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Additional aspects of production[edit]
Fluency[edit]
Fluency can be defined in part by prosody, which is shown graphically by a smooth intonation contour, and by a number of other elements: control of speech rate, relative timing of stressed and unstressed syllables, changes in amplitude, and changes in fundamental frequency.
Multilingualism[edit]
Whether or not a speaker is fluent in only one language, the process for producing language remains the same.[1] However, bilinguals speaking two languages within a conversation access both languages at the same time.[2] The three most commonly discussed models for multilingual language access are the Bilingual Interactive Activation model, the Revised Hierarchical Model, and the Language Mode model:
- Bilingual Interactive Activation Plus, updated from a model made by Dijkstra and Van Heuven, uses solely bottom-up processing to facilitate bilingual language access.
- Revised Hierarchical Model, developed by Kroll and Stewart, is a model suggesting that bilingual brains store meanings in a common place, word-forms are separated by language.[3]
- Language Mode Model, made by Grosjean, uses two assumptions to map bilingual language production in a modular way. These assumptions are that a base language is activated in conversation, and that the speaker's other language is activated to relative degrees depending on context.[2] De Bot describes it as overly simple for the complexity of the process, but suggests it has room for expansion.[4]
Speakers fluent in multiple languages can inhibit access to one of their languages, but this suppression can only be done once the speaker is at a certain level of proficiency in that language.[4] A speaker can decide to inhibit a language based on non-linguistic cues in their conversation, such as a speaker of both English and French conversing with people who only speak English. When especially proficient multilingual speakers communicate, they can participate in code-switching. Code-switching has been shown to indicate bilingual proficiency in a speaker, though it had previously been seen as a sign of poor language ability.[5]
- ^ Fernández, Eva M.; Cairns, Helen Smith (2011). Fundamentals of Psycholinguistics. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 138–140. ISBN 9781405191470.
- ^ a b Grosjean, F. (1999). The bilingual’s language modes. One mind, two languages: Bilingual language processing, 7(11), 1-22.
- ^ Kroll, Judith F.; Stewark, Erika (1994). "Category interference in translation and picture naming: Evidence for asymmetric connections between bilingual memory representations". Journal of Memory and Language. 33: 149–174.
- ^ a b de Bot, K. (2004). The multilingual lexicon: Modeling selection and control. The International Journal of Multilingualism, 1. 17-32.
- ^ Poplack, Shana (1980). "Sometimes I'll start a sentence in Spanish y termino en español". Linguistics. 18: 581–618.