User:Makotanaka/sandbox

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Resistance to diversity efforts in organizations (also referred to as backlash) is a well-established and ubiquitous phenomenon [1][2] that may be characterized by thoughts, feelings, or behavior which undermines the success of diversity-related organizational change initiatives. Some scholars trace this resistance to social change in the 1960s, when dominant group members faced workplace concerns over displacement by minorities. [3]

In the workforce, resistance to diversity is often studied as the resistance to organizational change. [2] While this resistance can be construed as hostile and intentional, resistance can also be thought of as a subtler occurrence. [2] Some scholars have deemed the “resistance perspective” as reactive, highlighting psychological and behavioral consequences such as denial, avoidance, defiance or manipulation that ultimately serve to maintain the status quo. [3] Other scholars define resistance to diversity with respect to how the behavior of both individuals and organizations may undermine diversity-driven opportunities for “learning and effectiveness”, whether intentional or not. [2]

Who is resisting[edit]

Research on Resistors[edit]

Generally speaking, research on resistance to diversity has revealed insight into who is resisting and under what circumstances. Focusing on resistance from the dominant/nonminority group, some have tied diversity resistance to White male backlash [4][5] or straight, white, American male (SWAM) backlash, [6] although the research, as outlined below, may focus on the study of resistance from Whites or men, given the context of the research question.

Research has documented that certain Whites may be resisting the organizational diversity messages of two common ideological options for managing diversity in the workforce: multiculturalism-based ideologies that embrace ethnic differences between groups or colorblind-based ideologies that ignore the ethnic differences between groups. [7] For example, research suggests that White Americans who strongly identify with their ethnic group are more likely to respond to multiculturalism with increased social dominance orientation and prejudice. [8] However, among those Whites who did not strongly identify with their ethnic group, colorblindness was associated with increased intergroup-bias.

Another line of research found that members of high-status groups (i.e. Whites) reacted adversely to pro-diversity organizational messages when compared to non-Whites. [9] This research found that White individuals experience heightened threat in response to pro-diversity messages, and that this threat manifested in physiological (cardiovascular reactions), psychological (self-disclosed concerns), and behavioral (making poorer impressions) domains.

Regarding resistance to gender diversity, researchers have observed that some men will resist gender diversity under certain conditions; [10] specifically, the researchers presented men in STEM with information that diversity initiatives will effectively increase female representation, and this led to resistance among men high in prototypicality legitimacy (i.e. those who believed that there is legitimacy to men best representing STEM) who also experienced prototypicality threat (i.e. concerns about losing the ability to best represent STEM).

Popular Examples[edit]

Recently, attention has been given to the technology industry in light of James Damore’s 2017 document, [11][12] “Google's Ideological Echo Chamber,” which has gone viral as a prominent example of perceived “anti-diversity” attitudes. [13][14] This infamous memo alleges that Google’s current diversity initiatives discriminate against dominant group members (i.e. Whites and males) and foster tension within the organization. [15] Other technology industry examples of resistance to diversity occurred in 2016; it was reported that Intel’s CEO was threatened in response to his diversity efforts, [16] and Facebook’s CEO faced challenges with what he considered to be the malicious behavior of his employees replacing a “black lives matter” message with an “all lives matter” message. [17]

Scholars and other commentators have also highlighted media-covered examples of resistance to diversity outside of technology, [3] including the famous Texaco racial discrimination suit in which top-level executives were accused of creating a hostile climate for their diverse employees and were caught on tape using racial slurs, [18] and the Southern Company racial discrimination lawsuit that included popularized reports of nooses displayed in the facilities. [2][19]

Possible Explanations[edit]

This section will highlight a number of circumstances and explanations for resistance to diversity and its affiliated programs.

Identity threats[edit]

As companies attempt to grow diverse workforces and train their diverse employees to work harmoniously, research suggests that minority group progress may induce a threat response from those of the majority group. [20] Researchers Major and Kaiser argue that these types of diversity initiatives jeopardize status hierarchies, and that this status instability produces threat, even within well-meaning, “prodiveristy” progressives.  

In a racial context, racial progress has been shown to negatively impact White’s self-worth, and Whites may buffer this impact by perceiving anti-white bias. [21] Similarly, in a gender context, researchers have observed increases in social identity threat among males who discuss changing gender-status relations with females. [22]

Another possible threat-related mechanism that could underlie resistance to diversity is prototypicality threat, or the threat that one’s sub-group will no longer best represent the broader, superordinate group. [10] This line of research, mentioned above in the “research on resistors” section, suggests that effective diversity efforts in the STEM domain can actually fuel resistance in certain men, leading to a lower level of support for diversity efforts and increased reports of exclusionary behavioral intentions directed at women.  

Feelings of Exclusion[edit]

Although multicultural ideology is commonly used workplaces, research suggests that White individuals may associate multiculturalism with exclusion and may not readily associate multiculturalism with conceptions of the self. [23] Additionally, this program of research found that the relative degree of feelings of inclusion can help explain White vs minority differences in diversity endorsement, and Whites higher in need to belong will view multiculturalism less favorably. These researchers suggest that socially contextualized cues to inclusion or exclusion can meaningfully impact resistance to diversity.

In response to the association between multiculturalism and feelings of exclusion among dominant group members, scholars have called for the use of All-Inclusive Multiculturalism (AIM), or multiculturalism that explicitly includes the dominant group. [7] These researchers noted that whether nonminorites are included or excluded in an article about multiculturalism can implicitly influence their inclusionary associations with the ideology.

Problems with Diversity Efforts[edit]

Commentators and scholars have speculated that diversity training itself may be creating backlash because employees of organizations may feel uncomfortable in training environments or resent being told what to do. [24][6][25][26] When examining the sources of resistance to diversity efforts, researchers have pointed out that organizations often use negative, legal focused deterrents within bias training, designate diversity training as mandatory, and associated the training with corrective action for “problem groups.” [24]

Consistent with this thinking, researchers documented evidence of a “counterresponse” (i.e. rebeillion/defiance) when administering brochures or priming participants with controlling conceptualizations of prejudice-reduction (vs. autonomy-supporting conceptualizations); thus, they asserted that common organizational efforts to reduce prejudice may be, unintentionally, growing resistance. [27]

Addressing the Resistance[edit]

Research on resistance to diversity has revealed implications and suggestions for those hoping to address potential, current, or possible resistance:

  • If a multicultural-based ideology is in use, scholars have recommended emphasizing the benefits for all groups, making the ideology inclusive to both majority and minority group members [28][29][7]
  • In the context of prejudice reduction, it may be helpful to avoid putting pressure on individuals that limits their autonomy, and it may be better to highlight the value and benefits of nonprejudice [27]
  • Whites have been shown to report increased positive attitudes towards hypothetical diversity programs when the programs are framed diversity management (i.e. for business reasons), rather than affirmative action. [1]
  • Encouraging managers to engage in pro-diversity activities may be more effective, and result is less resistance, than efforts that limit their discretion [30]
  • Some research recommends framing diversity training content broadly, [31] whereas other research suggests this may not be enough [9]
  • To address prototypicality threat, researchers have proposed that reframing a superordinate category (e.g. STEM) as more complex (e.g. defined by diversity) may help reduce “susceptibility” to prototypicality threat [10]
  • There is evidence that White Americans who identify strongly with their racial/ethnic group may respond more positively to multiculturalism if it is framed as a learning opportunity rather than a set of policies [32]
  • To avoid unintentionally alienating key stakeholders in gender diversity, leaders in the study of gender initiatives have recommended cultivating allied male support for organizational change [33]

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b Kidder, Deborah L.; Lankau, Melenie J.; Chrobot‐Mason, Donna; Mollica, Kelly A.; Friedman, Raymond A. (2004). "Backlash Toward Diversity Initiatives: Examining the Impact of Diversity Program Justification, Personal and Group Outcomes". International Journal of Conflict Management. 15 (1): 77–102. doi:10.1108/eb022908. S2CID 143383811.
  2. ^ a b c d e Thomas, Kecia M. (2012-10-02). Diversity Resistance in Organizations. Psychology Press. ISBN 9781136677533.
  3. ^ a b c Dass, Parshotam; Parker, Barbara (1999-05-01). "Strategies for managing human resource diversity: From resistance to learning". The Academy of Management Executive. 13 (2): 68–80. doi:10.5465/AME.1999.1899550. ISSN 1558-9080.
  4. ^ Solomon, Charlene Marmer (1991). "Are white males being left out?". Personnel Journal. 70 (11): 88–92.
  5. ^ Prime, J., Foust-Cummings, H., Salib, E. R., & Moss-Racusin, C. A. (2012). Calling all White men: Can training help create inclusive workplaces. Catalyst, New York.
  6. ^ a b Karp, H.B.; Sammour, Hael Y. (2000). "Workforce diversity: Choices in diversity training programs & dealing with resistance to diversity". College Student Journal. 34.
  7. ^ a b c Stevens, Flannery G.; Plaut, Victoria C.; Sanchez-Burks, Jeffrey (2008-03-01). "Unlocking the Benefits of Diversity". The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science. 44 (1): 116–133. doi:10.1177/0021886308314460. S2CID 46447538.
  8. ^ Morrison, Kimberly Rios; Plaut, Victoria C.; Ybarra, Oscar (2010-11-01). "Predicting Whether Multiculturalism Positively or Negatively Influences White Americans' Intergroup Attitudes: The Role of Ethnic Identification". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 36 (12): 1648–1661. doi:10.1177/0146167210386118. PMID 21041522. S2CID 1226851.
  9. ^ a b Dover, Tessa L.; Major, Brenda; Kaiser, Cheryl R. (2016). "Members of high-status groups are threatened by pro-diversity organizational messages". Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 62: 58–67. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2015.10.006.
  10. ^ a b c Danbold, Felix; Huo, Yuen J. (2017). "Men's defense of their prototypicality undermines the success of women in STEM initiatives". Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 72: 57–66. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2016.12.014.
  11. ^ "Diversity problems in the tech industry go far beyond Google". Vox. Retrieved 2017-11-25.
  12. ^ "Diversity debate divides Silicon Valley". USA TODAY. Retrieved 2017-11-25.
  13. ^ "James Damore, the Google employee fired for his controversial manifesto, is (almost certainly) not a victim of a free-speech violation". Business Insider. Retrieved 2017-11-25.
  14. ^ Ehrenkranz, Melanie. "Google Reportedly Fires Author of Anti-Diversity Screed". Gizmodo. Retrieved 2017-11-25.
  15. ^ Conger, Kate. "Exclusive: Here's The Full 10-Page Anti-Diversity Screed Circulating Internally at Google [Updated]". Gizmodo. Retrieved 2017-11-25.
  16. ^ "Intel CEO Brian Krzanich says he's received threats for trying to hire more minorities". Business Insider. Retrieved 2017-11-25.
  17. ^ Nunez, Michael. "Mark Zuckerberg Asks Racist Facebook Employees to Stop Crossing Out Black Lives Matter Slogans". Gizmodo. Retrieved 2017-11-25.
  18. ^ Eichenwald, Kurt (1996-11-04). "Texaco Executives, On Tape, Discussed Impeding a Bias Suit". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2017-11-25.
  19. ^ Blackmon, Douglas A.; Harris, Nicole (2001-04-02). "Black Georgia Power Workers Cite Nooses and 'Glass Ceiling' in Bias Suit". Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 2017-11-25.
  20. ^ Major, Brenda; Kaiser, Cheryl R. (2017-06-25). "Ideology and the maintenance of group inequality". Group Processes & Intergroup Relations. 20 (5): 582–592. doi:10.1177/1368430217712051. S2CID 148884131.
  21. ^ Wilkins, Clara L.; Hirsch, Alexander A.; Kaiser, Cheryl R.; Inkles, Michael P. (2017-11-01). "The threat of racial progress and the self-protective nature of perceiving anti-White bias". Group Processes & Intergroup Relations. 20 (6): 801–812. doi:10.1177/1368430216631030. ISSN 1368-4302. S2CID 46226823.
  22. ^ Scheepers, Daan; Ellemers, Naomi; Sintemaartensdijk, Nieska (2009-10-01). "Suffering from the possibility of status loss: Physiological responses to social identity threat in high status groups". European Journal of Social Psychology. 39 (6): 1075–1092. doi:10.1002/ejsp.609. ISSN 1099-0992.
  23. ^ Plaut, Victoria C.; Garnett, Flannery G.; Buffardi, Laura E.; Sanchez-Burks, Jeffrey (2011). ""What about me?" Perceptions of exclusion and Whites' reactions to multiculturalism". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 101 (2): 337–353. doi:10.1037/a0022832. PMID 21534702.
  24. ^ a b Dobbin, Frank; Kalev, Alexandra. "Why Diversity Programs Fail". Harvard Business Review.
  25. ^ Pierson, David; Lien, Tracey (2017-08-09). "Diversity training was supposed to reduce bias at Google. In case of fired engineer, it backfired". Los Angeles Times. ISSN 0458-3035. Retrieved 2017-11-25.
  26. ^ "Is Your Company's Diversity Training Making You More Biased?". Psychology Today. Retrieved 2017-11-25.
  27. ^ a b Legault, Lisa; Gutsell, Jennifer N.; Inzlicht, Michael (2011-11-28). "Ironic Effects of Antiprejudice Messages". Psychological Science. 22 (12): 1472–1477. doi:10.1177/0956797611427918. PMID 22123778. S2CID 14206109.
  28. ^ Galinsky, Adam D.; Todd, Andrew R.; Homan, Astrid C.; Phillips, Katherine W.; Apfelbaum, Evan P.; Sasaki, Stacey J.; Richeson, Jennifer A.; Olayon, Jennifer B.; Maddux, William W. (2015-11-17). "Maximizing the Gains and Minimizing the Pains of Diversity". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 10 (6): 742–748. doi:10.1177/1745691615598513. PMID 26581729. S2CID 1393810.
  29. ^ Jansen, Wiebren S.; Otten, Sabine; Zee, Karen I. van der (2015-02-25). "Being part of diversity: The effects of an all-inclusive multicultural diversity approach on majority members' perceived inclusion and support for organizational diversity efforts". Group Processes & Intergroup Relations. 18 (6): 817–832. doi:10.1177/1368430214566892. S2CID 145660327.
  30. ^ Dobbin, Frank; Schrage, Daniel; Kalev, Alexandra (2015-09-01). "Rage against the Iron Cage". American Sociological Review. 80 (5): 1014–1044. doi:10.1177/0003122415596416. S2CID 146273908.
  31. ^ Holladay, Courtney L.; Knight, Jennifer L.; Paige, Danielle L.; Quiñones, Miguel A. (2003-09-01). "The influence of framing on attitudes toward diversity training". Human Resource Development Quarterly. 14 (3): 245–263. doi:10.1002/hrdq.1065. ISSN 1532-1096.
  32. ^ Rios, Kimberly; Wynn, Ashley N. (2016-12-01). "Engaging with diversity: Framing multiculturalism as a learning opportunity reduces prejudice among high White American identifiers". European Journal of Social Psychology. 46 (7): 854–865. doi:10.1002/ejsp.2196. ISSN 1099-0992.
  33. ^ Prime, J., & Moss-Racusin, C. A. (2009). Engaging men in gender initiatives: What change agents need to know. New York, NY: Catalyst.
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