User:Kurtis/History of Italy under Benito Mussolini

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The history of Italy under Benito Mussolini spans a period of roughly two decades. Italy was still a Kingdom during this time, and its politics took place within the framework of a constitutional monarchy. Mussolini served as the head of government under Victor Emmanuel III from 1922 until his deposition and arrest in 1943. He was subsequently freed from prison by the invading German forces and installed as the nominal leader of the Italian Social Republic, a position he held until his summary execution in 1945 by Italian partisans.

Background[edit]

Early years of Mussolini[edit]

Benito Mussolini was born in the small town of Predappio on 29 July 1883. His father was a socialist blacksmith,[1] while his mother worked as a Catholic schoolteacher.[2] Mussolini was sent to a religious boarding school at the age of 9, but was expelled in 1893 for stabbing a fellow student.[3] He fared significantly better in a second institution, and graduated with a certificate to teach elementary school in 1901.[2][4] During this time, he also became an active proponent of socialism in his community.[5]

Mugshot of Mussolini following his 1903 arrest in Switzerland.

Mussolini worked as a substitute teacher in Gualtieri until he moved to Switzerland in 1902.[5] Unemployed and homeless, he wandered about and survived through begging and stealing,[5] as well as submitting writings to local newspapers.[6] It was here that Mussolini began to advocate violent revolution in order to establish a socialist government,[7] which led to his 1903 arrest and deportation.[8] Although he secretly returned to Switzerland for a brief period of time, he ultimately went back to Italy in 1904.[9]

Over the next several years, Mussolini garnered significant attention within the public sphere for his virulent rhetoric against the Italian government,[10] which got him arrested multiple times on charges of inciting or threatening violence.[10] During this time, he worked as an editorialist and even founded his own newspaper, La Lotta di Classe ("The Class Struggle"), in 1910.[10] Its success precipitated the 1912 appointment of Mussolini as editor for the official publication of the socialist party, Avanti! ("Forward!").[11] Working immediately to achieve a broader audience, with a particular focus on syndicalists,[12] sales figures for the left-wing political newspaper grew exponentially over the next two years, with some printings even surpassing 100,000 copies sold.[13] Through his influence as an editor and high-ranking member of the Italian Socialist Party, Mussolini was one of the leading leftist figures in Italy prior to the First World War.[12]

Mussolini remained a traditional socialist until 1914.[14] Over the following year, he began to advocate Italian intervention in the war on the side of the Triple Entente, despite the military pact they had signed with the Germans and Austro-Hungarians.[15] This caused a rift between Mussolini and the socialist party, resulting in his departure. Shortly thereafter, he founded a new publication known as Il Popolo d'Italia ("The People of Italy"), using it to espouse a more nationalistic viewpoint than his previous works.[16] He also established the Fasci Autonomi d'Azione Rivoluzionaria ("Autonomous Fasci of Revolutionary Action"), a national syndicalist group, which then merged with a similar organization led by Angelo Oliviero Olivetti known as the Fasci d'Azione Internazionalista ("Fasci of International Action") to form the Fasci d'Azione Rivoluzionaria ("Fasci of Revolutionary Action").[17] Its members began referring to themselves as Fascists in 1915.[18]

World War I and aftermath[edit]

The allied powers of France, Britain, and Russia convened in secret to draft the 1915 Treaty of London, which would grant Italy several territorial concessions in the event of a victory over Germany and its allies. These include South Tyrol, Trentino, the Northern Dalmatian region and most of its islands, the Dodecanese Islands (controlled by Italy since 1912), protectorate status over Albania, sovereignty over Vlorë and Sazan Island, parts of the German Empire in Asia and Africa, and an unspecified portion of southwestern Turkey near present-day Antalya Province.[19] As a result, despite being a member of the Triple Alliance alongside Germany and Austria-Hungary, Italy switched over and joined the Triple Entente during World War I.[19] However, after the allied victory, Britain and France reneged on most of their original terms. At the 1919 Paris Peace Conference, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson advocated a division of territory based on regional demographics.[19] This conflicted with the aims of the Italians, who were attempting to claim a number of German and Slavic lands, and resulted in Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando storming out of the conference in protest. As mandated by the Treaty of Versailles, only South Tyrol, Trentino, Trieste, and Istria were formally ceded to the Kingdom of Italy.[19] The nation was also left with $12,500,000,000 in foreign debt, an increase of almost $10,000,000,000 as compared to 1914 levels.[20]

The Italians rejected the terms of the Versailles Treaty. They had already annexed most the northern Dalmatian region towards towards the end of the war, yet this was to be nullified by the international agreement. However, they regained control over Zadar and a few surrounding areas as part of the Treaty of Rapallo (1920), cosigned with the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.

Even though it had never been promised to Italy, Fiume was captured in 1919 by 2,600 irregular Italian soldiers under the command of irredentist poet and soldier Gabriele D'Annunzio, who subsequently established the Italian Regency of Carnaro.[21] They wore black shirts and fez hats, referred to themselves as the Arditi (after the elite squad in which many of them served during World War I),[22] and established a corporatist state.[23] Stylizing himself Il Duce ("the Leader"), D'Annunzio attempted to persuade the Kingdom of Italy into officially annexing Fiume, but to no avail. As part of the aforementioned Treaty of Rapallo, the city was to be recognized as an independent republic — the Free State of Fiume. D'Annunzio declared war on Italy as a consequence of the agreement,[21] and the Italian Army responded by instigating a blockade against the city in order to oust its unrecognized government.[21] After the Regency of Carnaro was overthrown, Fiume remained a sovereign entity until the Treaty of Rome four years later, when it was officially absorbed by the Fascist regime of Mussolini. Its short existence was marked by political instability; an Italian nationalist seizure of power occurred within months of its official establishment, but this was annulled by intervention from Italy itself.[21] Then in March 1922, it was briefly taken over by fascists, which was also swiftly dismantled by the Italian army.[21] Despite perceiving D'Annunzio as a rival,[24] Mussolini was influenced by their annexation of the city and modeled his Blackshirts paramilitary after the Arditi.[22]

World War I was followed by a period of intense social upheaval in Italy known as the Biennio Rosso ("Two Red Years"), in which workers and other low-income Italians took part in massive nationwide protests against food shortages, high inflation, and widespread unemployment.[25][26]

History[edit]

Rise of Fascism[edit]

The Italian word fascio (/'faʃʃo), plural fasci (/'faʃi), derives from the Latin term fascis, which translates into English as "bundle" or "sheaf".[27] From the late 1800s to the early 1900s, it was widely used in reference to various different political organizations, irrespective of ideology. During the early 20th century, several nationalist fasci rose to prominence within Italy. These groups collectively became associated with the influential Fasci movement, which subsequently evolved into fascism.

The first usage of "fascio" in reference to a political group was during the 1870s when revolutionary Sicilian democrats began to convene. Most notable among them was the Fasci Siciliani,[28] a moderately socialist organization formed to promote greater respect for property rights and the implementation of labor reforms.[29][30] Although it was violently suppressed in 1894, the term "fasci" permanently garnered a connotation of social upheaval through its association with the Sicilian movement. Because of this, it was later adopted by numerous independent groups throughout Italy. Many fasci were nationalistic, and wanted their country to participate in the First World War.[31] A prominent editorialist and fascio leader at the time,[32] Mussolini used Il Popolo d'Italia to advocate Italian intervention.[31] His efforts and the rise of fasci influence culminated in the Radiosomaggismo ("Radiant Days of May"), a popular protest on the streets of Rome to pressure the Kingdom into war.[31] By this time, the King and Prime Minister Antonio Salandra had already signed the Treaty of London weeks prior, effectively pledging military support to the allies. After Italy entered the conflict, Mussolini himself enlisted and fought in the frontlines against the Austro-Hungarians.[31] Although proving himself a capable soldier, his unit was defeated, and he returned home after sustaining injuries in 1917.[31]

Durring the first years of the Biennio Rosso, Fascists made significant gains in the northern parts of the country, whether through democratic means or the use of force.[33] Hundreds died in the ensuing crisis between leftist political groups and Italian security forces.[33] Within that same period, several fasci emerged on a local level throughout the country. These became known as the Squadrismo and their leaders referred to themselves as "Ras", an Ethiopian term which roughly translates to English as "chieftan".[34] Although acting independently from each other, they generally worked to gather the support of corporate Italy and other elite members of society.[35] Starting in 1919, Fascist paramilitaries focused their efforts on violently asserting control over regional municipalities, dispersing strikes,[36] and eliminating socialist influence throughout the country.[37] Their methods generally consisted of abductions, severe beatings, torture, widespread arson, and indiscriminate killings.[37] Italian police were oftentimes either unwilling or unable to prevent the violence,[38] and the country fell into disarray. During the first five months of 1921 alone, roughly 250 workers were killed by Fascists and their supporters, while thousands more were arrested or injured.[35] Several hundred leftist administrations were ousted, and labor rights were violently suppressed.[34][35] The Po Valley, Tuscany, and Puglia regions were particularly undermined by the Squadrismos, who proceeded to establish hegemony over state institutions while curtailing any sort of resistance.[39]

In 1919, Mussolini founded the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento ("Italian Fasci of Combat", or "Italian Combat Leagues"), a successor group to his previous political organizations. Alongside his new fascio, he created a paramilitary wing called the squadristi ("squad members"), otherwise known as the Blackshirts ("Camicie Nere" in Italian, often shortened to "CCNN"). Amidst the violence of the Biennio Rosso, Mussolini managed to persuade the various other Squadrismos to merge into one political entity, forming the National Fascist Party ("Partito Nazionale Fascista" in Italian, abbreviated as "PNF") on 9 November 1921.[40] Membership in the Fascist Party increased to over 250,000 towards the end of 1922,[41] whereas other parties witnessed a significant decline in popular support.[41] Fascism had become the most influential political movement in Italy, and effectively controlled the northern half of the country.[42] This came at the cost of numerous human lives; in addition to the violent deaths of roughly 450 Fascists, at least 900 socialists were killed in the four years of violence that followed World War I.[43] Over 2000 people died in the hostilities of 1919–1922.[44] During these events, the murder rate skyrocketed throughout Italy, particularly in Sicily.[43]

March on Rome[edit]

Main article: March on Rome

Relevant links:

  • Pages 38, 39, and 40 from John Whittam's Fascist Italy.
  • Page 20 from Mussolini and Italian Fascism by Hamish MacDonald
  • Pages 62–65 from Carsten's The Rise of Fascism.
  • This page and this page, and everything in between, from The Seizure of Power: Fascism in Italy, 1919-1929 by Prof. Lyttleton.
  • Pages 127 through 134 from The Making of Fascism: Class, State, and Counter-revolution, Italy 1919-1922 by Dahlia S. Elazar
  • Page 108, A History of Fascism, 1914–1945 by Stanley G. Payne
  • Pages 35, 36, and 37 from Italian Fascism: Its Origins & Development by Alexander J. De Grand (the most accessible of the sources)

Important points:

  • The March on Rome was essentially a political bluff carried out by the Fascists to intimidate the Italian government into ceding them power.
  • Plans were laid out starting on October 24, with the first stage being for Fascist squads to occupy public buildings throughout the country as a show of power.
  • On 26 October, former Prime Minister Antonio Salandra warned current Prime Minister Luigi Facta that Mussolini was demanding his resignation and that he was preparing to march on Rome.
  • The next day, Salandra withdrew his support from Facta's government in the hopes that aligning with the Fascists would help him to gain power through a coalition of conservative forces within the Italian parliament.
  • Facta ordered a state of siege to repress the Fascist advance, but King Victor Emmanuel III refused to sign the decree.

Consolidation of power[edit]

Giacomo Matteotti, Aventine Secession (20th century), Acerbo Law

Turin Massacre[edit]

Main article: 1922 Turin Massacre
  • Detailed page about the victims of the Turin Massacre - specifically, the anti-fascist labor unit.
  • Scholarly article that challenges the conventional notion that the Turin Massacre was a spontaneous campaign of murder conducted by local Piedmont squadristi, instead arguing that it was deliberately planned out (or otherwise condoned) by Fascist leadership.
  • De Vecchi is apparently implied to be one of the key masterminds behind the Turin Massacre in December 1922.

Invasion of Ethiopia[edit]

Axis alliance[edit]

Manifesto of Race

World War II[edit]

Deposition of Mussolini[edit]

Main article: 25 Luglio

The disastrous performance of Italy in World War II led to a significant loss of suppport for Mussolini among the Italian people.[45] By 1943, war weariness and rapid inflation resulted in massive strikes within the city of Turin, which garnered over 100,000 participants and subsequently spread to Milan.[45] Instead of requesting government assistance in dispersing the protests, industrial leaders sought financial deals with Allied powers, including the United States and Britain.[45] Discontent against the Fascist regime mounted after the first bombing of Rome on 16 May 1943, as well as the invasion of Sicily in July of the same year.[45]

Recognizing the futility of a continued war, King Victor Emmanuel III met secretly with Italian military leaders and politicians to discuss the removal of Mussolini from power.[46] On 16 July, Il Duce was persuaded by fellow party members into convening the Grand Council of Fascism for the first time in four years.[46] After the meeting commenced on 24 July, proposals were made to limit the influence of Mussolini by transferring control of the military to the King.[46][47] A motion to restore the full constitutional authority of the Italian monarch based on the Statuto Albertino ("Albertine Statute") was proposed by Count Dino Grandi on 25 July and passed by a vote of 19 to 7, with two abstentions.[46] This was interpreted as a motion of no confidence against the continued leadership of Mussolini, thus allowing Victor Emmanuel to legally dismiss him from his position as Prime Minister of Italy the very next day; he simultaneously placed him under arrest.[46][47] General Pietro Badoglio was named as his immediate successor.[46]

Mussolini was transferred to the Hotel Campo Imperatore atop Gran Sasso ("Great Stone"), the highest peak within the Abruzzo region of central Italy.[47]

Italian Social Republic (1943–1945) and civil war[edit]

Central articles: Italian Social Republic, Italian Civil War, Italian Campaign (World War II)

Italian Fascist militias: Army Group Liguria, Esercito Nazionale Repubblicano, Black Brigades, National Republican Guard (Italy), Decima Flottiglia MAS

Nazi-Fascist massacres: Ardeatine massacre, Sant'Anna di Stazzema massacre, Marzabotto massacre, Boves massacre

Anti-Fascist parties: Italian resistance movement, Italian Partisan Republics, Kingdom of Italy (from 1943)

  • An article dealing with Nazi-Fascist atrocities against Italian civilians during the last two years of World War II.
  • In all, estimated 15,000 Italian civilians were deliberately killed in Nazi-Fascist reprisals, including many women and children.[48]
  • The allies committed several war crimes during this period as well (expansion forthcoming).

Execution of Mussolini[edit]

From left to right, the dead bodies of Bombacci, Mussolini, Petacci, Pavolini and Starace in Piazzale Loreto, Milan, 29 April 1945.

Towards the end of the war, Mussolini attempted to flee the country into Switzerland.[49]

His body was hung upside down at an Esso gas station in Milan.[50]

Domestic reforms[edit]

Economic policies[edit]

Further information: Economy of Italy under Fascism

Human rights[edit]

In consolidating their power, the Fascists committed widespread abuses against leading opposition figures and journalists.[51] Several outspoken antifascists were killed by squadristi violence, including Giacomo Matteotti, Giovanni Amendola, Ferruccio Ghinaglia, and influential priest Giovanni Minzoni. In 1925, newly appointed National Fascist Party Secretary Roberto Farinacci deployed the Blackshirts against government critics and purged the party of any real or perceived threats to the regime.[52] That same year, Mussolini instituted censorship of the press, banned opposition parties from gathering, and effectively became dictator of Italy after being appointed Head of Government.[52] Although legally accountable to the King, Mussolini could only be dismissed through a recommendation of the Grand Fascist Council, which itself was convened by his orders alone.

Freedom of the press was severely curtailed under Fascist rule. Journalists could only print positive news stories; articles pertaining to traffic accidents, political scandals, or crime were strictly prohibited.[53]

Among the more common methods of Blackshirts repression was castor oil.[54][55][56]

Attempted assassination in 1926, followed by protests in Bologna and subsequent government repression (including stifling the press).[57]

Capital punishment in Italy

Fascist propaganda and cult of personality[edit]

Further information: Propaganda of Fascist Italy

An elaborate personality cult began to develop around Mussolini almost immediately after his ascention to power. Il Duce was considered the central pillar of the Fascist regime, with government propaganda portraying him as such.[58] Methods used to establish the heroic image of Mussolini in Italian culture included erecting statues and posters of his visage throughout the country,[59][60] inscribing Fascist slogans on walls,[61] spreading fraudulent rumours about his achievements,[62] broadcasting his speeches on the radio,[63][64] overhauling the education system to prepare students for membership within the Fascist Party,[65][66] and establishing the Exhibition of the Fascist Revolution in Rome. Publicity was heavily centered on the Italian Premier,[58] and newspaper publications were instructed on exactly what to print.[67] One of the slogans promoted by Fascist Italy was Il Duce ha sempre ragione, which translates as "The Leader is always right."[68]

Although the personality cult primarily focused on the masculine traits of Mussolini, he was presented as having a broad array of different interests and occupations.[67][69] Among other things, Fascist propaganda variously described Mussolini as a family man, a lover of children,[53] a peacemaker,[70] promiscuous,[71] immortal,[62] and omnipotent.[72][73] Parallels were drawn between Mussolini and a number of prominent historical figures within the Catholic Church.[62][74][75][76] The light in his office was kept on during the night to give off the impression that he was a tireless worker.[77] Mussolini himself handpicked photographs to be used in propaganda, rejecting some for a variety of different reasons.[78]

A poster featuring Mussolini's face over a repetitious use of the Italian word "si" ("yes"). It was erected briefly to garner support during the uncontested 1934 Italian general election.

Symbolism in Fascist propaganda revolved extensively around the glorification of youth.[62] The official Fascist hymm Giovinezza espoused Italian nationalism by praising the nation's children alongside Mussolini. The Fascist regime also strongly encouraged maternity, describing it as a form of patriotism on the part of Italian women.[79] To assist in what was referred to as the "battle of births", organizations were founded to provide support for pregnant women and newborn infants.[80] Contraception was discouraged,[81] and women were instructed to have as many babies as possible.[82]

In addition to elevating the status of Mussolini and the state, propaganda was also used to denounce their perceived adversaries. The cultural and ideological movements openly opposed by the Fascists include Bolshevism,[83][84] American culture and economics,[85], democracy,[86] liberalism,[86] and the influx of traditions from various different ethnic groups. During the Italian invasion of Abyssinia (present-day Ethiopia), the campaign was presented as advancing the cause of civilization.[87] Ethiopians were denounced as cannibals and slave-holders,[88] and propaganda was printed detailing abuses committed by the Abyssinian regime.[89] Alongside rallying support for militant expansionism, the concept of spazio vitale ("living space" in English) was promoted by encouraging emigration to Italian territories in Africa and elsewhere, thus strengthening the Empire's hold over these regions.[90] After the conquest of Ethiopia, the regime exaggerated the land's natural resources as a means of persuading citizens to relocate there.[91] Violence and warfare were openly praised as ideal alternatives to compromise and negotiation.[92] In a militaristic context, killing people was considered a sign of masculinity and a necessity for genuine achievement.[93]

The government focused heavily on the indoctrination of younger generations. At the beginning of each school day, children were required to recite a prayer which began with the phrase, "I believe in the genius of Mussolini."[53] A story of a deaf-mute boy being cured after listening to one of Mussolini's speeches was included in an elementary school manual.[94] As well as venerating the Premier himself, the national curriculum taught students that the Fascists had prevented a communist takeover of Italy.[53] All teachers were required to swear an oath of allegiance to Il Duce from 1929 on, a requirement which was extended to university professors in 1931.[53] Youth groups played a particularly important role. In 1926, Mussolini established the Opera Nazionale Balilla (ONB) by uniting all other Fascist organizations of a similar nature.[53] The ONB placed an emphasis on physical strength, discipline, and military service. Although students were strongly urged to join and had been rewarded for enrollment, it only became compulsory in 1937.[53]

Foreign policy[edit]

User:Kurtis/Foreign relations of Fascist Italy

Italian Empire[edit]

Main article: Italian Empire

User:Kurtis/Italian Empire

Italianization

Involvement in World War II[edit]

Main article: Military history of Italy during World War II

User:Kurtis/Military history of Italy during World War II

Legacy[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ Mediterranean Fascism 1919–1945 Edited by Charles F. Delzel, Harper Rowe 1970, page 3
  2. ^ a b "Benito Mussolini". Grolier.com. 8 January 2008.[dead link]
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  4. ^ Haugen, Brenda (2006). Benito Mussolini: Fascist Italian Dictator. Compass Point Books. p. 21. ISBN 978-0756518929.
  5. ^ a b c Haugen, Brenda (2006). Benito Mussolini: Fascist Italian Dictator. Compass Point Books. p. 24. ISBN 978-0756518929.
  6. ^ Haugen, Brenda (2006). Benito Mussolini: Fascist Italian Dictator. Compass Point Books. p. 25. ISBN 978-0756518929.
  7. ^ Haugen, Brenda (2006). Benito Mussolini: Fascist Italian Dictator. Compass Point Books. p. 25-26. ISBN 978-0756518929.
  8. ^ Haugen, Brenda (2006). Benito Mussolini: Fascist Italian Dictator. Compass Point Books. p. 27. ISBN 978-0756518929.
  9. ^ Haugen, Brenda (2006). Benito Mussolini: Fascist Italian Dictator. Compass Point Books. p. 27-28. ISBN 978-0756518929.
  10. ^ a b c Haugen, Brenda (2006). Benito Mussolini: Fascist Italian Dictator. Compass Point Books. p. 31-34. ISBN 978-0756518929.
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  12. ^ a b Anthony James Gregor (1). Young Mussolini and the Intellectual Origins of Fascism (Illustrated ed.). University of California Press. p. 135. ISBN 9780520037991. Retrieved 22 October 2013. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  13. ^ Anthony James Gregor (1). Young Mussolini and the Intellectual Origins of Fascism (Illustrated ed.). University of California Press. p. 136. ISBN 9780520037991. Retrieved 22 October 2013. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  14. ^ Anthony James Gregor (1). Young Mussolini and the Intellectual Origins of Fascism (Illustrated ed.). University of California Press. p. 139. ISBN 9780520037991. Retrieved 22 October 2013. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
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  16. ^ Anthony James Gregor (1). Young Mussolini and the Intellectual Origins of Fascism (Illustrated ed.). University of California Press. p. 139. ISBN 9780520037991. Retrieved 22 October 2013. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  17. ^ Zeev Sternhell. The Birth of Fascist Ideology. P. 303.
  18. ^ Paul O'Brien. Mussolini in the First World War: The Journalist, The Soldier, The Fascist. Pp. 52.
  19. ^ a b c d Duffy, Michael (22). "Treaty of London, 26 April 1915". First World War.com. Retrieved 7 October 2013. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  20. ^ "Cost of War to Italy Near $10,000,000,000; Ex-Premier Luzzatti Says Nation's Debt Soon Will Be $16,000,000,000 - Asks Allied Aid". The New York Times. 5 February 1919. Retrieved 7 October 2013.
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  27. ^ Google. "Google Translate". Retrieved August 19, 2010. {{cite web}}: |author= has generic name (help)
  28. ^ A History of Fascism 1914-1945, Stanley G. Payne, University of Wisconsin Press, 1995. p. 81
  29. ^ Seton-Watson, Italy from liberalism to fascism, pp. 162-63
  30. ^ Bruno Cartosio, Sicilian Radicals in Two Worlds, in: Debouzy, In the Shadow of the Statue of Liberty, pp. 120-21
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  34. ^ a b "The Wiley-Blackwell Dictionary of Modern European History Since 1789". Blackwell Reference Online. Blackwell Publishing Inc. 2011. doi:10.1111/b.9781405189224.2011.x (inactive 2022-06-26). Retrieved 28 October 2013. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of June 2022 (link)
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  36. ^ Macdonald, Hamish (15). Pathfinder History - Mussolini and Italian Fascism (Illustrated ed.). Nelson Thornes. p. 17. ISBN 9780748733866. Retrieved 3 October 2013. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
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  38. ^ Dunnage, Jonathan (1997). The Italian Police and the Rise of Fascism: A Case Study of the Province of Bologna, 1897-1925 (Illustrated ed.). Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 92, 93, 98, 99, 100. ISBN 9780275952686. Retrieved 28 October 2013.
  39. ^ Ebner, Michael R. (2011). Ordinary Violence in Mussolini's Italy. Cambridge University Press, 2011. p. 34. ISBN 9780521762137. Retrieved 2 November 2014.
  40. ^ Stanley G. Payne (1). A History of Fascism, 1914–1945. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 101-102. ISBN 9780299148737. Retrieved 28 October 2013. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  41. ^ a b Stanley G. Payne (1). A History of Fascism, 1914–1945. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 103. ISBN 9780299148737. Retrieved 28 October 2013. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  42. ^ Stanley G. Payne (1). A History of Fascism, 1914–1945. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 108. ISBN 9780299148737. Retrieved 28 October 2013. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  43. ^ a b Stanley G. Payne (1). A History of Fascism, 1914–1945. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 105. ISBN 9780299148737. Retrieved 28 October 2013. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  44. ^ Mann, Michael (May 24, 2004). Fascists (Illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 121. ISBN 9780521538558. Retrieved 2 November 2014.
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  47. ^ a b c Moseley, Ray (1). Mussolini: The Last 600 Days of Il Duce. Taylor Trade Publications. pp. 7–8. ISBN 9781589790957. Retrieved 3 November 2013. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  48. ^ Gia Marie Amella, Special for CNN. "Hidden archive exposes WWII slaughters - CNN.com". Edition.cnn.com. Retrieved 2014-05-19. {{cite web}}: |author= has generic name (help)
  49. ^ Viganò, Marino (2001), "Un'analisi accurata della presunta fuga in Svizzera", Nuova Storia Contemporanea (in Italian), 3
  50. ^ "1945: Italian partisans kill Mussolini". Retrieved 17 October 2011.
  51. ^ Macdonald, Hamish (15). Pathfinder History - Mussolini and Italian Fascism (Illustrated ed.). Nelson Thornes. pp. 22–23. ISBN 9780748733866. Retrieved 3 October 2013. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  52. ^ a b Macdonald, Hamish (15). Pathfinder History - Mussolini and Italian Fascism (Illustrated ed.). Nelson Thornes. p. 23. ISBN 9780748733866. Retrieved 3 October 2013. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  53. ^ a b c d e f g Macdonald, Hamish (15). Pathfinder History - Mussolini and Italian Fascism (Illustrated ed.). Nelson Thornes. p. 26. ISBN 9780748733866. Retrieved 3 October 2013. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  54. ^ "Italy The rise of Mussolini". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Retrieved 2007-08-03.
  55. ^ "Benito's Birthday". Time, in partnership with CNN. August 6, 1923. Retrieved 2007-08-03.
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  58. ^ a b Alastair Hamilton, The Appeal of Fascism p73 Macmillian New York 1971
  59. ^ Foot, John (August 1999). "The Dead Duce". History Today. Retrieved 5 October 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  60. ^ Anthony Rhodes, Propaganda: The art of persuasion: World War II, p. 81-2 1976, Chelsea House Publishers, New York
  61. ^ Anthony Rhodes, Propaganda: The art of persuasion: World War II, p. 81 1976, Chelsea House Publishers, New York
  62. ^ a b c d Falasca-Zamponi, S. (2000), pp. 72–73
  63. ^ Piers Brendon, The Dark Valley: A Panorama of the 1930s, p. 554 ISBN 0-375-40881-9
  64. ^ Anthony Rhodes, Propaganda: The art of persuasion: World War II, p. 80–81 1976, Chelsea House Publishers, New York
  65. ^ Anthony Rhodes, Propaganda: The art of persuasion: World War II, p. 71–72 1976, Chelsea House Publishers, New York
  66. ^ Max Gallo, Mussolini's Italy, p. 220 Macmillian Publishing Co. Inc., 1973 New York
  67. ^ a b Professor John Pollard, Mussolini's Rivals: The Limits of the Personality Cult in Fascist Italy
  68. ^ R. J. B. Bosworth, Mussolini's Italy, p3 ISBN 1-59420-078-5
  69. ^ Simonetta Falasca-Zamponi (2000), Fascist spectacle: the aesthetics of power in Mussolini's Italy, University of California Press, pp. 68-70, ISBN 0-520-22677-1
  70. ^ Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini's Roman Empire, p. 124 ISBN 0-670-49652-9
  71. ^ Christopher Duggan, 2008, The Force of Destiny: A History of Italy Since 1796, pp. 479–480 Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, ISBN 0-618-35367-4
  72. ^ Falasca-Zamponi (2000), pp. 67-68
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  75. ^ Falasca-Zamponi (2000), pp. 65–66
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  82. ^ Mark Mazower, Dark Continent: Europe's 20th Century p83 ISBN 0-679-43809-2
  83. ^ R. J. B. Bosworth, Mussolini's Italy, p.146 ISBN 1-59420-078-5
  84. ^ Max Gallo, Mussolini's Italy, p. 122 Macmillian Publishing Co. Inc., 1973 New York
  85. ^ Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini's Roman Empire, p. 28 ISBN 0-670-49652-9
  86. ^ a b Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini's Roman Empire, p 50-1 ISBN 0-670-49652-9
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  88. ^ Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini's Roman Empire, p. 65 ISBN 0-670-49652-9
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  91. ^ Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini's Roman Empire, p 64 ISBN 0-670-49652-9
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  93. ^ Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini's Roman Empire, p 50 ISBN 0-670-49652-9
  94. ^ Christopher Duggan, 2008, The Force of Destiny: A History of Italy Since 1796, p. 478 Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, ISBN 0-618-35367-4
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