business practices of Hearst by initiating hearings which charged that the magazine published exaggerated and fraudulent advertising claims and which attacked the integrity of the Seal of Approval.[19] The FTC found that Good Housekeeping's seal communicated that the Hearst Corporation was ensuring that products passed rigorous scientific tests when in fact it was not conducting such tests.[19] Richard E. Berlin, the executive vice president and general manager of Hearst Magazines, committed to fight the accusations.[20]

Directors at Consumers' Research had accused strikers who formed Consumers Union of being communists.[21] Other publications such as Elizabeth Dilling's 1934 The Red Network stated the same.[22] On December 3, 1939 J. B. Matthews, who had been vice president of Consumers' Research, testified to Martin Dies, Jr. in the Dies Committee on the un-American activities of Consumers Union.[23] The charges included the communist backgrounds of the Consumers Union board and staff, that CU head Arthur Kallet was a Communist party organizer, and that the 1935 strike which led to the split of Consumers Union from Consumers' Research was itself a Communist plot.[23] According to Matthews, the plan of Consumers Union was to "discredit advertising of reputable American firms and products through propaganda issued by the consumer organizations which is designed to make the American public dissatisfied with the profit system" and then entice them to convert to Communism.[24] Berlin from the Hearst Magazines distributed the report to publishers with a press release.[23] Part of the release is quoted here:

...certain subversives (who) were pretending to serve the consuming public but were actually motivated by communistic theories have been attacking the institution of advertising, and Good Housekeeping in particular, as a leading medium in the advertising field. We believe that the underlying motive of these attacks on advertising is to destroy the freedom of the American press by first destroying its principal source of revenue, advertising. We believe that this subversive movement needs to be publicly exposed. I herewith enclose a copy of a report issued by the Dies committee...

— Richard E. Berlin[25]

Shortly after Dies' presentation of the Matthews report both President Roosevelt and Eleanor Roosevelt publicly condemned it,[26] as did Harold L. Ickes[27] and Dies' HUAC-colleagues Jerry Voorhis and Joseph E. Casey.[28] Various publications suggested that Matthews and the Dies Committee cooperated with the Hearst Corporation to suppress news of the Federal Trade Commission's investigation of Good Housekeeping's "Seal of Approval" by denouncing others.[29]

Later in the House Un-American Activities Committee's 1951 Guide to Subversive Organizations and Publications, Consumers Union is described as "a Communist front headed by the Communist Arthur Kallet" and noted that "Ben Gold... (was also a member) of the labor advisory committee of Consumers Union".[30] The consensus of that committee was that Consumers Union was "subversive and un-American".[31]

Prison break plot of Trotsky's assassin

In October 1939 Red Army founder Leon Trotsky testified to Martin Dies in the House Un-American Activities Committee. Soon upon returning to Mexico he left his residence in the home of artists Diego Rivera and Frida Kahlo after a quarrel and began living alone.[32] In May 1940 Ramón Mercader, also known as Frank Jacson, assassinated Trotsky.[33][34] In a hearing organized by the House Committee on Un-American Activities in 1950, the committee noted that Lydia Altschuler, the educational director of Consumers Union, managed a mail drop hosted for the purpose of transmitting coded messages which allegedly supported Jacob Epstein in assisting Mercader/Jacson in prison escape.[35] Altschuler "refused to answer all questions relating to her participation in this underground movement, on the ground that to do so might incriminate her".[35] The Venona project named the ALTO case after Altschuler and only after some years was able to decode the messages to learn that they discussed plans to free Mercader.[36] Criticism of Consumer Reports about this event stated that Altschuler was a communist and an employee of Consumers Union.[37]

Oppenheimer loses security clearance

From 1938-39 J. Robert Oppenheimer served on the board of Consumers Union after accepting an invitation to join from Mildred Edie Brady and Robert A. Brady.[38] The record in Consumers Union archives of Oppenheimer's communication with Consumer Reports is short but includes a 1938 letter in which Oppenheimer makes a recommendation for a person to manage milk testing at Consumers Union.[39]

The Bradys were close friends with Alger Hiss and Haakon Chevalier, both of whom were accused of Soviet sympathizing and the latter of whom Oppenheimer said to have attempted to recruit him into the Communist Party.[40] In 1953 the United States Atomic Energy Commission notified Oppenheimer that they revoked his security clearance.[41] Oppenheimer requested what came to be called the Oppenheimer security hearing, during which the board stated to him that "It was further reported that in 1938 you were a member of the Western Council of the Consumers Union. The Consumers Union was cited in 1944 by the House Committee on Un-American Activities as a Communist-front headed by the Communist Arthur Kallet."[42] Colston Warne said that Oppenheimer lost his security clearance because Consumers Union was "drawn into his loyalty oath orbit".[43]

1940s-50s - Focus on product testing with Kallet as head

[edit]

Historians of the consumer movement describe Consumers Union as being less radical in the 1940s and 50s.[44] Business Week noted that the organizations' membership rose during the Post–World War II economic expansion.[45]

In August 1957 following a board vote on the future of the organization, Arthur Kallet ceded his position as director of Consumers Union to become a board member.[46] This followed a debate among the organization's board led by Kallet, who argued that Consumers Union should continue to concentrate on product testing, and Colston Warne, who argued that the organization should use its status to influence United States government policy.[46] Kallet said that he was fired from his position.[46]

In 1957 Consumer Reports had 900,000 subscribers paying $5 per year to receive the magazine.[46] The organization had 250 staff, including 75 part-time shopping staff in 50 cities.[46]

1950s-70s - Warne encourages international movement expansion

[edit]

Colston Warne was appointed president of Consumers Union's board he encouraged the organization to do more advocacy work. In 1960 Warne led CU in supporting the foundation of the International Organisation of Consumers Unions, now known as Consumers International. This organization encouraged the replication of the CU model in other countries, particularly developing countries, by providing infrastructure for local grassroots activists to do as they liked to advance the consumer movement.

Activism in the United States and prompting by CU led President Kennedy to propose the Consumer Bill of Rights in 1962.[citation needed] In 1964 with CU support President Lyndon B. Johnson appointed Esther Peterson as the first Special Assistant for Consumer Affairs in the FTC's Bureau of Consumer Protection.[citation needed]

1970s-90s - Karpatkin encourages increased domestic advocacy

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In the 1970s Consumers Union opened three offices to conduct advocacy. In 1974 Rhoda Karpatkin became executive director of the organization and backed advocacy efforts as vital to the organization's mission.[47][48] During this time organizational funding went down due to the new programs.[48] Consumer Reports had been a grantmaking organization to various other consumer organizations in the United States, but when its own funds lessened, CR laid off many staff and greatly cut back its grantmaking.[49]

A point of discussion was also whether Consumers Union should become more involved in advocacy, and thereby becoming more biased for certain positions, or to remain neutral and continue with mostly product testing.[50] In December 1981 the local members of The Newspaper Guild signed a petition to remove Karpatkin from her position over her financial judgment, bringing the organization's policy disagreements into the open.[48] Also around that time the Early 1980s recession and the recent postage rate increases caused organizational funding to drop and expenses to raise.[48][51] This drastically cut Consumer Reports' available funds and led to discussion about the funding of the organization.[52]

Between 1990 and 1993 Consumer Reports' paid circulation expanded from 3.8 million to 5 million.[53] In response to the subscribers' median age having risen to 42, the organization improved and rebranded its children's magazine, Penny Power, into Zillions: Consumer Reports for Kids.[53] By 1995 Consumer Reports was also available through third-party online subscription services.[53] Critics speculated that Consumers Union would not be able to compete with specialty magazines which rated the huge number of new electronic products and software.[53]

2000s-present - Online outreach with Guest as head

[edit]

In 2000 Karpatkin announced her retirement.[54] In February 2001 James A. Guest replaced Karpatkin as head of Consumers Union.

Consumer Reports people

[edit]
List of Consumer Reports people
Affiliation dates Person Profession Board member? Role at CU
1936-1957?[46] Arthur Kallet engineer yes, after 1957[46] founder, executive director
1936-1963?[55] Dexter Masters journalist on nuclear weapons technical director, executive director
1936-1965[56] Mildred Edie Brady journalist founder, editorial director, senior reporter
1936-1979[57] Colston Warne professor of economics yes president of board
1936-?[58] Rose Schneiderman women's labor rights activist; founder of American Civil Liberties Union yes
1936-?[58] Heywood Broun journalist; founder of The Newspaper Guild yes
1936-?[59] Robert A. Brady economist; staff of National Resources Planning Board during the New Deal CU founder, vice president
1936-?[60] Homer Martin labor union leader yes labor advisor
1936-?[61] A. Philip Randolph African American rights leader; organizer for Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters yes
1938-39[62] J. Robert Oppenheimer theoretical physicist, creator of first nuclear weapon yes
1943-1973[63] Edward Reich consumer educator yes
1944[64] Ben Gold labor union leader yes labor advisor[64]
1944[64] Mike Quill labor union leader yes labor advisor[64]
1952[37] Malcolm Cowley literary critic sponsor[37]
1952[37] Jerome Davis sociologist yes sponsor[37]
1952[37] Matthew Josephson writer and economist sponsor[37]
1952[37] Anna Louise Strong journalist on Communism sponsor[37]
1960[65] Vance Packard popular author on consumerism supporter[65]
1962[66] Alan Frank Guttmacher physician; president of Planned Parenthood author of Consumers Union Report on Family Planning
1963[67]-1986[68] Edward M. Brecher popular science writer authored several CR books
1965?-1975[69] Ralph Nader consumer protection lawyer yes advisory board
1967-1982?[70] Helen Ewing Nelson labor economist; served on President's Export Council yes
1969-1993[71] Betty Furness actress; chair of New York State Consumer Protection Board yes
1971[72]-1977?[73] Warren Braren media policy maker no associate director[74]
1974-2000[75] Rhoda H. Karpatkin lawyer president
1974-?[50] Jeffrey O'Connell lawyer yes auto insurance[50]
1974-?[50] Bess Myerson model, commissioner of New York City Department of Consumer Affairs yes board member, New York state government[50]
1980[76]-2014 James A. Guest laywer yes board member, president
1982-2006[77] Joan Claybrook lawyer; president of Public Citizen yes
1990s?-2000s?[78] Robert S. Adler commissioner at Consumer Product Safety Commission yes
1999-2003[79] David Aaron Kessler doctor and lawyer; commissioner of FDA yes
2000s?[80] Gene Kimmelman antitrust lawyer; worked with Justice Department attorney
2000?-present[81] Craig Newmark Craigslist founder yes

References

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  1. ^ a b c d e f Brobeck 1997, p. 182.
  2. ^ Silber 1983, p. 19.
  3. ^ Silber 1983, p. 18.
  4. ^ Silber 1983, p. 20, 28.
  5. ^ Brobeck 1997, p. 183.
  6. ^ a b Silber 1983, p. 23.
  7. ^ Jacobs, Meg (2007). Pocketbook politics : Economic citizenship in twentieth-century America. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 134. ISBN 9780691130415.
  8. ^ "introduction to (Stuart Chase Papers)", Coolidge-Consumerism Collection, Library of Congress Manuscript Division, retrieved 8 July 2013
  9. ^ Warne 1993, p. 115. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFWarne1993 (help)
  10. ^ McGovern 2006, p. 315, citing
    • "Institute". Tide. 13 (16): 17–18. August 15, 1939.
    • "Wooing Consumers". BusinessWeek: 38–39. November 15, 1937.
    • "Approach". Tide. 13 (7): 32. April 1, 1939.
    • "Ayer's Laird". Tide. 13 (3). February 1, 1939.
    • "Testing Lab". Tide. 13 (24): 22. November 15, 1939.
    • "The Attacking Stage". Consumers Union Reports. 2 (10): 2. December 1937.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  11. ^ McGovern 2006, p. 314-317, citing
    • Advertisement by American Druggist Magazine (November 1938). "Who's a guinea pig?". Hearst's International Cosmopolitan. 105 (5): 103. Despite sensational, destructive propaganda, I know for example, that when I buy nationally known drug products I don't have to wonder about their quality, purity, and ability to give me my money's worth in satisfaction. The real guinea pigs are the people who experiment - take chances - with products which are NOT backed by a well-known house... I know that responsible publishers protect me further by refusing to accept the advertising of products which fail to pass tests for quality and performance... the better part of buying wisdom is to prefer the products you see regularly advertised.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
    • Richardson, Anna Steese (April 1935). "An Advertising Odyssey". Advertising and Selling. Box 512 File 16.34. Consumers' Research Papers, Alexander Library at Rutgers University.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
    • "The Consumer Menace". Printer's Ink. 181 (5): 96. November 4, 1937.
    • Sorenson, Helen (1941?). Consumer Movement in the United States. pp. 154–178. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: year (link) - book publication details lacking
  12. ^ Glickman 2009, p. 213.
  13. ^ a b Stole 2006, p. 96.
  14. ^ Stole 2006, p. 96, citing a letter from Colston Warne to Arthur Kallet, January 29, 1937, box 7 folder 7 of the Warne Papers.
  15. ^ McGovern 2006, p. 315, citing
    • "A letter to Mr. Whalen". Consumers Union Reports: 31. March 1939.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
    • "21 Fair Advisers on Consumer Quit". New York Times. section 1. 28 February 1939. p. 21.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: location (link); this is a reprint of the resignation letter
    • "Split Fair Group Replies to Critics". New York Times. April 9, 1939. pp. G5.
    • "The Consumer Movement". Business Week: 52. April 22, 1939.
  16. ^ a b c Stole 2006, p. 96, citing
    • "Consumers Union at the World Fair". Consumers Union Reports: 2. March 1939.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
    • "Consumers Union at the New York World's Fair". Consumers Union Reports: 15. April 1939.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
    • "Consumers Union's Exhibit at the World's Fair". Consumers Union Reports: 15. May 1939.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  17. ^ Manion 2005, p. 12.
  18. ^ McGovern 2006, p. 316, citing
    • "The Good Housekeeping Institute". Consumers Union Reports. 1 (3). July 22, 1936.
    • Ayers, Edith (May 1934). "Private Organizations working for the Consumer". Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 173 (173): 158–165. doi:10.1177/000271623417300120. S2CID 143227444.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  19. ^ a b McGovern 2006, p. 319, citing
    • "Hearst Magazines Accused by F.T.C.". New York Times. August 21, 1939. p. 22.
    • "Good Housekeeping Owners Defy F.T.C. on Ad "Guaranties"". Washington Post. August 21, 1939. p. 2.
    • "Good Housekeeping Denies Trade Commision Charges". Christian Science Monitor. August 22, 1939. p. 16.
    • "Seal of Disapproval". Business Week: 20–22. August 26, 1939.
    • "Good Housekeeping Stands Indicted". Consumers Union Reports. 4 (11): 3. September 1939.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
    • "The Case Against Good Housekeeping". Consumers Union Reports. 5 (1): 26–27. January 1940.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
    • "The Good Housekeeping Seals of Approval". Consumers Digest. 6 (5): 40–44. November 1939.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  20. ^ McGovern 2006, p. 319, citing
    • "Good House". Tide. 13 (5): 36. September 1, 1939.
    • "Good Housekeeping Refusing to Sign F.T.C. Stipulation, Will Fight Charges". Printer's Ink. 188 (8): 68–71. August 25, 1939.
    • Pease, Otis (1958). Responsibilities of American Advertising:Private Control and Public Influence, 1920-1940. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. pp. 128–131.
  21. ^ Silber 1983, p. 21.
  22. ^ Warne 1993, p. 128. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFWarne1993 (help)
  23. ^ a b c Warne 1993, p. 123. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFWarne1993 (help) Cite error: The named reference "FOOTNOTEWarne1993123" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  24. ^ McGovern 2006, p. 320, citing
    • "Dies Investigator Says Reds Utilize Consumer Groups". The New York Times. December 11, 1939. p. 1.
    • "Consumer Group Heads Deny Red Tinge Charge". The Christian Science Monitor. December 11, 1939. p. 2.
    • "Consumers' Group Called Tool of Reds". Washington Post. December 11, 1939. p. 1.
    • "Dies Report Charges Communist Influence in Consumer Groups". Printer's Ink. 11 (190): 15–16, 84. December 15, 1939.
    • "Report of Dies' Aide Assailed". The Milwaukee Journal. 11 December 1939. Retrieved 9 July 2013.. Voorhis is quoted as saying, "I believe the committee is put in a very difficult position by releasing a report which attempts to brand as communist intrigue, protests against high milk prices, the teaching of young women to be wise buyers, or the efforts of consumers to secure the honesty in advertising which every reputable merchant and businessman in America desires as much as the consumers do." Matthews is quoted as saying that communists are "utilizing consumers' protests to overthrow the capitalist system and put in its place a soviet system".
  25. ^ Quotation taken from Warne; other sources quote this in part. The original paper copy is in Amherst and a copy of that is in Kansas. It notes that the release was to be under news embargo until December 11.
  26. ^ McGovern 2006, p. 320, citing "President scores Dies". Los Angeles Times. December 13, 1939. p. 13. and "Dies Report Scored by Mrs. Roosevelt". The New York Times. December 14, 1939. p. 19.
  27. ^ Warne 1993, p. 124 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFWarne1993 (help); original source of Ickes' statement not identified
  28. ^ McGovern 2006, p. 320 and Warne 1993, p. 124 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFWarne1993 (help), citing
    • "Voorhis Attacks Dies, Matthews". The New York Times. December 12, 1939. p. 22.
    • "Voorhis Scores Dies Attack on Consumers". The Washington Post. December 14, 1939. p. 2.
    • "Dies Rebuked by Associate". Los Angles Times. December 12, 1939. p. 8.
    • "Matthews Meets Denials, Attacks". The New York Times. December 11, 1939. p. 14.
    • "Warne Defends Research Union". Christian Science Monitor. December 13, 1939. p. 14.
  29. ^ Warne 1993, p. 125 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFWarne1993 (help), citing
    • "Dies Committee or Hearst Committee?". The New Republic. December 27, 1939. p. 273.
    • Jellinek, Frank (January 1, 1940). "(no title given)". The New Republic. p. 13.
    • "Consumers' Red Network". Business Week: 17–18. December 16, 1939.
  30. ^ Warne 1993, p. 141 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFWarne1993 (help), citing Special Committee on Un-American Activities (March 29, 1944). (Report). p. 153. {{cite report}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  31. ^ Warne 1993, p. 141 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFWarne1993 (help), citing Special Subcommittee of the House Committee on Appropriations (April 21, 1943). (Report). {{cite report}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  32. ^ Patenaude, Bertrand M. (2010). Trotsky : downfall of a revolutionary (1st ed.). New York: Harper. pp. 171–173. ISBN 978-0060820688.
  33. ^ Isaac Don, Levine (September 28, 1959). "Secrets of an Assassin". Life. p. 104-122. Retrieved 6 March 2013.
  34. ^ Russ Kick, ed. (2009). You are still being lied to : the remixed disinformation guide to media distortion, historical whitewashes and cultural myths (New ed.). New York: Disinfo. ISBN 978-1934708071.
  35. ^ a b "Full text of 'American aspects of assassination of Leon Trotsky. Hearings'". Internet Archive. July 26, August 30, October 18-19, and December 4, 1950. Retrieved November 16, 2012. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help) Hearings before the Committe on Un-American Activities as presented to the 81st United States Congress
  36. ^
  37. ^ a b c d e f g h i H.P.F. (2 September 1952). "More on Consumers Union". Ludington Daily News. p. 4. Retrieved 9 July 2013.
  38. ^ Warne 1993, p. 133 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFWarne1993 (help)Turner, Christopher (2011). Adventures in the orgasmatron : how the sexual revolution came to America (1st ed.). New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 978-0374100940.
  39. ^ Oppenheimer, Robert (1995). Alice Kimball Smith (ed.). Letters and recollections (Reissued. ed.). Stanford, Calif.: Stanford Univ. Press. p. 205. ISBN 0804726205., describing Oppenheimer's interaction and citing a May 29, 1938 letter from Oppenheimer to Mildred Brady republished in this book and held in the Consumers Union archives.
  40. ^ Turner, Christopher (2011). Adventures in the orgasmatron : how the sexual revolution came to America (1st ed.). New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 978-0374100940.
  41. ^ Warne 1993, p. 133. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFWarne1993 (help)
  42. ^
  43. ^ Warne 1993, p. 134. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFWarne1993 (help)
  44. ^ Glickman 2009, p. 268.
  45. ^ "Feeding Advice to Hungry Consumers". Business Week: 144. March 20, 1954.
  46. ^ a b c d e f g "Consumer's Report". Time. Vol. 70, no. 7. August 12, 1957. p. 82.
  47. ^ Gold, Gerald (January 13, 1974). "Consumers Union Picks Lawyer To Be Its First Woman Director". select.nytimes.com. Retrieved 10 January 2013.
  48. ^ a b c d "Put to the Test". Time. Vol. 119, no. 5. February 1982. p. 63.{{cite magazine}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  49. ^ Cerra, Frances (8 July 1975). "Consumer Organizations Over Nation Hurt by a Loss of Grants". The New York Times.
  50. ^ a b c d e "Woman Named CU Head". The Milwaukee Journal. 15 January 1974. Retrieved 6 January 2015.
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  56. ^ Warne, Colston (1993). Barbara Sicherman (ed.). Notable American women : the modern period ; a biographical dictionary (6th pring. ed.). Cambridge, Mass [u.a.]: Belknap Press of Harvard Univ. Press. pp. 101–102. ISBN 9780674627338.
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  59. ^ University of California (System) Academic Senate (April 1964). "Robert Alexander Brady, Economics: Berkeley". University of California: In Memoriam.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
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  61. ^ "introduction to (Stuart Chase Papers)", Coolidge-Consumerism Collection, Library of Congress Manuscript Division, retrieved 8 July 2013
  62. ^ "United States Atomic Energy Commission. In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer". avalon.law.yale.edu. Avalon Project. May 27,1954. Retrieved 26 August 2012. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  63. ^ "Dr. Edward Reich Dies at 80 - Official of Consumers Union - NYTimes.com". The New York Times. New York. June 2, 1983. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 16 November 2012.
  64. ^ a b c d House Reports 78th Congress, 2d Session January 10-December 19, 1944 (volume 2 ed.). United States Government Printing Office. 1944. pp. 152–153.
  65. ^ a b Horowitz, Daniel (1994). Vance Packard and American social criticism. Chapel Hill, N.C.: Univ. of North Carolina Press. p. 322. ISBN 0807821411., in this book, Packard's biographer states that "The files in (Packard's archives held by the Pennsylvania State Universities Libraries) contain ample evidence of Packard's involvement with Consumers Union" and the book mentions Packard supporting Consumers Union in various ways. There is no mention of a formal relationship.
  66. ^ Guttmacher, Alan F. (1962). The Consumers Union Report on Family Planning. Mount Vernon, NY: Consumers Union of U.S. p. viii-ix. Library of Congress number 62-17894 {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  67. ^ Brecher, Edward; Brecher, Ruth; Herzog, Arthur; Goodman, Walter (1963). The Consumers Union Report on Smoking and the Public Interest. Mount Vernon, NY: Consumers Union. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  68. ^ Brecher, Edward M. (1986). Love, Sex, and Aging: A Consumers Union Report. Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 0316107190.
  69. ^ "Nader quits Consumers Union". St. Petersburg Times. Aug 23, 1975. Retrieved 10 July 2013.
  70. ^ Robinson, Judith (1986), Helen Ewing Nelson Biography and Highlights as Consumer Leader, carton 79, folder 21: Bancroft Library, retrieved 8 July 2013{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location (link) She was on board for 15 years; perhaps this started in 1967.
  71. ^ Severo, Richard (4 April 1994). "Betty Furness, 78, TV Reporter And Consumer Advocate, Dies - New York Times". The New York Times. New York. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 10 July 2013.
  72. ^ "FTC cites advertising as potential danger". The Daily Illini. 21 October 1971. p. 25.
  73. ^ "A different slant on cable television" (PDF). Broadcasting. 25 April 1977. p. 51.
  74. ^ Times, Grace Lichtenstein Special To The New York (8 March 1973). "Consumers Union Issues a Warning Against Buying of Microwave Ovens". The New York Times.
  75. ^ Finn, Robin (October 05, 2000). "PUBLIC LIVES; Still Top Dog, Consumers' Pit Bull to Retire - New York Times". The New York Times. New York. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 10 July 2013. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  76. ^ "Interview with Jim Guest - World Bank Live". live.worldbank.org. 2013 [last update]. Retrieved 10 July 2013. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  77. ^ Claybrook, Joan (2007-01-28). "Crash Test Dummies". The New York Times. Retrieved 2007-01-29. How the testing mistake was made is instructive not only for Consumer Reports but for everyone who cares about public safety. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  78. ^ White House Office of the Press Secretary (5 May 2009). "President Obama Fills New CPSC Posts - The White House". whitehouse.gov. Retrieved 15 July 2013.
  79. ^ "Expert Report - David A. Kessler, M.D." (PDF). Lieff Cabraser Heimann & Bernstein. Retrieved 10 July 2013.
  80. ^ Kang, Cecilia (9 July 2012). "Obama's 'secret weapon' on antitrust leaves Justice - Washington Post". articles.washingtonpost.com. Retrieved July 10, 2013.
  81. ^ Byrd, Cary (2013 [last update]). "eDrugSearch.com attends Consumer Reports health summit". edrugsearch.com. Retrieved 10 July 2013. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

Sources

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  • Brobeck, Stephen (1997). Encyclopedia of the consumer movement. Santa Barbara, Calif. [u.a.]: ABC-Clio. pp. 175–179. ISBN 0874369878.
  • Divine, Robert A. (1978). Blowing on the wind : the nuclear test ban debate, 1954-1960. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-5023900.
  • editors of Consumer Reports Books; Florman, Monte (1986). Testing : behind the scenes at Consumer reports, 1936-1986. Mount Vernon, N.Y.: Consumers Union. ISBN 0-89043-064-0. {{cite book}}: |last1= has generic name (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Glickman, Lawrence B. (2009). Buying power : a history of consumer activism in America (Paperback ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226298672.
  • Manion, Kevin P. (2005). Consumer Reports. Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 0-7385-3890-6. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Mayer, Robert N. (1989). The consumer movement : guardians of the marketplace (1. print. ed.). Boston: Twayne Publishers. ISBN 0805797181.
  • McGovern, Charles F. (2006). Sold American: Consumption and Citizenship, 1890 - 1945 ([Online-Ausg.] ed.). Chapel Hill, NC: Univ. of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0807830338.
  • Silber, Norman Isaac (1983). Test and protest. New York: Holmes & Meier: Holmes and Meier. ISBN 0841907498.
  • Stole, Inger L. (2006). Advertising on trial : consumer activism and corporate public relations in the 1930s. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0252072994.
  • Warne, Colston E. (1993). The consumer movement : lectures. Manhattan, Kan.: Family Economics Trust Press. ISBN 1881331016.
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