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A hacker is a person skilled in information technology who uses their technical knowledge to achieve a goal or overcome an obstacle, within a computerized system by non-standard means. Though the term hacker has become associated in popular culture with a security hacker – someone who utilizes their technical know-how of bugs or exploits to break into computer systems and access data which would otherwise be inaccessible to them – hacking can also be utilized by legitimate figures in legal situations. For example, law enforcement agencies sometimes use hacking techniques in order to collect evidence on criminals and other malicious actors. This could include using anonymity tools (such as a VPN, or the dark web) to mask their identities online, posing as criminals themselves.[1][2] Likewise, covert world agencies can employ hacking techniques in the legal conduct of their work. On the other hand, hacking and cyber-attacks are used extra- and illegally by law enforcement and security agencies (conducting warrantless activities), and employed by State actors as a weapon of both legal and illegal warfare.

Definitions

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General definition

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There are two definitions of the word "hacker":

  1. Firstly, hacker is simply referring to advanced computer technology enthusiast (both hardware and software) and adherent of programming subculture; see hacker culture.[3]
  2. Also, hacker is someone who can subvert computer security. If doing so for malicious purposes, the person can also be called a cracker or a black hat hacker whose in charge of cyber-crime.[4]

Today, mainstream usage of "hacker" mostly refers to computer criminals, due to the mass media usage of the word since the 1990s.[5] This includes what hacker slang calls "script kiddies", people breaking into computers using programs written by others, with very little knowledge about the way they work. This usage has become so predominant that the general public is largely unaware that different meanings exist.[6] Even though there are bright sides in terms of "hacker", such vague image that the term possess have been questioning the morality and ethnicity of all the hackers.[7] While the self-designation of hobbyists as hackers is generally acknowledged and accepted by computer security hackers, people from the programming subculture consider the computer intrusion related usage incorrect, and emphasize the difference between the two by calling security breakers "crackers" (analogous to a safecracker).

The controversy is usually based on the assertion that the term originally meant someone messing about with something in a positive sense, that is, using playful cleverness to achieve a goal. But then, it is supposed, the meaning of the term shifted over the decades and came to refer to computer criminals.[8]

As the security-related usage has spread more widely, the original meaning has become less known. In popular usage and in the media, "computer intruders" or "computer criminals" is the exclusive meaning of the word today. (For example, "An Internet 'hacker' broke through state government security systems in March.") In the computer enthusiast (Hacker Culture) community, the primary meaning is a complimentary description for a particularly brilliant programmer or technical expert. (For example, "Linus Torvalds, the creator of Linux, is considered by some to be a hacker.") A large segment of the technical community insist the latter is the "correct" usage of the word (see the Jargon File definition below).

People usually regard hackers as a lone wolfs who are on themselves for personal sake. However, "hacking" sometimes involve how corporations and government entities utilize when risk managing. In this point, trusted systems and following strategies are required in order to make profits.[9]

Representation in mainstream media

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The mainstream media's current usage of the term may be traced back to the early 1980s. When the term, previously used only among computer enthusiasts, was introduced to wider society by the mainstream media in 1983,[10] even those in the computer community referred to computer intrusion as "hacking", although not as the exclusive definition of the word. In media representation, cyber-crime like privacy violation, surveillance and security issues are described as hacker's playgrounds.[11] In reaction to the increasing media use of the term exclusively with the criminal connotation, the computer community began to differentiate their terminology. Alternative terms such as "cracker" were coined in an effort to maintain the distinction between "hackers" within the legitimate programmer community and those performing computer break-ins. Further terms such as "black hat", "white hat" and "gray hat" developed when laws against breaking into computers came into effect, to distinguish criminal activities from those activities which were legal.

Representation in network news

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However, network news use of the term consistently pertained primarily to the criminal activities, despite the attempt by the technical community to preserve and distinguish the original meaning, so today the mainstream media and general public continue to describe computer criminals, with all levels of technical sophistication, as "hackers" and do not generally make use of the word in any of its non-criminal connotations. Members of the media sometimes seem unaware of the distinction, grouping legitimate "hackers" such as Linus Torvalds and Steve Wozniak along with criminal "crackers".[12]

As a result, the definition is still the subject of heated controversy. The wider dominance of the pejorative connotation is resented by many who object to the term being taken from their cultural jargon and used negatively,[13] including those who have historically preferred to self-identify as hackers. Many advocate using the more recent and nuanced alternate terms when describing criminals and others who negatively take advantage of security flaws in software and hardware. Others prefer to follow common popular usage, arguing that the positive form is confusing and unlikely to become widespread in the general public. A minority still use the term in both senses despite the controversy, leaving context to clarify (or leave ambiguous) which meaning is intended.

However, because the positive definition of hacker was widely used as the predominant form for many years before the negative definition was popularized, "hacker" can therefore be seen as a shibboleth, identifying those who use the technically-oriented sense (as opposed to the exclusively intrusion-oriented sense) as members of the computing community. On the other hand, due to the variety of industries software designers may find themselves in, many prefer not to be referred to as hackers because the word holds a negative denotation in many of those industries.

A possible middle ground position has been suggested, based on the observation that "hacking" describes a collection of skills and tools which are used by hackers of both descriptions for differing reasons. The analogy is made to locksmithing, specifically picking locks, which is a skill which can be used for good or evil. The primary weakness of this analogy is the inclusion of script kiddies in the popular usage of "hacker," despite their lack of an underlying skill and knowledge base.

Sometimes, "hacker" is simply used similarly with "geek": "A true hacker is not a group person. He's a person who loves to stay up all night, he and the machine in a love-hate relationship... They're kids who tended to be brilliant but not very interested in conventional goals It's a term of derision and also the ultimate compliment."[14]

Fred Shapiro thinks that "the common theory that 'hacker' originally was a benign term and the malicious connotations of the word were a later perversion is untrue." He found that the malicious connotations were already present at MIT in 1963 (quoting The Tech, an MIT student newspaper), and at that time referred to unauthorized users of the telephone network,[15][16] that is, the phreaker movement that developed into the computer security hacker subculture of today.

Hacker culture

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Hacker culture is an idea derived from a community of enthusiast computer programmers and systems designers in the 1960s around the Massachusetts Institute of Technology's (MIT's) Tech Model Railroad Club (TMRC)[17] and the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory.[18] The concept expanded to the hobbyist home computing community, focusing on hardware in the late 1970s (e.g. the Homebrew Computer Club)[19] and on software (video games,[20] software cracking, the demoscene) in the 1980s/1990s. Later, this would go on to encompass many new definitions such as art, and life hacking.

Types

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Security hackers are people involved with circumvention of computer security. Among security hackers, there are several types, including:

White hat hacker

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White hats are hackers who work to keep data safe from other hackers by finding system vulnerabilities that can be mitigated. White hats are usually employed by the target system's owner and are typically paid (sometimes quite well) for their work. Their work is not illegal because it is done with the system owner's consent.

Black hat hacker

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Black hats or crackers are hackers with malicious intentions. They often steal, exploit, and sell data, and are usually motivated by personal gain. Their work is usually illegal. A cracker is like a black hat hacker,[21] but is specifically someone who is very skilled and tries via hacking to make profits or to benefit, not just to vandalize. Crackers find exploits for system vulnerabilities and often use them to their advantage by either selling the fix to the system owner or selling the exploit to other black hat hackers, who in turn use it to steal information or gain royalties.

Grey hat hacker

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A grey hat is a computer hacker or computer security expert who may sometimes violate laws or typical ethical standards, but does not have the malicious intent typical of a black hat hacker.

Motives

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Four primary motives have been proposed as possibilities for why hackers attempt to break into computers and networks. First, there is a criminal financial gain to be had when hacking systems with the specific purpose of stealing credit card numbers or manipulating banking systems. Second, many hackers thrive off of increasing their reputation within the hacker subculture and will leave their handles on websites they defaced or leave some other evidence as proof that they were involved in a specific hack. Third, corporate espionage allows companies to acquire information on products or services that can be stolen or used as leverage within the marketplace. Lastly, state-sponsored attacks provide nation states with both wartime and intelligence collection options conducted on, in, or through cyberspace.[22]

References

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  1. ^ Ghappour, Ahmed (2017-01-01). "Tallinn, Hacking, and Customary International Law". AJIL Unbound. 111: 224–228. doi:10.1017/aju.2017.59. S2CID 158071009.
  2. ^ Ghappour, Ahmed (2017-04-01). "Searching Places Unknown: Law Enforcement Jurisdiction on the Dark Web". Stanford Law Review. 69 (4): 1075.
  3. ^ Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution. 1984.
  4. ^ "Internet Users' Glossary". Archived from the original on 2016-06-05.RFC 1983
  5. ^ Skillings, Jon (27 May 2020). "In '95, these people defined tech: Gates, Bezos, Mitnick and more". CNET. Archived from the original on 28 May 2020. Retrieved 28 May 2020. The term "hacker" started out with a benign definition: It described computer programmers who were especially adept at solving technical problems. By the mid-1990s, however, it was widely used to refer to those who turned their skills toward breaking into computers, whether for mild mischief or criminal gain. Which brings us to Kevin Mitnick.
  6. ^ Yagoda, Ben. "A Short History of "Hack"". The New Yorker. Retrieved November 3, 2015.
  7. ^ Auteur., Galloway, Alexander R. (1974- ...)., (cop. 2004). Protocol how control exists after decentralization. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-07247-5. OCLC 493100914. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  8. ^ "Internet Users' Glossary". Archived from the original on 2016-05-16.RFC 1392
  9. ^ author, Burkart, Patrick,. Why Hackers Win : Power and Disruption in the Network Society. ISBN 978-0-520-97165-3. OCLC 1163879041. {{cite book}}: |last= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. ^ Deffree, Suzanne (2019-09-05). "EDN - 'Hacker' is used by mainstream media, September 5, 1983". EDN. Retrieved 2020-09-07.
  11. ^ Humphreys, Lee (2011-08-01). "Who's Watching Whom? A Study of Interactive Technology and Surveillance". Journal of Communication. 61 (4): 575–595. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2011.01570.x. ISSN 0021-9916.
  12. ^ DuBois, Shelley. "A who's who of hackers". Reporter. Fortune Magazine. Archived from the original on June 19, 2011. Retrieved 19 June 2011.
  13. ^ "TMRC site". Archived from the original on 2006-05-03.
  14. ^ Alan Kay quoted in Stewart Brand, "S P A C E W A R: Fanatic Life and Symbolic Death Among the Computer Bums:" In Rolling Stone (1972)
  15. ^ Fred Shapiro: Antedating of "Hacker" Archived 2007-10-25 at the Wayback Machine. American Dialect Society Mailing List (13. June 2003)
  16. ^ "The Origin of "Hacker"". April 1, 2008.
  17. ^ London, Jay (6 April 2015). "Happy 60th Birthday to the Word "Hack"". Archived from the original on 7 May 2016. Retrieved 16 December 2016.
  18. ^ Raymond, Eric (25 August 2000). "The Early Hackers". A Brief History of Hackerdom. Thyrsus Enterprises. Retrieved 6 December 2008.
  19. ^ Levy, part 2
  20. ^ Levy, part 3
  21. ^ "What are crackers and hackers? | Security News". www.pctools.com. Archived from the original on May 15, 2011. Retrieved 2016-09-10.
  22. ^ Lloyd, Gene. "Developing Algorithms to Identify Spoofed Internet Traffic". Colorado Technical University, 2014