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Parazoanthus darwini is a species of macrocnemic zoanthid in the family Parazoanthidae. First discovered in the Galapagos, the coral can be found in Pacific waters at shallow depths varying from 2 meters to roughly 30 meters. It can be distinguished by its association with sponges, by having about 24–30 tentacles and polyps embedded in a well-developed coenenchyme which refers to the tissue present in a coral such as Parazoanthus darwini that encircle the polyps.

Description

Parazoanthus darwini features polyps with colorful tentacles that exist in double rows and include the colors of orange, cream, or yellow. The coral’s oral disks have coenenchyme that can have the colors of cream, light tan, light pink, red, light yellow, and yellow. These polyps can grow up to 2-6 millimeters in height while open and have a diameter range of 3-6 millimeters when open as well. With 24 to 30 tentacles, the polyps of Parazoanthus darwini are fixed in a fully grown coenenchyme. It has a sphincter muscle called the Cteniform endodermal. Mineral incrustations have been discovered in the coral where the mineral particles are found to be enveloped in on substrates such as small rocks. Likewise, the polyps in the coenzyme are covered with black sand for Parazoanthus darwini along with a rock substrate. For corals such as Parazoanthus darwini, substrates act as a platform or foundation for the formation of a species' environment. The substrates are also an important aspect to the biological processes that occur in Parazoanthus darwini's colonial coral environment. These biological processes may entail the reproduction of the species as well as the way the coral interacts within its marine environment such as mutualism, competition, and predation. Other Zoanthids tend to have relationships among crustaceans and even the algae such as Zooxanthelle which are only present in reef-building coral.

Distribution and Habitat

Parazoanthus darwini grows in colonies which can range from covering a small area to a much larger area. In addition, the corals grow over sponges which is their usual substrate and in patches. If the corals completely cover the sponge, they can extend their growth to the rock substrate. These colonies have about 40 polyps, and the coral has been found with mostly sponge substrates and some rock substrate. Parazoanthus darwini tends to dwell in relatively shallow waters and especially on rock crevices within rock walls as well as the base of the rock. The coral has been located within the Galapagos Islands. In the archipelago, the islands of Espanola, Fernandina, Floreana, Marchena, Isabela, San Cristobal, Santa Cruz, and Wolf have had the presence of Parazoanthus darwini in their waters. Here, warm and cold ocean currents as well as upwelling currents exist which subsequently leads to the Galapagos Islands to remain isolated from other regions but also results in high levels of biodiversity.

Biology

Image of Parazoanthus darwini

The coral’s growth into colonies plays a significant role in the reproduction of Parazoanthus darwini. All zoanthids with the exception of Sphenopus breed in colonies via budding. Just as other corals, Parazoanthus darwini reproduces asexually. The polyps embedded in the coenenchyme end up germinating from the parent polyps in order for more colonies to arise allowing for more of the reproduction of Parazoanthus darwini. While the coral is still in its early stages of development, the ectoderm integrates particles such as sponge spicules and sand, which enables the coral to maintain its skeletal structure.

Taxonomy and Morphology

The parazoanthus darwini is a part of the order Zoantharia. However, due to the nature of the order’s complexity, the taxonomy of the Zoantharia is difficult since there tends to be no evident morphological elements that have been thoroughly studied especially of Parazoanthus darwini. In the past, species belonging to this order have been classified according to the number of polyps and its measurements, the number of tentacles, the colors and shapes of the disks, the position of sphincter muscle as well as the septa organization. These endodermal sphincter muscles are also an identifying characteristic of Parazoanthus darwini's family, Parazoanthidae. In order to better classify the different species within the order Zoantharia, molecular analyses were performed in the El Pelado Marine Protected Area. Molecular analysis involved the use of molecular biology where small samples of the fixed tissues of Zoantharia underwent DNA extraction and then the amplification as well as sequencing of mitochondrial 16S, COI, and nuclear 18S rDNA. Through nuclear 18S rDNA, it was found that Parazoanthus darwini had exact sequences with that of Parazoanthus swiftii which can be found in the Atlantic Ocean. Metabolites were also extracted and the data recovered revealed that major metabolites such as Ecdysteroids, Zoanthoxanthis, and Brominated families could be used as biomarkers for the classification of the coral species. This metabolomic procedure utilized UHPLC-HRMS, ultra‐high‐pressure liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry, in order to better systemize the different Zoantharians along with the extracted metabolites as they existed as biomarkers which help evaluate the biological condition or state of a species.