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For other uses, see Bluejacket (disambiguation).

Blue Jacket
Born	Sepettekenathe (Big Rabbit) c. 1743 Shawnee Flats, Province of Pennsylvania (near present Plymouth)
Died	c. 1808 (aged about 65) near present Trenton, Michigan
Nationality	Shawnee
Other names	Waweyapiersenwaw (Whirlpool)
Known for	Commander in the Northwest Indian War, signing the Treaty of Greenville, early supporter of Tecumseh
Relatives	Red Pole (half-brother) Charles Bluejacket (grandson)

Blue Jacket (c. 1743 – c. 1808), was a Shawnee war chief known for his militant defense of Shawnee lands in the Ohio Country.

[forthcoming]

Early life and family

Little is known of Blue Jacket's early life. His parents are unknown. His family may have belonged to a band of Shawnees headed by Kakowatcheky, who had moved from the Ohio Country to the Province of Pennsylvania. The Shawnees had once lived in the Ohio Country, but in the 1680s they had been driven out by the Iroquois. By the time of Blue Jacket's birth, the far-flung Shawnees had begun to reunite in their traditional Ohio Country homeland, and Blue Jacket's family was among those who returned. Kakowatcheky's Shawnees lived at Shawnee Flats, near present-day Plymouth, Pennsylvania, from about 1728 to 1743, before returning to Logstown in the Ohio Country. Blue Jacket was born about 1743, probably at Shawnee Flats.

Shawnees of Blue Jacket's era belonged to one of five tribal divisions: Kispoko, Chalahgawtha (Chillicothe), Mekoche, Pekowi (Piqua), and Hathawekela. Although the records are not explicit, Blue Jacket apparently belonged to the Pekowi division. In addition, each Shawnee belonged to a clan that was named after a totemic animal. Blue Jacket's birth name was Sepettekenathe (Big Rabbit), which indicated that he belonged to the Rabbit clan. Shawnees sometimes adopted new names as adults, and around 1777, Sepettekenathe took the name Waweyapiersenwaw (Whirlpool), but he was commonly known as Blue Jacket. The origin of this nickname is unknown.

Blue Jacket was too young to fight in the French and Indian War (1754–1760), an imperial conflict between France and Britain for control of the Ohio Country. After Britain's victory in that war, Natives of the region joined in a multi-tribal effort to drive away the British, a conflict known as Pontiac's War (1763–1766). Blue Jacket presumably took part in the war. He first appears in written historical records in 1773, when he was a village leader in the Ohio Country. In that year, a British missionary visited the Shawnee villages on the Scioto River and recorded the location of Blue Jacket's Town on Deer Creek (present-day Ross County, Ohio).

Blue Jacket was married twice. His first wife was Margaret Moore, a white Virginian who had been captured as a girl during the French and Indian War and raised by Natives. They had a son, Joseph Moore, who remained with Blue Jacket when Margaret returned to Virginia, where she gave birth to their second child, Nancy Moore. Margaret and Nancy moved back to Ohio around 1804. Nancy married a white man, James Stewart, and spent much time with the Shawnees in Ohio. The name of Blue Jacket's second wife is unknown. She was the daughter of French Canadian fur trader Jacques Baby and a Shawnee woman. She and Blue Jacket had at least four children: Jim Blue-Jacket (born about 1768), Mary Louise (born about 1775), Sally (born about 1778), and George Blue-Jacket (born about 1781).

Red Pole (Musquaconocah), who would become an important Shawnee civil chief, was apparently Blue Jacket's half-brother. There are no known portraits of Blue Jacket.

War for Kentucky

Blue Jacket fought in the Battle of Point Pleasant in 1774.

A decade of relative peace in the Ohio Country followed Pontiac's War. During that war, the British issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763, which created a boundary between the British colonies and Native land in the west. This boundary did not last long: in the 1768 Treaty of Fort Stanwix, Sir William Johnson negotiated a new boundary line with the Iroquois, ceding lands south of the Ohio River (present-day West Virginia and Kentucky) to the British. Although Shawnees used this land for hunting, they had not been consulted in the negotiations. Clashes between colonists and Indians erupted after 1769 as settlers and land speculators poured into the region. Shawnees began organizing other Natives in an effort to defend their hunting grounds against British colonization. As a rising leader, Blue Jacket was likely one of the Shawnees involved in this intertribal diplomacy.

The conflict became a crisis in 1774 after at least ten Mingo Indians were murdered by white settlers in the Yellow Creek massacre. Mingos retaliated against settlers, and war seemed imminent. At Fort Pitt, John Connolly, agent for Lord Dunmore, the royal governor of Virginia, called out the militia. Lord Dunmore's War had begun. Shawnees lived in autonomous towns with no central government, but in the 1760s they began appointing a ceremonial leader (or "principal chief") from the Mekoche division to speak for them in negotiations with colonial leaders. The principal chief during Dunmore's War was the Mekoche chief Kisinoutha (Hard Man). According to Shawnee custom, in time of war, civil chiefs like Kisinoutha yielded leadership to their war chiefs. Now Cornstalk (Hokoleskwa), as head warrior, took command, leading war chiefs that included Blue Jacket, Peteusha (Black Snake), and Pukeshinwau.

The Shawnees and Mingos were greatly outnumbered by the Virginians, so Cornstalk tried to recruit Native allies in the face of an imminent invasion. British officials successfully prevented other Indians from joining the war, leaving Cornstalk with only about 300 Shawnee, Mingo, Delaware, and Wyandot warriors to oppose Dunmore's 2,300 men. Dunmore launched a two-prong invasion of the Ohio Country, with him leading one wing, Colonel Andrew Lewis in command of the other. Cornstalk decided to strike at Lewis's wing before the two armies could unite, leading Blue Jacket and his men at the Battle of Point Pleasant on October 10. The Shawnees initially had the upper hand, but when colonial reinforcements arrived, the outnumbered Shawnees were pushed back. Near sundown, Cornstalk and Blue Jacket finally withdrew their warriors across the Ohio River. Dunmore marched his men into the Ohio Country and compelled the Shawnees to negotiate an end to the hostilities. Dunmore claimed the Shawnees had agreed to cede Kentucky to Virginia, but the Shawnees appeared to have a different interpretation of these events, and still considered Kentucky to be their hunting grounds.

Historical marker in downtown Bellefontaine, Ohio, marking the site of Blue Jacket's Town.

With the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), the Shawnees divided between those who wanted to remain neutral (primarily the Mekoche division of the tribe) and those who sought to enlist British military aid in the effort to recover Kentucky. Blue Jacket initially sided with the peace faction. In October 1776, he visited Fort Pitt with Cornstalk to confer with the American revolutionaries. Blue Jacket soon changed his mind, joining the ranks of militant leaders like Blackfish. In 1777, Blue Jacket relocated his Scioto River town to the headwaters of the Mad River, at the site of present Bellefontaine, Ohio, further from the Americans and closer to the British at Detroit. He had numerous close connections to white traders at Detroit. His father-in-law, Jacques Baby, had been appointed as a captain and an interpreter to the Shawnees by Lieutenant Governor Henry Hamilton, the British commandant at Detroit.

In late 1778, Blue Jacket commanded Shawnees as part of Hamilton's expedition to capture Vincennes, which had been occupied by the Americans. After Leonard Helm, the American commander at Vincennes, surrendered Fort Sackville, Blue Jacket claimed Helm as his prisoner, since prisoners could be sold to the British, but he subsequently relinquished his claim to another Native warrior. Hamilton's campaign had been intended to bolster regional support for the British and Native war effort, but this was quickly undone when the Americans under George Rogers Clark retook Vincennes in 1779, capturing Hamilton himself in the process.

Blue Jacket and the Shawnees continued to appeal to the British for help in driving the Americans out of Kentucky. In 1780, he led Shawnees in an invasion of Kentucky headed by British Captain Henry Bird. The expedition resulted in the destruction of several fortified settlements and the capture of four hundred prisoners, but only increased the determination of the Kentuckians to keep fighting. Blue Jacket remained active in the final years of the war, but he was not present at the Battle of Blue Licks in Kentucky in August 1782, the last major battle in the region.

Northwest Indian War

Main article: Northwest Indian War

Mohawk leader Joseph Brant (1743–1807) helped organize Native resistance to the expansion of the United States after the Revolutionary War.

Although the Kentuckians had been defeated at Blue Licks, they still held firmly onto Kentucky, while the Shawnees had been forced to relocate their towns further north. The 1783 Treaty of Paris between Great Britain and the United States, which brought an end to the Revolutionary War, made no mention of the Native claims to the Ohio Country, and instead ceded the region to the United States. When the Shawnees learned of this, they began organizing a pan-tribal coalition, the Northwestern Confederacy, with the aim of preserving the land north of the Ohio River as Native land.

After the American Revolutionary War, the United States claimed the lands north of the Ohio River by right of conquest. In response, Natives convened a great intertribal conference at Lower Sandusky in the summer of 1783. Speakers, most notably Joseph Brant (Mohawk), argued that Natives must unite to hold onto their lands. They put forth a doctrine that Native lands were held in common by all tribes, and so no further land should be ceded to the United States without the consent of all the tribes.

The United States refused to recognize the Native confederacy, and instead pursued a policy of "divide and rule." Some Native leaders buckled to pressure and signed treaties ceding land to the United States at Fort Stanwix (1784) and Fort McIntosh (1785). Shawnee leaders, primarily from the Mekoche division, reluctantly did the same, signing the Treaty of Fort Finney in 1786 after surrendering six hostages. As a war chief rather than a civil chief, Blue Jacket did not sign the treaty, and a story that he attended the proceedings and met George Rogers Clark there may be apocryphal. Most Shawnees rejected the Fort Finney treaty, and hostilities continued between the Shawnees and the Kentuckians, especially after surveyors and squatters continued crossing the Ohio River onto Shawnee lands.

In May 1788, Blue Jacket was captured while raiding into Kentucky to steal horses. The Kentuckians abused him, and debated whether to kill him outright, but decided against it, especially after Blue Jacket revealed he was friendly with Daniel Boone, a well-known frontiersman. The captors took Blue Jacket to Boone's tavern in Limestone, where they spent the night drinking heavily, Blue Jacket joining in. The next day, Blue Jacket was taken to another location, where he was tied and locked up for the night. He managed to escape the next morning and, eluding his pursuers, made his way home. The escape, along with other undocumented actions in the conflict, enhanced Blue Jacket's status, and he came to eclipse Peteusha (Black Snake) as the leading Shawnee war chief.

In 1787, the United States designated the Native lands north of the Ohio River as its Northwest Territory. Arthur St. Clair, the territorial governor, began to negotiate new treaties, abandoning the idea that the region had been conquered by "right of conquest." Instead, the new approach was to purchase the lands from the Natives. In 1789, St. Clair succeeded in getting some Natives, but not the Shawnees, to sign the Treaty of Fort Harmar and relinquish their claims to the territory. "I am persuaded their general confederacy is entirely broken," wrote St. Clair." Despite this setback, Blue Jacket and other Natives remained determined to fight to defend their lands in Ohio. Led by Kekewepelethy, the Shawnee principal civil chief, they began to rebuild the confederacy. According to Shawnee custom, in time of war, civil chiefs yielded leadership to the war chiefs. Now Blue Jacket, as head warrior, "became the most powerful figure in the nation." They sent messages to other tribes, though the Three Fires and the Iroquois remained aloof. For the time being, the Shawnees, Miamis, and Lenapes (under Buckongahelas) formed the heart of the confederacy.

References

Sources

• Calloway, Colin G. (2007). The Shawnees and the War for America. New York: Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-03862-6.
• Calloway, Colin G. (2015). The Victory with No Name: the Native American Defeat of the First American Army. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-01993-8799-1.
• Catalano, Joshua. “Blue Jacket, Anthony Wayne, and the Psychological and Symbolic War for Ohio, 1790-1795.” Ohio History 126, no. 1 (2019): 5-34.
• Horsman, Reginald (1983). "Weyapiersenwah". In Halpenny, Francess G (ed.). Dictionary of Canadian Biography. Vol. V (1801–1820) (online ed.). University of Toronto Press.
• Johnson, Louise F. "Testing Popular Lore: Marmaduke Swearingen a.k.a. Chief Blue Jacket". National Genealogical Society Quarterly 82 (September 1994): 165–78.
• Lakomäki, Sami (2014). Gathering Together: The Shawnee People Through Diaspora and Nationhood, 1600–1870. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-18061-9.
• Sugden, John (1999). "Blue Jacket". American National Biography. Vol. 3. Oxford University Press. pp. 64–66. ISBN 019512782X.
• Sugden, John (2000). Blue Jacket: Warrior of the Shawnees. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-4288-3.
• Tanner, Helen Hornbeck (1978). "The Glaize in 1792: A Composite Indian Community". Ethnohistory. 25 (1): 15–39. doi:10.2307/481163. JSTOR 481163.
• Warren, Stephen, ed. (2017). The Eastern Shawnee Tribe of Oklahoma: Resilience Through Adversity. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-6100-6.