User:Lunaaali
Environmental impacts
[edit]The launch and operation of rockets have significant environmental impacts, from the manufacturing processes to the end-of-life stages of rocket components. These impacts extend across local ecosystems to global atmospheric conditions, affecting air quality, climate, and the geographies of outer space.
Manufacturing Stage
[edit]Rocket manufacturing is a complex process that significantly impacts the environment. Advanced composites, titanium, aluminium, and dangerous chemicals like hydrazine are required for it [1]. Extracting these materials involves energy-intensive mining and drilling, leading to habitat destruction and biodiversity loss [2]. Significant greenhouse gas emissions result from the processing and refinement of these materials. For example, the production of aluminium, which is essential for rockets because of its strength and lightweight, typically uses electricity from fossil fuels, increasing carbon emissions[3].
Manufacturing processes, including machining and engine testing, are energy-intensive and generate hazardous wastes like volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and heavy metals[2]. VOCs contribute to ground-level ozone and smog, affecting respiratory health, while heavy metals can contaminate ecosystems, posing risks to wildlife and humans [4].
Testing and Launch Stage
[edit]Rocket testing and launches introduce various pollutants into the atmosphere. Depending on the type of rocket fuel, these can include particulate matter, carbon dioxide, water vapour, and chlorine compounds. Solid Rocket Motors (SRMs) are one of the most significant of these; they may have an impact on global climate patterns by causing mesospheric clouds to form or the stratospheric ozone layer to be reduced[2].
As a result of the rocket exhaust contrail's interaction with the atmosphere and the creation and movement of a ground cloud by wind, rocket launches have an impact on the environment both locally and globally. This is because the exhaust emissions released into the mid-to-upper atmosphere are widely distributed [2].
Ozone Layer Depletion:
One of the biggest environmental issues with rocket launches from Earth is ozone depletion. Ozone depletion has been a major global concern for several decades due to the ozone layer's critical role in absorbing UV radiation. This concern has grown in recent years as space travel costs have decreased, potentially making ozone depletion from space launches a major issue [5]. Rocket launches contribute to this issue in several ways:
- Solid Rocket Motors (SRMs) pose a significant risk to the stratospheric ozone layer due to emissions of chlorine and alumina particles. These substances directly contribute to the depletion of ozone[2].
- Liquid Rocket Engines (LREs) especially those using hypergolic propellants like UDMH, release nitrogen oxides (NOx) which, while less impactful than SRM emissions, still contribute to ozone depletion[2].
If rocket engine technology stays the same and orbital launches increase in frequency by a factor of ten, a substantial response in the stratosphere's climate and ozone layer is anticipated [6].
Formation of Mesospheric Clouds:
[edit]Rocket launches contribute to the formation of mesospheric clouds or noctilucent clouds, particularly through the water vapour emitted by liquid hydrogen and oxygen engines [7]. These clouds form at very high altitudes and their increasing occurrence is linked to rocket exhaust emissions. While mesospheric clouds' direct effects on Earth's climate and weather are still being studied, there are several intriguing issues raised by the growing number of observations of these clouds and the possibility that they could change the composition of the atmosphere. The infusion of water vapour into the mesosphere can alter the thermal balance and dynamics of this layer, potentially influencing weather patterns indirectly[2].
Impact on Climate Change:
[edit]Rocket launches have various effects on our planet's climate. The main issues include the emissions of black carbon (soot) from rockets powered by kerosene, alumina particles from solid rocket motors (SRMs), and carbon dioxide (CO2).
- Black Carbon Emissions from Kerosene-Fueled Rockets: When rockets burn kerosene, they release black carbon particles into the atmosphere. It has a much stronger effect on warming the atmosphere as these are almost five hundred times more efficient than all other sources of soot combined[8]. This warming can alter the natural temperature balance and dynamics of the atmosphere[2].
- Alumina Particles from Solid Rocket Motors: SRMs release alumina particles into the atmosphere. Similar to black carbon, these particles can also absorb and reflect sunlight, potentially contributing to atmospheric warming[9]. Ongoing research aims to understand their full impact[2].
- Carbon Dioxide Emissions: Rockets release CO2 into the atmosphere during launch. Though minor compared to global emissions from other sources[9], the CO2 released by rockets is directly injected into the upper atmosphere, possibly having unique effects [2].
Ecosystem Toxicity:
[edit]Rocket launches pose serious threats to Earth's ecosystems, primarily through the emissions and fallout of compounds like hydrochloric acid (HCl) from Solid Rocket Motors (SRMs) and unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) from certain Liquid Rocket Engines (LREs). These chemicals can lead to both immediate and long-term ecological harm.
- Vegetation Damage: The fallout of HCl from SRM emissions can lead to acidification of the environment surrounding launch sites[10]. Acidic conditions can cause direct damage to plant tissues and reduced growth rates. This can disrupt local plant communities and decrease biodiversity.
- Soil Acidification: HCl deposition can significantly lower soil pH[10], altering soil chemistry and affecting nutrient availability. Acidified soils can lead to metal ion toxicity, as metals like aluminium become more soluble and can be taken up by plants, potentially leading to toxic effects [11].
- Aquatic Life: Water bodies receiving acidified runoff from launch areas can experience drops in pH, making them inhospitable for many aquatic organisms[10]. Acidic conditions can lead to the leaching of toxic metals into water bodies, further harming aquatic life. Fish and amphibians are particularly vulnerable to changes in water pH and metal toxicity, leading to declines in populations and affecting the entire aquatic food web[2].
Human Toxicity:
[edit]Human health may be at risk from exposure to rocket launch emissions, especially when it comes to toxic propellants like UDMH, which are linked to cancer and other health problems[12].
In-orbit and End-of-Life Stage
[edit]Space debris, created by the remains of rocket stages, presents a serious challenge to the sustainability of outer space. This debris can crash into working satellites, leading to more debris and worsening the situation [13].
Rockets need several stages to push through Earth's atmosphere. When a stage completes its job, it's either left in space or brought back for reuse [14]. Both crewed missions and reusable rockets, along with old space debris and thrown-away rocket parts, release thermal nitrogen oxides (NOx) when they re-enter the Earth's mesosphere. These emissions can change the chemistry of the atmosphere, including affecting ozone levels. However, the overall effect of these emissions on a global scale is currently seen as small when compared to other human-made sources [14].
References
[edit]- ^ Ghidini, Tommaso (2018-10). "Materials for space exploration and settlement". Nature Materials. 17 (10): 846–850. doi:10.1038/s41563-018-0184-4. ISSN 1476-4660.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Dallas, J.A.; Raval, S.; Alvarez Gaitan, J.P.; Saydam, S.; Dempster, A.G. (2020-05). "The environmental impact of emissions from space launches: A comprehensive review". Journal of Cleaner Production. 255: 120209. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120209. ISSN 0959-6526.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ Terry, Brandon C.; Sippel, Travis R.; Pfeil, Mark A.; Gunduz, I.Emre; Son, Steven F. (2016-11). "Removing hydrochloric acid exhaust products from high performance solid rocket propellant using aluminum-lithium alloy". Journal of Hazardous Materials. 317: 259–266. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2016.05.067. ISSN 0304-3894.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ Mužek, Mario Nikola; Burčul, Franko; Omanović, Dario; Đulović, Azra; Svilović, Sandra; Blažević, Ivica (2022-01). "Rocket (Eruca vesicaria (L.) Cav.) vs. Copper: The Dose Makes the Poison?". Molecules. 27 (3): 711. doi:10.3390/molecules27030711. ISSN 1420-3049. PMC 8838321. PMID 35163976.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help)CS1 maint: PMC format (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ Ross, Martin; Toohey, Darin; Peinemann, Manfred; Ross, Patrick (2009-03-05). "Limits on the Space Launch Market Related to Stratospheric Ozone Depletion". Astropolitics. 7 (1): 50–82. doi:10.1080/14777620902768867. ISSN 1477-7622.
- ^ Maloney, Christopher M; Portmann, Robert W; Ross, Martin N; Rosenlof, Karen H (2022-06-27). "The Climate and Ozone Impacts of Black Carbon Emissions From Global Rocket Launches". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 127 (12). doi:10.1029/2021JD036373. ISSN 2169-897X.
- ^ Kelley, M. C.; Nicolls, M. J.; Varney, R. H.; Collins, R. L.; Doe, R.; Plane, J. M. C.; Thayer, J.; Taylor, M.; Thurairajah, B.; Mizutani, K. (2010-05). "Radar, lidar, and optical observations in the polar summer mesosphere shortly after a space shuttle launch". Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics. 115 (A5). doi:10.1029/2009JA014938. ISSN 0148-0227.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ "Impact of Rocket Launch and Space Debris Air Pollutant Emissions on Stratospheric Ozone and Global Climate - ESS Open Archive". essopenarchive.org. doi:10.1002/essoar.10510460.1. Retrieved 2024-03-20.
- ^ a b Ross, Martin N.; Sheaffer, Patti M. (2014-04). "Radiative forcing caused by rocket engine emissions". Earth's Future. 2 (4): 177–196. doi:10.1002/2013EF000160. ISSN 2328-4277.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ a b c Marion, G. M.; Black, C. H.; Zedler, P. H. (1989-02-01). "The effect of extreme HCL deposition on soil acid neutralization following simulated shuttle rocket launches". Water, Air, and Soil Pollution. 43 (3): 345–363. doi:10.1007/BF00279201. ISSN 1573-2932.
- ^ UNDP, 2004. Environment and Development Nexus in Kazakhstan. United Nations Development Program. Technical Report UNDPKAZ 06.
- ^ Carlsen, Lars; Kenessov, Bulat N.; Batyrbekova, Svetlana Ye. (2009-05). "A QSAR/QSTR study on the human health impact of the rocket fuel 1,1-dimethyl hydrazine and its transformation products". Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology. 27 (3): 415–423. doi:10.1016/j.etap.2009.01.005.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ Pelton, Joseph N. (2015). New Solutions for the Space Debris Problem. SpringerBriefs in Space Development (1st ed. 2015 ed.). Cham: Springer International Publishing : Imprint: Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-17151-7.
- ^ a b Ryan, Robert G.; Marais, Eloise A.; Balhatchet, Chloe J.; Eastham, Sebastian D. (2022-06). "Impact of Rocket Launch and Space Debris Air Pollutant Emissions on Stratospheric Ozone and Global Climate". Earth's Future. 10 (6). doi:10.1029/2021EF002612. ISSN 2328-4277. PMC 9287058. PMID 35865359.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help)CS1 maint: PMC format (link)