Jump to content

User:Pseudo-Richard/Islamic violence

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

History of violent jihad[edit]

  • In the context of warfare, jihad has been used to describe either the fighting or the motives behind it.

The following are some examples of violence by Islam (it includes: Muhammad's followers in Islam's early days acting for his honor/sake, Muslims using Islamic themes, Quranic text or/and ideas, mobilized forced conversions, "religious cleansing" campaigns to cleanse the area of non-Muslims, attacks by Islamic religious authorities often explained with declaration of clear 'Islamic' goals, violence with a clear subjugation of Dhimmitude / infidels status, [regarding the massacres in early Islam in Spain, during frictions, Christians and Jews were dehumanized and referred to as apes and pigs, a Quranic inspired idea.[1] violence triggered by Islamic clerics preaching in mosques, battles described as Jihad or holy war and emerging of radical-Islamic movements – which take its roots from Muhammad/Quran – inspiring source for violence) from its early days till post WWII, 622–1946.

Early instances[edit]

The first forms of military Jihad occurred after the migration (hijra) of Muhammad and his small group of followers to Medina from Mecca and the conversion of several inhabitants of the city to Islam. The first revelation concerning the struggle against the Meccans was surah 22, verses 39–40:[2]

To those against whom war is made, permission is given (to fight), because they are wronged; – and verily, Allah is most powerful for their aid. (They are) those who have been expelled from their homes in defiance of right, – (for no cause) except that they say, "our Lord is Allah". Did not Allah check one set of people by means of another, there would surely have been pulled down monasteries, churches, synagogues, and mosques, in which the name of Allah is commemorated in abundant measure. Allah will certainly aid those who aid his (cause); – for verily Allah is full of Strength, Exalted in Might, (able to enforce His Will).

— Abdullah Yusuf Ali

At this time, Muslims had been persecuted and oppressed by the Meccans.[3] There were still Muslims who could not flee from Mecca and were still oppressed because of their faith. Surah 4, verse 75 is referring to this fact:

And why should ye not fight in the cause of Allah and of those who, being weak, are ill-treated (and oppressed)? – Men, women, and children, whose cry is: "Our Lord! Rescue us from this town, whose people are oppressors; and raise for us from thee one who will protect; and raise for us from thee one who will help!

— Abdullah Yusuf Ali

The Meccans also refused to let the Muslims enter Mecca and by that denied them access to the Ka'aba. Surah 8, verse 34:

But what plea have they that Allah should not punish them, when they keep out (men) from the sacred Mosque—and they are not its guardians? No men can be its guardians except the righteous; but most of them do not understand.

— Abdullah Yusuf Ali

However hadith from Sahih Bukhari formalized the rules for warfare, which legitimized warfare against hypocrites.

It has been reported from Sulaiman b. Buraid through his father that when the Messenger of Allah appointed anyone as leader of an army or detachment he would especially exhort him to fear Allah and to be good to the Muslims who were with him. He would say: Fight in the name of Allah and in the way of Allah. Fight against those who disbelieve in Allah. Make a holy war, do not embezzle the spoils; do not break your pledge; and do not mutilate (the dead) bodies; do not kill the children. When you meet your enemies who are polytheists, invite them to three courses of action. If they respond to any one of these, you also accept it and withold yourself from doing them any harm. Invite them to (accept) Islam; if they respond to you, accept it from them and desist from fighting against them. Then invite them to migrate from their lands to the land of Muhairs and inform them that, if they do so, they shall have all the privileges and obligations of the Muhajirs. If they refuse to migrate, tell them that they will have the status of Bedouin Muilims and will be subjected to the Commands of Allah like other Muslims, but they will not get any share from the spoils of war or Fai' except when they actually fight with the Muslims (against the disbelievers). If they refuse to accept Islam, demand from them the Jizya. If they agree to pay, accept it from them and hold off your hands. If they refuse to pay the tax, seek Allah's help and fight them. When you lay siege to a fort and the besieged appeal to you for protection in the name of Allah and His Prophet, do not accord to them the guarantee of Allah and His Prophet, but accord to them your own guarantee and the guarantee of your companions for it is a lesser sin that the security given by you or your companions be disregarded than that the security granted in the name of Allah and His Prophet be violated When you besiege a fort and the besieged want you to let them out in accordance with Allah's Command, do not let them come out in accordance with His Command, but do so at your (own) command, for you do not know whether or not you will be able to carry out Allah's behest with regard to them."[4]

The main focus of Muhammad’s later years was increasing the number of allies as well as the amount of territory under Muslim control.[5] The Qu’ran is unclear as to whether Jihad is acceptable only in defense of the faith from wrong-doings or in all cases.[6]

Major battles in the history of Islam arose between the Meccans and the Muslims; one of the most important to the latter was theBattle of Badr in 624 AD.[5] This Muslim victory over polytheists showed "demonstration of divine guidance and intervention on behalf of Muslims, even when outnumbered".[7] Other early battles included battles in Uhud (625), Khandaq (627), Mecca (630) and Hunayn (630). These battles, especially Uhud and Khandaq, were unsuccessful in comparison to the Battle of Badr.[5] In relating this battle, the Qu'ran states that Allah sent an "unseen army of angels" that helped the Muslims defeat the Meccans.[8]

Early Islam – 622–634[edit]

1. The killing of Abu Afak.
The poet who mocked Muhammad was killed with "one blow of his sword when the latter slept outside his house".[9]
2. The killing of Asma Marwan.[9]
3. Attack upon the 'Banu Qaynuqa' Jews
4. The killing of Kab Ashraf[10][11]
5. The killing of Ibn Sunayna
The Jewish merchant who was killed at the hands of a Muslim zealot.[12][13]
6. Attack against the Banu Nadir Jews.[14]
7. Massacre of the Banu Qurayza Jews.
Medina in 627, Muhammad's followers killed between 600 and 900 of the men, and divided the surviving Jewish women and children amongst themselves, after the Jewish tribes refused to accept Muhammad and convert to his movement.[15]
8. The killing of the shepherd.
9. The torture and killing of Kinana[16]
10. The slaying of an old woman from Banu Fazara[17]
11. The killing of Abdullah Khatal and his daughter.[18]
12. The attack upon Tabuk.[18] for becoming an apostate.[19]
Though they offered to surrender, Muhammad felt the need to make an example of them. "The adult males were condemned to death, and the women and children to slavery. Between 600 and 900 males were beheaded."[14] Three large Jewish tribes dwelled in Medina in Muhammad's time: the Banu Nadir, Banu Kainuka, and Banu Qurayza. When war broke out between Muhammad's new supporters and the Meccans, the Jewish clans of Medina remained neutral and were at first unharmed. Nevertheless after the 627 failed Meccan siege of Medina, Muhammad accused the Jews of siding with the Meccans and ordered an attack on them. The reference to this episode in Islamic text is in Sura 33 of the Qu'ran, known as "The Clans".[20] (The Quran tells of three Jewish tribes conquered by Mohammed near Medina, "Two were permitted to choose conversion or exile, but the third was allowed only conversion or death."[21]).

Crusades[edit]

The European crusaders conquered much of the territory held within the Islamic state, dividing it into four kingdoms, the most important being the state of Jerusalem. The Crusades originally had the goal of recapturing Jerusalem and the Holy Land(former Christian territory) from Muslim rule and were originally launched in response to a call from the Eastern OrthodoxByzantine Empire for help against the expansion of the Muslim Seljuk Turks into Anatolia. There was little drive to retake the lands from the crusaders, save the few attacks made by the Egyptian Fatimids. This changed, however, with the coming of Zangi, ruler of what is today northern Iraq. He took Edessa, which triggered the Second Crusade, which was little more than a 47-year stalemate. The stalemate was ended with the victory of Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi (known in the west as Saladin) over the forces of Jerusalem at the Horns of Hattin in 1187. It was during the course of the stalemate that a great deal of literature regarding Jihad was written.[5] While amassing his armies in Syria, Saladin had to create a doctrine that would unite his forces and make them fight until the bitter end, which would be the only way they could re-conquer the lands taken in the First Crusade. He did this through the creation of Jihad propaganda. It stated that any one who would abandon the Jihad would be committing a sin that could not be washed away by any means. It also put his amirs at the center of power, just under his rule. While this propaganda was successful in uniting his forces for a time, the fervor burned out quickly. Much of Saladin's teachings were rejected after his death.[22]

Islamic Spain and Portugal[edit]

Medieval Iberian Peninsula was the scene of almost constant warfare between Muslims and Christians. Periodic raiding expeditions were sent from Al-Andalus to ravage the Christian Iberian kingdoms, bringing back treasure and slaves. In raid against Lisbon, in 1189, for example, the Almohad caliph Yaqub al-Mansur took 3,000 female and child captives, while his governor of Córdoba, in a subsequent attack uponSilves in 1191, took 3,000 Christian slaves.[23]

The Almohad Dynasty (From Arabic الموحدون al-Muwahhidun ("the monotheists") or "theUnitarians"), was a Berber, Muslim dynasty that was founded in the 12th century, and conquered allNorthern Africa as far as Libya, together with Al-Andalus (Moorish Iberian Peninsula). The Almohads, who declared an everlasting Jihad against the Christians, far surpassed the Almoravides in fundamentalist outlook, and they treated the dhimmis harshly.[24] Faced with the choice of either death or conversion, many Jews and Christians emigrated.[25][26] Some, such as the family of Maimonides, fled east to more tolerant Muslim lands,[25]while others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms.[27][28]

Cordoba revolt – 818[edit]

A revolt in Muslim Spain by Christians, which was put down by massacres for three days. Many of the insurgents were crucified, as prescribed in the Koran (5:33): "The revolt in Cordova of 818 was crushed by three days of massacres and pillage."[29]

Christians beheaded in Cordoba, Spain Between 850 and 859[edit]

"accused of "blasphemy against Islam."[30]

What became known among Christians: The Martyrs of Cordoba[31] It included women like: the Spaniards Flora and Mary, that were beheaded in Cordoba in 851.[32]

1010–1013 Anti-Jewish violence in Muslim Spain[edit]

In the 1011 massacre in Córdoba Andalusia, Muslim Spain, an estimate of about two thousand Jews perished.[29][33][34]

The era between 1010 and 1013 was a chaotic internecine Muslim struggle at the culmination of Umayyad rule. Suleiman, the Berber Muslim chieftain attacked Cordoba Jews, terrorizing them (among the victims was a famous Samuel ibn Naghrela), looting their storehouses. Hundreds were killed, some estimate the toll to have been in the thousands.[10]

Granada massacre of Jews by Muslims, Andalusia SpainDecember 1066[edit]

The 1066 Granada massacre took place on 30 December 1066 (9 Tevet 4827),[35] when a Muslim mob stormed the royal palace in Granada, crucified Jewish vizier Joseph ibn Naghrela and massacred most of the Jewish population of the city. "More than 1,500 Jewish families, numbering 4,000 persons, fell in one day."

According to historian Bernard Lewis, the massacre – in Muslim narrative – is "usually ascribed to a reaction among the Muslim population against a powerful and ostentatious Jewish vizier". Muslims' sentiments of resentments of refusal of Jews to be subjucated by Muslims as Dhimmis can be seen in the following:

Particularly instructive in this respect is an ancient Anti-Semitic poem of Abu Ishaq, written in Granada in 1066. This poem, which is said to be instrumental in provoking the anti-Jewish outbreak of that year, contains these specific lines: "Do not consider it a breach of faith to kill them, the breach of faith would be to let them carry on. They have violated our covenant with them, so how can you be held guilty against the violator? – How can they have any pact when we are obscure and they are prominent?Now we are humble, beside them, as if we were wrong and they were right!"[36]

It has been confirmed by a contemporary chronicle that the massacre followed what Muslims saw as "breach in the system of dhimmitude." Thus justifying a jihad against them.[10]

Historian Walter Laqueur characterizes this episode as a pogrom: "Jews could not as a rule attain public office (as usual there were exceptions), and there were occasional pogroms, such as in Granada in 1066."[37] Some 4000 Jews were massacred in the 1066 Granada pogrom, inspired in part by an anti-Jewish ode containing a line (based on aQuranic idea of referring to infidels as apes and pigs[38]), "Many a pious Muslim is in awe of the vilest infidel ape," referring to the Jewish communal leader, the vizier Joseph b. Samuel Naghrela. (In Spain, during periods of friction between the various religious communities, the Muslims called the Jews "apes" and the Christians "pigs and dogs." Research revealed that "viewing Jews as the 'descendants of apes and pigs' is grounded in the most important Islamic religious sources."[1]) Andrew Bostom claims that "More Jews were killed in this one pogrom than in the Crusaders."[39]

The Almohads of Spain and North Africa between the middle of the 12th century and the 14th century[edit]

The Almohads arose in the Atlas mountains and declared a Jihad on the moderate Almoravides in order to restore the original Islamic values, conquering most of Morocco, then invading (again) Spain in 1150 to combat Christians. The fanatical warriors alienated Muslims and Jews alike, causing the Arab–Jewish cooperation and the previous usual tolerance in Andalucia came to an end.[40]

Historian writes that "The jihad depredations of the Almohads (1130–1232) wreaked enormous destruction on both the Jewish and Christian populations in Spain and North Africa." The massacres and forced conversions effected the Jewish communities ofSpain:Seville, Cordova,Jaen,Almeria, and of North Africa: including Sijilmasa and Dar'a,Marrakesh,Fez, Tlemcen, Ceuta, and Meknes.[10]

When the liberal Almoravids came to power in 1062, conditions for Jews improved, but when the Almohades took over in the middle of the 12th century Jews were forced to embrace Islam or emigrate. It was during that time that Jews were forced to wear a particular costume a precursor of the Jewish badge. After the ouster of the Almohades in the 14th century the situation of Jews stabilized.[41]

It was during the reign of Abu Ya'Qub Yusuf (1165–84) when the upsurge in Almohad fanaticism in Fez came about, it brought a new wave of forced conversions. It was either convert or die.[42] "Thousands of Jews in Morocco had been forced to convert at the height of the Almohade persecutions."[43]


Morocco[edit]

Pogrom in Fez, Morocco, 1033[edit]

Between five and six thousand Jews lost their lives in the hands of Muslims.[29][33] The women were dragged off into slavery.[41]According to "Islam at war" more than 6,000 Jews died.[44]

Fez Massacre – 1465 Morocco[edit]

In 1465, Arab mobs in Fez slaughtered thousands of Jews, leaving only 11 alive, for 'Islamic honor,' after aJewishdeputy vizier treated a Muslim woman in "an offensive manner." (Jews weren't even supposed to surpass aDhimmitudestatus, behold, if "the dhimma had been violated",[10] much less holding office,[37]) The killings touched off a wave of similar massacres throughout Morocco.[15] some six thousand Jews were murdered in 1033." and massacres look place again in 1276 and 1465.[33]

Tetouan Pogrom Morocco 1790[edit]

"Diaspora Research Institute" described the event:

As the new ruler (Mawlay Yazid) entered the city of Tetouan, he commanded that all the Jews should be gathered and imprisoned in a house, meanwhile permitting the Moors to rob all their homes and cellars, which they obeyed with their own particular ferocity. Thus, they stripped all the Jews and their wives of all the clothes that they had on their body with the greatest violence, so that these unfortunates not only had to watch all their belongings being stolen, but also had to bear the greatest injury to their honor... But on top of this, their bestiality showed itself to such an extent that they stripped the Jewesses of their clothes, forthwith satisfied their desires with them, and then threw them naked into the streets.[45][46]

This [Sultan Mawla] Yazid "had rabbis hung by their feet until they died, another burned alive for refusing to convert to Islam... had Jews crucified by nailing them to the doors of their houses... Jews were converted by force."[47]

The Suleika affair1834[edit]

A Jewish woman from Tangier, Morocco refused to convert and marry a high-ranking official, and was executed in Fez.[48][49]

A writer has put it:

Suleika, a 17-year-old girl with her entire life in front of her, offered everything under the sun if she would convert to Islam but who was beheaded on another sunny day in Morocco because she couldn't change what she was...[50]

The martyrdom of the beautiful Suleika, who, despite torture, refused to convert to Islam left a strong impression. A song was written in her memory, it was "sung by Jewish girls in Morocco to a sad, touching melody."[51]


Settat and Taza pogrom, Morocco1903/1907[edit]

Prior to the 1830 French occupation of Morocco, thousands of inoffensive Jews were brutually attacked in different parts of Morocco by hostile tribesmen and uncontrolled soldiery. As Jews sought refuge by the French Christians it caused even more massacres: in Settat and Taza 1903 and in 1907.[52][53][54]

The following text was written around that time: "We live among savages who have already tried to satisfy their ferocious hatred by making a carnage of all the Jews..."[10][55]

It is listed among dates in a timeline of "The End of Judaism in Islam's land."[56]

Iraq[edit]

The Simele massacre (Simel), IraqAugust, 1933[edit]

The massacre and ethnic cleansing by The Iraqi government, by Arab and Kurdish Muslim masses on Christian Assyrians, indigenous people. An estimated 3,000 Assyrians were systematically targeted by the Iraqi government[57] to cleanse the Assyrian race."[58]

From the British document of the time:<bockquote>"Simel Massacre.. The culmination of the indiscriminate action against Assyrian men, regardless of party or guilt... Between the 8th and 10 August, widespread looting, raiding and burning of Assyrian villages in the Simel, Dohuk and Al Qosh areas had been in progress... Both Kurds and Arabs of the Shammar and Jabur tribes were implicated."[59]

For years the scars in the region remained unhealed. The surviving Assyrians were described as, "spiritless, cowed, and apprehensive." while the Kurds and Arabs were hideously inflamed.[33]

The Rashid Ali coup in Iraq 1941[edit]

Rashid Ali al-Gaylani declared a jihad against Great Britain in his pro-Nazi Golden Square coup of 1941.[60][61]

On February 28, 1941, Rashid Ali as well as the following Muslim personalities: Salah ed-Din es-Sabbagh, Fahmi Said and Mahmud Salman of the Golden Square, Rashid Ali el-Kilani, Yunis es-Sebawi, Shawkat and Hajj Amin, all swore on the Koran to be faithful to the [pro-Nazi] program.[62]

The Farhud pogrom on Jews in Iraq – June 1941[edit]

It was followed agitation by the Mufti Haj Amin al-Husseini, perpertrated by a pro-Nazi Arab mob,[33] led by Al-Muthanna club's al-Futuwwa[63] Arab-Islamic Fascist paramilitary group.[64] Iraqi soldiers were among the first attackers. Jews were killed randomly, hundreds were injured, "women and children were raped in front of their relatives, babies crushed, children mutilated."[65][66]

The Farhud, the Mufti (who declared a jihad[67]) inspired Krystallnacht in Iraq, 1941, took place Sunday and Monday, 1 June and 2 1941.[66] The two days of murder, looting, rape and mutilation, shattered this ancient community's self-confidence, and swiftly led to the exodus of over 90 percent of Iraqi Jewry.[68]

Indian subcontinent[edit]

Sir Jadunath Sarkar contends that several Muslim invaders waged a systematic Jihad against Hindus in India to the effect that "Every device short of massacre in cold blood was resorted to in order to convert heathen subjects."[69] In particular the records kept by al-Utbi, Mahmud al-Ghazni's secretary, in the Tarikh-i-Yamini document several episodes of bloody military campaigns. In the late tenth century, a story spread that before Muhammad destroyed the idols at the Kaaba, that of Manāt was secretly sent to a Hindu temple in India; and the place was renamed as So-Manāt or Somnath. Acting on this, the Shiva idol at the Somnath temple was destroyed in a raid by Mahmud Ghazni in CE 1024; which is considered the first act of Jihad in India.[70]

Timur[edit]

The Mongol conquerer Timur the Lame, sometimes called Tamerlane,[71] known for his ruthlessness, and his 'Islamic bigotry,' carried out "blitzkrieg campaigns at the end of the fourteenth century."[72] He earned a reputation of torturing the population that resisted his conquering wars (like using thousands alive as "bricks" in walls, outrageous torture of inhabitants like crushhing in presses, scorching in flames and revive the victims when near death, in order to repeat it). Timur declared a Jihad onNew Delhi in 1398.[73]

As a "holy war" that he delared, he massacred many Hindus, not in context with battles.[74]


Khanwa – 1527[edit]

In 1527, Babur ordered a Jihad against Rajputs at the battle of Khanwa. Publicly addressing his men, he declared the forthcoming battle a Jihad. His soldiers were facing a non-Muslim army for the first time ever. This, he said, was their chance to become either a Ghazi (soldier of Islam) or a Shaheed (Martyr of Islam). The Mughal emperor Aurangzebwaged a Jihad against those identified as heterodox within India's Islamic community, such as Shi'aMuslims.[75][76]

More recently, Bilawal Bhutto Zardari said a "jihad" was needed to combat extremism.[77]


Syria[edit]

Damascus Blood Libel – 1840[edit]

The Damascus affair[78][79] It brought with it riots and violence against Jews.[80] It was the beginning of a spiral of blood libels in many cities in Syria followed by outbreaks in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and (other) Arab countries of the Middle East.[81]

In his book Blood libel: the Damascus affair of 1840 author R. Florence describes the chain of blood libels that followed all over the Islamic world, including in western Iranian city of Hamadan where Jews were killed, burned alive, "many escaped the violence only by converting to Islam."[82]

Massacres against the Assyrians 1840 – 1860[edit]

In 1842, Muslims engaged in the following massacre:

Badr Khan Bey, A Hakkari Kurdish Amir, combined with other Kurdish forces led by Nurallah, attacked theAssyrians, intending to burn, kill, destroy, and, if possible, "exterminate the Assyrians race from the mountains". At the massacre, the "women were brought before the Amir and murdered in cold blood". one incident has been depicted to illustrates the revolting barbarity:

the aged mother of Mar Shimun, the Patriarch of the Church of the East, was seized by them, and after having practiced on her the most abominable atrocities, they cut her body into two parts and threw it into the river Zab, exclaiming, "go and carry to your accursed son the intelligence that the same fate awaits him".

An estimate of nearly ten thousand Assyrian men were massacred, and as many women and children were taken captive, most of the women were sold as slaves, many were presented as presents to influential Muslims.[83]

In 1847, Muslim forces massacred 30,000 members of the Assyrian Christian community. It was an example of (Ottoman) State complicity by theKhilafah in massacres of Christians.[84] The massacre was succeeded by another in 1896.[85]

The Kurdish chief, Bedr Khan who [also] massacred Assyrian villagers in 1847, was "able to assemble a tribal confederacy for a 'holy war against the infidels'".[86]

A letter to The New York Times in 1860 from the American consul at Beirut, after the brutal massacre, entails the phrase "Moslem fanaticism is now fully aroused".[87]

The Bahmani sultans and the genocide on Indians1347–1480[edit]

The Bahmani Sultans declared Jihad against the infidels.[88]

Every new invader of India made (often literally) his hills of Hindu skulls. The Bahmani sultans (1347–1480) in central India made it a rule to kill 100,000 Hindus (kaffir – non-believers) every year. In 1399, Teimur killed 100,000 captives in a single day.[89][90] Historian asserts that "These wars were fought in the true spirit of Jihad — the total annihilation or conversion of the non-Muslims."[91][92]

Islamists' Massacre of 30,000 Indians – after battle for Chitod on 24 February 1568[edit]

It was part of Mogul Empire's atrocities on Indians, by the order of Islamic Akbar.[93][94][95][96][97][98]Akbar – like all Mughal rulers – had the holy Muslim title of "Ghazi" (slayer of Kaffir – infidel).[99]Described as a 'holy war.'[100]

Moplah rebellion – 1921[edit]

The Moplah rebellion (also known as the Mopla riots) was a British-Muslim and Hindu-Muslim "conflict" in (Malabar) Kerala that occurred in 1921. It involved forced conversion to Islam.[101]

There were clashes that provoked arsonists who took to the street, burning and destroying government property. At first, the focus was on the British, but then it turned into a jihad[102] against Hindus.[103] A wave of large number of killings, massive forced conversions to Islam swept the region.[104][105] Some described it as: "Muslim violence is sheer religious bigotry, an unreasoning jihad."[106]

From Encyclopædia Britannica:

In Aug. 1921 the most serious of many unpardonable deeds of violence broke out. The Malabar country in Madras is occupied by 2,000,000 Hindus and about 1,000,000 Moplahs, an ignorant Mahommedan peasantry of mixed Arab and Indian decsent with an evil reputation for outbreaks of fanaticism. Among the latter the Khilafat excitement spread like wildfire... and attempted wholesale the forcible conversion of the Hindus to Islam.[101]

Moplah Fanatics Massacre is primarily understood the arose religious fanaticism and from the intense hatred of tic Moplahs, or Mohammedans of Arab descent, writes The New York Times.[107]

The second declaration of jihad was made by the Khilafat Committee and several Muslim groups in 1920s when the OttomanCaliphate was abolished, consequent upon the defeat of Turkey. It resulted from the agitation carried out by two Muslim organizations, the Khuddam-i-Kaaba (servants of the Mecca Shrine) and the Central Khilafat Committee. The Moplahs of Malabar were suddenly carried off their feet by this proclamation of jihad by the Khilafat Committee. They resorted to large scale violence that was supposed to be a rebellion against the British Government. As a rebellion against the British Government the jihad could be understandable but what shocked most people was the horrid treatment meted out by the Moplahs to the Hindus of Malabar, in this Jihad.[108]

Pundits account that the "Moplah massacre was one of the most gruesome acts of murder by the Muslims rivaled only by the Razakars in Hyderabad in 47, and the ethnic cleansing in Pakistan and Bangladesh after partition".[109]

West Africa[edit]

The Fula or Fulani jihads, were a series of independent but loosely connected events across West Africa between the late 17th century and European colonization, in which Muslim Fulas took control of various parts of the region.[110] Between 1750 and 1900, between one- to two-thirds of the entire population of the Fulani jihad states consisted of slaves.[111]

Caucasus[edit]

In 1784, Imam Sheikh Mansur, a Chechen warrior and Muslim mystic, led a coalition of Muslim Caucasian tribes from throughout the Caucasus in a ghazavat, or holy war, against theRussian invaders.[112] Sheikh Mansur was captured in 1791 and died in the Schlusselburg Fortress.Avarian Islamic scholar Ghazi Muhammad preached that Jihad would not occur until the Caucasians followedSharia completely rather than following a mixture of Islamic laws and adat (customary traditions). By 1829, Mullah began proselytizing and claiming that obeying Sharia, giving zakat, prayer, and hajj would not be accepted by Allah if theRussians were still present in the area. He even went on to claim that marriages would become void and children bastards if any Russians were still in the Caucasus. In 1829 he was proclaimed imam in Ghimry, where he formally made the call for a holy war. In 1834, Ghazi Muhammad died at the battle of Ghimri, and Imam Shamil took his place as the premier leader of the Caucasian resistance. Imam Shamil succeeded in accomplishing what Sheik Mansur had started: to unite North Caucasian highlanders in their struggle against the Russian Empire. He was a leader of anti-Russian resistance in the Caucasian Warand was the third Imam of Dagestan and Chechnya(1834–1859).[113][114]

Mahdists in Sudan[edit]

During the 1870s, European initiatives against the slave trade caused an economic crisis in northern Sudan, precipitating the rise of Mahdist forces.[115][116] Muhammad Ahmed Al Mahdi was a religious leader, who proclaimed himself the Mahdi—the prophesied redeemer of Islam who will appear at end times—in 1881, and declared a Jihad against Ottoman rulers. He declared all "Turks" infidels and called for their execution.[117] The Mahdi raised an army and led a successful religious war to topple the Ottoman-Egyptian occupation of Sudan. Victory created an Islamic state, one that quickly reinstituted slavery. In the West he is most famous for defeating and later killing British general Charles George Gordon, in the fall of Khartoum.[118]

Wahabbists[edit]

The Saudi Salafi sheiks were convinced that it was their religious mission to wage Jihad against all other forms of Islam. In 1801 and 1802, the Saudi Wahhabists under Abdul Aziz ibn Muhammad ibn Saud attacked and captured the holy Shia cities of Karbala and Najaf in Iraq, massacred the Shiites and destroyed the tombs of the Shiite Imam Husayn and Ali bin Abu Talib. In 1802 they overtook Taif. In 1803 and 1804 the Wahhabis overtook Mecca and Medina.[119][120][121][122]

Ottoman Empire[edit]

Upon succeeding his father, Suleiman the Magnificent began a series of military conquests in Europe.[123] On August 29, 1526, he defeated Louis II of Hungary (1516–26) at the battle of Mohács. In its wake, Hungarian resistance collapsed and the Ottoman Empire became the preeminent power in Central and Eastern Europe.[124] In July 1683 Sultan Mehmet IV proclaimed a Jihad and the Turkish grand vizier, Kara Mustafa Pasha, laid siege to the Vienna with an army of 138,000 men.[125][126][127]

On November 14, 1914, in Constantinople, capital of the Ottoman Empire, the religious leader Sheikh-ul-Islam declared Jihad on behalf of the Ottoman government, urging Muslims all over the world—including in the Alliedcountries—to take up arms against Britain, Russia, France, Serbia and Montenegro in World War I.[128] On the other hand, Sheikh Hussein ibn Ali, the Emir of Mecca, refused to accommodate Ottoman requests that he endorse this jihad, a requirement that was necessary were a jihad to become popular, on the grounds that:

'the Holy War was doctrinally incompatible with an aggressive war, and absurd with a Christian ally: Germany'[129]


The Bulgarian April Uprising – 1876–1912[edit]

In 1876 the Bulgarians staged a rebellion (April Uprising) against the Ottoman Empire, Ottoman forces responded with a brutal massacre in what quickly became known as "the Bulgarian horrors". By 1912, as new Balkan alliances were formed in opposition to Ottoman rule, the Turks again responded with massacre.[130] The Islamic Turks massacre 25,000 Bulgarian Christians, some claim, 100,000. Sixty to seventy villages were burned.[131]

Bulgaria, Serbia-Montenegro and some other European lands that had been under Ottoman rule declared their independence from Turkish rule, and tried to align themselves with Austra-Hungary. The Turks were outraged, and sent extra troops to the Balkans. Between 1909–12, Turks massacred (at least) 25,000 Bulgarian, Kosovar and Serbian citizens, in addition to the number of casualties inflicted during the actual fighting of the war.[132]

Historian states that "During that span of about five hundred years, the Christians of the Balkans, the majority of whom wereSlavs, lived under Ottoman Muslim rule, and were accorded the traditional Ottoman treatment of those of infidel status. TheBalkan Christians, were subjected to heavy taxation (see: Dhimmitude), arbitrary violence, political disenfranchisement, and cultural oppression; some of whom converted to Islam."[130]

Opposing view: The Ottoman reprisals to the so-called Bulgarian horrors, received great publicity in Europe where only the Bulgarian side of the story was known. Estimates of the actual number of Bulgarians killed in the suppression of this revolt vary: the Ottoman figure is 3,100; the British, 12,000: the American, 15,000: and the Bulgarian, from 30,000 to 100,000.[133]

Hamidian massacres of Armenians by the Ottoman empire1894–1896[edit]

The Hamidian Massacres in 1894–1896 were the first near-genocidal series of atrocities committed against the Armenian population of the Ottoman Empire.[134][135] Estimates of those killed range widely, anywhere ` 100,000 and 30,000, with thousands more maimed or rendered homeless.[136]

Scholars cite an exemplary event in 1896 as part of Turks' overall jihad on Christians in that era: "The leader of the mob cried: 'Believe in Muhammad and deny your religion.' No one answered ... The leader gave the order to massacre..."[137] Concluding that "This 1894–1896 Jihad against Christians in Eastern Turkey claimed 250,000 lives. Many Armenian women were forced into harems, and many women and children were sold as slaves. Rape, considered one of the rights of "booty" in Muslim Jihad."[138]

Greek Genocide1914–23[edit]

1,400,000 Victims by the Muslim Turks.

In 1913, sixteen thousand Greek inhabitants of Eastern Thrace were atrociously murdered by the Turks. The clear anti-Christian drive manifested itself in an example: "On 27 May 1914, the Muslims ordered that all Christians leave the town of Pergamum within two hours."[139]

During the years 1914–1923, the indigenous Greek minority of the Ottoman Empire, the Republic of Turkey's predecessor, was subjected to a centrally-organized, premeditated and systematic policy of annihilation, perpetrated by two consecutive governments; the Committee for Union and Progress, later better known as the Young Turks, and the nationalist Kemalists led by Mustafa Kemal 'Atat'rk'. A lethal combination of labor brigades, internal deportations and massacres conducted throughout Anatolian Turkey resulted in the death of 1,400,000 Greeks.[140]

At the Hellenic Genocide (as it is called by the Greeks) most of the victims were massacred between 1895 and 1955. Also Serbs, and Bulgariansin Europe, were systematically massacred.[141]

In 2001, the "Greek genocide" decree angered Turks. Turkish officials have formally complained about a decree passed by the Greek parliament that accuses Turkey of genocide.[142]

A movement is calling for regcognition of the "Christian genocide" – the targeting of Greeks and Assyrians.[143]

Massacre, genocide of Assyrians by the Turks Ottoman empire and by local Muslims – 1914–1920[edit]

Assyrian scholar Frederick Aprim describing his book "Assyrians: from Bedr Khan to Saddam Hussein. Driving into extinction the last Aramaic speakers":[144]

As the Ottoman Empire entered WWI, it declared jihad (holy war) against its Christian subjects. Backed by Kurds, the Turkish army invaded northwestern Persia (Iran) and committed further atrocities against the Assyrian refugees who fled the Ottoman territories and against Assyrians of Persia as well. The jihad transformed into an ethnic genocide against the Assyrians that was perpetrated by the Turkish state and Kurdish warlords.[145][146]

An anti-Assyrian ethnic cleansing of Hakkari mountains[147] in July 1915 began on a small scale, it spiraled after a few months into a full scale operation. In referring to the ethnic cleansing of Hakkari, local Kurdish tribes spoke of if as the time of the "great jihad," the "great jihad" was also referred to the "massive campaign against the heartland of the Assyrian tribes in June 1915."[148]

In the book "The rage of Islam: an account of the massacre of Christians by the Turks in Persia"[149][150] the author gives examples of "Holy War" proclamations.[149]

The massacre of Assyrians in Urmia Iran between September 1914 and August 1915, was perpertrated by Ottoman (Turkish) troops,[147] and Kurdish tribal forces who began to "pillage, burn villages, destroy farmsteads, slaughter Christians, and fulfill any other obligations conceivably intrinsic to jihad."[148] In October 1914, the Russian vice consul in Urmia commenting on the anti-Christian nature of the destruction, he wrote: "The consequences of jihad are everywhere." The retreat of the Russian army from Urmia in January 1915 had further tragic consequences for Assyrians living in Iran. Turkish troops along with Kurdish detachments organized mass slaughters of the Assyrian population.[151]

There are "lengthy first-hand descriptions of the barbarous jihad around Lake Urmia."[152] From a description of events:

All Christians were now branded as traitors, and any caught behind the Turkish lines were liable to be savaged by Turkish troops and their Kurdish auxiliaries in a cruel jihad sweeping Asia minor... By January 1917, when Semenov and the Transbaikal Cossacks arrived in the area, the Ottoman jihad had disfigured the landscape with scorched villages, wells stuffed with decaying corpses, meadows littered with human bones and tufts of drifting hair, gorges lined with mummified cadavers of the menfolk, and river banks coughing up the swollen remains of children. The countless crime scenes of brutal, individual murders contrasted sharply in scale and emotion with the endless fields of mass slaughter wrought by machine guns and artillery on the Eastern Front. Gaunt survivors, Assyrian and Armenian men and boys for the most part, weakened by typhoid and hunger, stumbled out of the hills to hail the Cossacks as saviors and beg for food. Girls and women were few and far between; most had been gang-raped and carted off to slavery in neighboring Muslim villages.[152]

Casualties figure of the genocide of Assyrians range in the hundreds of thousands.[151]

On "The Fall of Atra and the Dispersion of the Clans", Elizabeth Yoel Campbell in her memoir of her childhood in early twentieth century, describes the calling for jihad before the Muslims attacked the Assyrian Christians in Iran: <blockqote>Turks, the overlords of the land, had never before seen eye to eye with the fractious Kurds, except in times of jihad (holy war). Now, armed to the teeth, they fraternized in mosque and maidan, heads together, listening to the dangerous sermonizing of mullahs. And among Assyrians, one thought, one fear was dominant over all others, that of jihad, holy war against the infidel Christians. The ring around the Assyrians kep tightening slowly, but inexorably, as thousands joined the well-armed, well-trained Turkish ranks... As they closed in, ululating voices could be heard from surrounding camps, enticing the mob ... "Jee-haad, jee-haad, jee-haad!" and thousands of fervent voices took up the chorus in return, "Jihad! Jihad! Jihad!" As the Assyrian lines grew thinner and thinner, women and older children took guns and daggers from fallen hands to try and hold back the invaders. When it finally came down to hand-to-hand combat, women chose to jump the gap rather than surrender, taking their younger children with them. Those who were captured alive were thrown over after Kurd and Turk had no further use of them.[153]

Massacres were also carried out in Helwa.[148][154]

Within the First World War in the territory of Ottoman Turkey there were about 1 million Assyrians with common cultural, national traditions. Together with 1,5 million Armenians, from 500 to 750 thousand Assyrians have been brutally killed and tortured. It was 4 years after the Young Turk "Committee for Unity and Progress" declared its goal to "Turkify" all subjects in 1911. 'This implementation of the Pan-Turkic program and ideology can be described as the "dark Period" of ethnic and religious "cleansing" of the Assyrians, Greeks and Armenians in the Ottoman Empire,' writes Assyrian historian.[155] The Assyrians claim to have lost "two-thirds of their population and most of their homelands in northern Mesopotamia during WWI" period.[156]

Some estimate that "Since 630 A.D., the coming of Islam, Assyrians have suffered 33 genocides at the hands of Muslims—an average of one every 40 years."[157]

Ottomans' Jihad1914[edit]

The Ottoman Turks used 'Holy war' in their war against the British, FranceandRussiain World War I.[158] Historians,[159]
After the outbreak of war the Ottoman government had proclaimed a jihad, a holy war, against the allied and associated powers. It was feared that this appeal would have dangerous effects among Muslims under British rule,
<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Yq5AUlWjZpsC&pg=PA165" target=blank>http://books.google.com/books?id=Yq5AUlWjZpsC&pg=PA165</a> as well as the BBC states that "The Ottoman Empire called for a military jihad against France, Russia and Great Britain in November 1914."[160]


Armenian Genocide1915[edit]

1.5 Million Armenian Christians massacred.[161][162]

"The Turkish government referred in 1915 to the Armenian genocide as a jihad."[163]

An increasing number of countries are recognizing the Armenian genocide as the first genocide of the 20th century.[164]

Scholar, on the events says:

To promote the idea of Jihad, the sheikh-ul-Islam, the most senior Sunni Muslim religious leader in Turkey, published a pamphlet with these words: "Oh Muslims, ye who are smitten with happiness are on the verge of sacrificing your life and your good for the cause of right ... He who kills one unbeliever of those who rule over us, whether he does it secretly or in the open, shall be rewarded by God..."[138]

Bat Ye'or asserts that "The genocide of the Armenians was a jihad."[165]

The Islamic religious motifs were extensively researched. Six thousand four hundred Armenian children, young girls, and women from Yozgad, were decamped by their Turkish captors at a promontory some distance from the city. "of 282 Christian churches transformed into mosques; of 21 Protestant preachers and 170 Gregorian (Armenian) priests who were, after enduring unspeakable tortures, murdered on their refusal to accept Islam."[166]

From the Islamic holy war themes in the massacres:

Attack them from every side. Whenever you meet them, kill them. Quicken the failing proclamation of the Unity by the fire of your rifles and cannon, and by the blows of your swords and knives. cause the minarets and mountains and wildernesses to resound once more with the cry. "Allah! Allah!" Jihad! Jihad! O Moslems, blow the trumpet everywhere, of people of the Unity. The great God is ordering you to fight with your foes everywhere.'[167]

Or:

"Kill them: God will punish them in your hand and put them to shame; and ye will overcome them. He will rejoice the hearts of believers, and take away the wrath from the hearts unbelievers." (Text of the Koran.) ...Jihad! Jihad! O Moslems...[161]

Historian reminds that the British consul Henry Barnham, who oversaw Aintrab and Birecik in Aleppo Province, made it clear in his account how powerfully the killing of Armenians was motivated by Islamic fanaticism and a jihad mentality:

The Butchers and the tanners, with sleeves tucked up to the shoulders, armed with clubs and cleavers, cut down the Christians, with cries of "Allahu Akbar! ...Muslim clerucs played a perpetual role in the massacring of Armenians; imams and softas would often rally the mob by chanting prayers; and mosques were often used as places to mobilize crowds, especially during Friday prayers. Christians were murdered in the name of Allah...[130]

In 2007, three were arrested in Turkey for murder of Journalist Hrant Dink, who was outspoken on Turks' genocide of Armenians. Dink was one of the most prominent voices of Turkey's Armenian community.[164][168]

The fascist Arab-Islamic leader of Palestine Haj Amin al-Husseini, the Mufti who was given sole religious and secular authority and vast unsupervised funds by the British in the early 1920s, was known for his ideological hatred of Jews and formenting mass violence against them from 1920, culminating in the Great Revolt of 1936–39, also leading deadly terror against his Arab-Palestinian opponents, and affirmation of Nazi genocide of Jews. It was suggested that "a key additional factor in the grand mufti's experience may well have been the Armenian genocide." Noting that "while training in the Ottoman Military Academy in Constantinople from late 1914 to mid-1915, Haj Amin must have been aware of the deportations and mass murders of Christian Armenians both in Constantinople and within the army itself."[169] Some analyze that the Nazis were inspired by the Armenian genocide. The Turks used primitive gas chambers and developed other murderous templates that were later adopted by the Nazis.[170]

Afghanistan[edit]

Ahmad Shah, founder of the Durrani Empire, declared a jihad against the Marathas, and warriors from various Pashtun tribes, as well as other tribes answered his call. The Third battle of Panipat (January 1761), fought between largely Muslim and largely Hindu armies who numbered as many as 100,000 troops each, was waged along a twelve-kilometre front, and resulted in a decisive victory for Ahmad Shah.[171]

In response to the Hazara uprising of 1892, the Afghan Emir Abdur Rahman Khan declared a "Jihad" against theShiites. The large army defeated the rebellion at its center, in Oruzgan, by 1892 and the local population was severely massacred. According to S. A. Mousavi, "thousands of Hazara men, women, and children were sold as slaves in the markets of Kabul and Qandahar, while numerous towers of human heads were made from the defeated rebels as a warning to others who might challenge the rule of the Amir". Until the 20th century, some Hazaras were still kept as slaves by the Pashtuns; although Amanullah Khan banned slavery in Afghanistan during his reign,[172] the tradition carried on unofficially for many more years.[173]

The First Anglo-Afghan War (1838–42) was one of Britain's most ill-advised and disastrous wars. William Brydon was the sole survivor of the invading British army of 16,500 soldiers and civilians.[174] As in the earlier wars against the British and Soviets, Afghan resistance to the American invaders took the traditional form of a Muslim holy war against the infidels.[175]

During September 2002, the remnants of the Taliban forces began a recruitment drive in Pashtun areas in bothAfghanistan and Pakistan to launch a renewed "jihad" or holy war against the pro-Western Afghan government and the U.S-led coalition. Pamphlets distributed in secret during the night also began to appear in many villages in the former Taliban heartland in southeastern Afghanistan that called for jihad.[176] Small mobile training camps were established along the border with Pakistan by al-Qaeda and Taliban fugitives to train new recruits in guerrilla warfare and terrorist tactics, according to Afghan sources and a United Nations report.[177]

Most of the new recruits were drawn from the madrassas or religious schools of the tribal areas of Pakistan, from which the Taliban had originally arisen. As of 2008, the insurgency, in the form of a Taliban guerrilla war, continues.

Although there is no evidence that the CIA directly supported the Taliban or Al Qaeda, some basis for military support of the Taliban was provided when, in the early 1980s, the CIA and the ISI (Pakistan's Interservices Intelligence Agency) provided arms to Afghan mujahideens resisting the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan,[178] and the ISI assisted the process of gathering radical Muslims from around the world to fight against the Soviets. Osama Bin Laden was one of the key players in organizing training camps for the foreign Muslim volunteers. The U.S. poured funds and arms into Afghanistan, and "by 1987, 65,000 tons of U.S.-made weapons and ammunition a year were entering the war."[179]

Algeria[edit]

In 1830, Algeria was invaded by France; French colonial domination over Algeria supplanted what had been domination in name only by the Ottoman Empire. Within two years, `Abd al-Qādir was made an amir and with the loyalty of a number of tribes began a jihad against the French. He was effective at using guerrilla warfare and for a decade, up until 1842, scored many victories. He was noted for his chivalry. On December 21, 1847, Abd al-Qādir was forced to surrender.[180]

Abd al-Qadir is recognized and venerated as the first hero of Algerian independence. Not without cause, his green and white standard was adopted by the Algerian liberation movement during the War of Independenceand became the national flag of independent Algeria.

The Algerian Civil War (1991–2002) was an armed conflict between the Algerian government and various Islamist rebel groups, which began in 1991. By 1997, the organized jihad in Algeria had disintegrated into criminal thuggery and Algeria was wracked by massacres of intense brutality and unprecedented size.[181][182]


Yemen[edit]

Forced conversions of Jews in Yemen[edit]

On both dates 1165 and 1678, forced conversions of Jews were carried out in Yemen, Jews were given the choice, convert or die.[183]

When al-Hadi offered the Jews the choice between the sword and conversion to Islam: "Many Jews chose death and the survival of the community."[184]

San'a expulsion of the Jews of Yemen : 1679–1680[edit]

In that year, the country returned to the Shi'ite rule of the Zaydi imams, and the legitimacy of Jewish presence in Yemen came under an attack that culminated in 1680 with the expulsion of the Jews from San'a and central Yemen.[185]

Forced conversion of Jewish orphans in Yemen – 1922–1929[edit]

The 'stealing of orphans'[186] was under the Imam Yahya, under his drastic measures the re-introduction in 1922 of the old custom of the forced conversion of Jewish orphans - was implemented in Yemen. The edict was re-promulgated in December 1928.[184]

China[edit]

Uyghur Muslim forces under Yaqub Beg declared a Jihad against Chinese Muslims under T'o Ming during the Dungan revolt. Yaqub Beg enlisted non muslim Han chinese militia under Hsu Hsuehkung in order to fight against the Chinese Muslims. T'o Ming's forces were defeated by Yaqub, who planned to conquer Dzungharia. Yaqub intended to seize all Dungan territory.[187][188]

The Boxer Rebellion was considered a Jihad by the muslim Kansu Braves in the Chinese Imperial Army under Dong Fuxiang, fighting against the Eight-Nation Alliance.[189]

Jihad was declared obligatory and a religious duty for all Chinese Muslims against Japan after 1937 during the Second Sino-Japanese War.[190]


Africa[edit]

Barbary pirates – July 1625 and the 1700s[edit]

The height of North African Arab Muslim pirates' violence against Christians, mainly British,Barbary pirates – called Britain's 200-year jihad. There are tales of unspeakable barbarism including the Sultan, Moulay Ismail, who tortured and butchered the captives at whim. It involved also forced conversion of the BritishChristians into Islam. The "Sally Rovers" were called 'al-ghuzat'-- the term once used for the soldiers who fought with Muhammad—and were hailed as religious warriors engaged in a holy war against the infidel Christians who were pressurised to convert to Islam under threat of hideous punishment, writes historian Giles Milton.[191][192][193][194][195]

In negotiating a peace treaty and protect the United States from the threat of Barbary piracy, the future United Statespresidents: Thomas Jefferson, John Adams questioned the Tripolitan ambassadorto Britain Sidi Haji Abdul Rahman Adja as to "why his government was so hostile to the new American republic even though America had done nothing to provoke any such animosity." Ambassador Adja answered them, as they reported to the Continental Congress,

"that it was founded on the Laws of their Prophet, that it was written in their Koran, that all nations who should not have acknowledged their authority were sinners, that it was their right and duty to make war upon them wherever they could be found, and to make slaves of all they could take as Prisoners, and that every Musselman who should be slain in Battle was sure to go to Paradise."[196]


Jihad in Africa (Mali) – 1810–18[edit]

Jihad was a religious war fought from 1810 to 1818 in what is now the Mopti Region of Mali.[197] In either 1810 or 1818 (the exact date is uncertain), an Islamic fighter led a jihad against the Muslim chiefs in Masina, later the jihad expanded to include the Bambara. Seku Ahmadu established an austere Muslim empire ruled from the newly built city.[198] He led the "second major jihad of the 19th century" beginning in 1818. "His jihad brought about an Islam theocracy as a successor to the non-Islamic empire of Segou that had been established by the Bambara."[199]

The ruler launched from 1853 a series of expeditions against pagans, in Bambara in particular.[200] The 1818 "Fulani" Empire of Massina fell to a more militant movement.[201]


Jihad in Africa1861[edit]

In the region that is today an area in Mali, Toucouleur conqueror El Hadj Umar Tall took Ségou from its Bambara rulers and launched afresh [second] jihad down river against the Massina.[197]

The Islamic jihad of El Had L'mar, which defeated the Bambara Kingdom in 1861 was an attempt to establish (again) a theocratic Islamic state.[202]

The Rafin Jaki battle – 1873[edit]

Jihadists waged war on Africa in the region of present day Nigeria. The combined ethnic communities from present day Jos area, which is: the Afizere, Anaguta, Birom, defeated the Jihadists at the battle of Rafin Jaki.[203][204]

A Jihad in Sudan and in Egypt1880[edit]

What is called the (major) "First Jihad", in 1880, Muslim fighter raised the banner of holy war, and thousands of warriors flocked. "The Mahdi's army crushed forces dispatched from British (controlled) Egypt." History of Mahdist Sudan[205][158]


Israel – Palestine[edit]

The 1660 massacre of Jews in Safed, Israel–Palestine[edit]

At that oppressive era, to buy off the Muslim attackers, Jews had to borrow money from rich Muslims at compound interest, under threats of further attacks if they failed to repay." (see the Islamic concept of: Dhimmitude) When the Jewish community of its holy city of Safed was "massacred in 1660," and the town "destroyed by Arabs," only one Jew managed to escape.[206][207][208]


"The Butcher" — el Djezzar1783–1801[edit]

Historian J. Peters:

The year 1783 brought the rise of an Albanian-born Mamluk "Arab," nicknamed "The Butcher" — el Djezzar — whose sadistic, wanton exploits became legend... The Christians in their holy town of Nazareth were also forced through maltreatment into fleeing. Even as late as 1801 Djezzar sent troops to destroy the standing crops in the environs of Nazareth. "Ramleh, however, bore the brunt of the Muslim wrath."[207]

The term "butcher" (in Arabic el Djezzar) was given to him by Arabs, as a result of the "ferocity with which he proceeded to subdue the Bedouins of the Delta."[209]

The Jews of Safed were attacked under the "sadistic Albanian-born Muslim" reign, as he's called.[210]

In an exchange with the "Butcher", the following text was sent by N. Bonaparte "that Islam was to be protected".[211][212]

Religious cleansing: In their days of ascendancy the Muslims in the Nablus of 1783 prohibited Christians from settling. "In 1801 thoseChristiansnot driven out of Ramallah and Nazareth were murdered."[206]

1834–5 Safed and Hebron violence[edit]

1) The Safed plunder. 2) The massacre in Hebron, pillaging, looting, killing/rapes, in Jerusalem.

The pogrom – massacre, "plunder," by ArabMuslims on Jews in Safed. It went on for 33 days.[213][214][215] It was incited by a highly religious cleric, a self proclaimed Islamic "prophet" Muhammad Damoor, who envisioned the massacre to which he agitated the "believers" to.[45][216]

The attacks in Hebron, Jerusalem, that year: In 1834, Egyptian soldiers massacred Jews in Hebron on the way of putting down a Muslim rebellion, local Muslims go on rampage, pillaging, rape, killing, looting in Jerusalem at that same era.[206][217][218]

According to professor M. Ma'oz, considered of great authority on that period, "a noticeable number of Christians and Jews, particularly children, were forced to adopt Islam." Yet, that being said, "even the converts were persecuted as Jews."
[219]

Arab riots, Massacres, Pogroms on Jews in Israel / Palestine – 1920–1921[edit]

[220]

On February 1920, the pogroms by Arabs on Jews in Jerusalem were orchestrated by two young Arab Muslim supremacists (prominent in Arab Palestine),Haj Amin al-Husseini [who later on became the Mufti] at that time served in the British army's intelligence and Aref al-Aref. A Hebron Muslim Sheik shouted: "Whoever has a stick, a gun' a knife or stone, shall go and exterminate the Jews, And in ecstasy screamed: "Adbachu Al Yahud" ['Kill the Jews!'].[221] Amin el-Husseini was using his considerable wealth and growing power to incite the masses.[222] Due to Haj Amin's overt role in instigating the pogrom, the British arrested him.[223][224]

Arab pogroms were launched against Jews in 1920, 1921, 1929 and 1936-1939. According to the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs, from 1920 to 1966, Arab terrorists murdered 1513 Jewish residents of British Mandatory Palestine.[225]

Islamists turned mosques into hubs instigating violence, "shrine into a center of unholy activity," explaines historian, where "political intrigue and violence were hatched, as were the bloody anti-Jewish riots of 1920, 1929 and 1936. Inside the Temple Mount enclosure, fanatical preachers incited the masses who then went on the rampage with shouts of Allahu akbar (Allah is great) mingled with Idbah al Yahud (Slaughter the Jews)."[226]

The Hebron MassacreAugust 1929[edit]

1929 Hebron massacre[227][228]' pogrom[229] the 'ethnic cleansing'[230] attack upon [mostly non-Zionist, religious] pious Jews by Arab Muslims in Israel / Palestine. Agitated by the Mufti, Haj Amin al-Husseini's intentional inflammatory speeches who called the believers to rise up in defense of Islam's holy places.[231][232] The brutality – which included beheading of babies by sword, castrating old Rabbis, body mutilation,[233] castrating rabbis with their students before they were slain,[234] breasts and fingers sliced off, eyes plucked from their sockets[235] - was accompanied with cries of 'Itbach al Yahud' (kill the Jews).[citation needed] and "Allah akbar".[236]

The massacres in Hebron and elsewhere of 1929, began in the wake of the Mufti's provocative speeches.[237] The mosques were used in numerous outbreak of violence in Palestine, such as the massacre of the Jews of Hebron in August 1929, which started with leaflets handed to the Muslims while leaving the mosques.[226]

On August 23 (1929), the riots erupted, as masses of Arabs, "leaving their mosques after Friday prayers, attacked Jewish neighborhoods in Jerusalem and the vicinity". The violence spread to other parts of the country, reaching a peak in Hebron on August 24, when 66 Jews were murdered, and in Safed, on August 29, where the death tall was 45. The riots lasted a full week, leaving 133 Jews dead and 339 wounded."[238]

It started off with 2,000 Arabs bursting out of the Mosque of Omar on the Haram al-Sharif. The grand mufti Haj Amin al-Husseini admitted later on that "the speaker in the mosque that day had incited Arab worshippers to violence". Hebron's Jewish population was not part of the Zionist movement and some link it to the unfortunate fact of its highest tall of victims. The Forward describes the scene:

The carnage in Hebron was particularly ugly, the mobs having sliced a variety of body parts off of their victims. Just over a half-dozen of the victims were American kids from New York and Chicago who had come to study at the famed yeshiva.

The Forward recalls:

New York’s Jews were horrified by the pogroms, and the story stayed on the front pages of the Forward for nearly a month. The paper’s Palestine correspondents delved deep into the issue of Arab-Jewish antipathies, discussing issues such as how Arabs were incited to violence during Friday afternoon worship in their mosques, as well as explaining to readers the concept of jihad and the 72 virgins a Muslim allegedly receives if he dies as a martyr.[239]

The Jaffa Massacre19 April 1936[edit]

Inspired by the religious Islamic leader the Mufti, Arab rioters attacked Jaffa and killed 16 Jews.[67][240]

In September 1937, Armed Arab terrorism, under the direction of the Arab Higher Committee, was used for both; to attack the Jews and to suppress Arab opponents. This campaign of violence continued through 1938 and then tapered off, ending in early 1939. Researchers conclude about the terrible toll: "Eighty Jews were murdered by terrorist acts during the labor strike, and a total of 415 Jewish deaths were recorded during the whole 1936-1939 Arab Revolt period."[citation needed]

The attacks occurred as Islamic preachers incited the masses inside Mosques and the mobs attacked with the 'Islamic' shouts of "Allah Akbar!"[226]

Grand Mufti Haj Amin al-Husseini of 'Palestine'[edit]

Arab Muslim leader the Grand Mufti Haj Amin al-Husseini meets with Adolf Hitler - 21 November 1941.[241]

The chief Muslim, Islamic legal religious authority and Muslim leader[242]fromPalestine met the Nazi Führer.[243]

Prior to the meeting. In June 1940 the Mufti offered his services to the Nazi Reich government. In 1941, he went to Berlin via Tehran, where he explained to the German ambassador, Ettel, his plan to bring all Arabs under the banner of Pan-Arabism over to the side of the Axis. (25 June 1942). Here he came out unconditionally for the "final solution" of the Jewish question, calling on the Germans to wipe out all Jews, "not even sparing the children".[244]

His meeting with Hitler evolved around Jews being "his foremost enemy". The Nazi dictator rebuffed the Mufti's requests for his empowerment.[241] Though Adolf Hitler hated Arabs, considered them to be racially inferior just as Jews, Hitler refused to touch, shake the Mufti's hand, nevertheless, the Nazi Führer and the supreme religious authority of Islamic world were able to bridge in a common hatred of the Jews.[81] Prof. W. Phares explaines in a paragraph:Jihadists and World War II that "While Nazi infidels were ultimately anathema to jihadists, the alliance answered all their practical needs at the moment."[245]

From a description "The Mufti of Berlin" in the Wall Street Journal how his legacy had an impact of future radical Islamists:

...the Palestinian wartime leader "was one of the worst and fanatical fascists and anti-Semites", ... He intervened with the Nazis to prevent the escape to Palestine of thousands of European Jews, who were sent instead to the death camps. He alsoconspired with the Nazis to bring the Holocaust to Palestine. The mufti "invented a new form of Jew-hatred by recasting it in an Islamic mold", according to German scholar Matthias Küntzel. The mufti's fusion of European anti-Semitism—particularly thegenocidal variety—with Koranic views of Jewish wickedness has become the hallmark of Islamists world-wide, from al Qaeda to Hamas and Hezbollah. During his time in Berlin, the mufti ran the Nazis' Arab-language propaganda radio program, which incited Muslims in the Mideast to "kill the Jews wherever you find them. This pleases God, history and religion." Among the many listeners was also the man later known as Ayatollah Khomeini, who used to tune in to Radio Berlin every evening, according to Amir Taheri's biography of the Iranian leader. Khomeini's disciple Mahmoud Ahmadinejad still spews the same venom pioneered by the mufti as do Islamic hate preachers around the world. Muslim Judeophobia is not—as is commonly claimed—a reaction to the Mideast conflict but one of its main "root causes." It has been fueling Arab rejection of a Jewish state long before Israel's creation.[246]

The exiled al-Husseini fled in 1941 to Berlin, serving the Nazi regime for four years in broadcasting jihadist as well as anti-British propaganda to the entire Middle East and by recruiting Bosnian Muslims for the Wehrmacht, the SS.[247]

Grand Mufti Haj Amin al-Husseini of 'Palestine' recruited[247] Moslem Holy Warriors who fought as theWaffen SS, and the "Free Arabia". - 1943[248]

He heads the Nazi Muslim[249][250] brutal brigade, the SS division in (former)Yugoslavia, compiled of Muslim Bosnians and carries out atrocities against Serb Christians to be acting in "Christian Serbian genocide"[251] and against Jews.[250] Muslim Albanians were also recruited in Nazi divisions.

In speaking to potential recruits, al-Husseini stressed the connections they had to the "Muslim nation" fighting the British throughout the world. That it is about "defending Muslims".

There were three divisions of Muslim soldiers: The Waffen SS 13th Handschar ("Knife"), the 23rd Kama ("Dagger") and the 21st Skenderbeg. The Skenderbeg was an Albanian unit of around 4,000 men, and the Kama was composed of Muslims from Bosnia, containing 3,793 men at its peak. The Handschar was the largest unit, around 20,000 Bosnian Muslim volunteers. The Encyclopedia of the Holocaust states "These Muslim volunteer units, called Handschar, were put in Waffen SS units, fought Yugoslav partisans in Bosnia and carried out police and security duties in Hungary. They participated in the massacre of civilians in Bosnia and volunteered to join in the hunt for Jews in Croatia." Part of the division also escorted Hungarian Jews from the forced labor in mine in Bor on their way back to Hungary. "The division was also employed against Serbs, who as Orthodox Christians were seen by the Bosnian Muslims as enemies." All in the all, there were at least 70,000 Bosnian Muslims captured by the British. Some of these Muslim ex-soldiers participated in aiding Arabs in the anti Israel war of 1948.[252]

Iran[edit]

The Shia [Shiite] Martyrdom.October, 680[edit]

It began on the morning of 3 October 680 CE. Some link it to the "Roots of terror: suicide, martyrdom, self-redemption and Islam."[253] Even outside the Shi'ite martyrdom, violent death seems to have followed the event.[254]

The Basiji in Iran, founded in 1979 by the order of Ayatollah Khomeini,[255] invoked the 680 Shia martyrdom to its "contemporary" Iran-Iraq war in the 1980s, it promoted and established "soldiers of God", carried out and instituted self sacrifice, which was accepted by at least 500,000 Iranian Shia Muslims ready for self infliction, it created child sacrifice, thousands of children, were sent out to clear the mines at the border with Iraq.[255][256] Between 700,000-800,000 Basij volunteers were sent to the front during the eight-year Iran-Iraq War, when self-sacrifice was the quintessential value of the Islamic revolution, used as cannon fodder when the Islamic regime,[257] often with a plastic "key to paradise" hanging around their necks and the promise that they would automatically go to paradise if they died in battle."[255][258][259]

From a research on Child Soldiers:

in 1984, Iranian President Ali-Akbar Rafsanjani declared that "all Iranians from 12 to 72 should volunteer for the Holy War". Thousands of children were pulled from schools, indoctrinated in the glory of martyrdom, and sent to the front lines only lightly armed with one or two grenades or a gun with one magazine of ammunition. Wearing keys around their necks (to signify their pending entrance into heaven), they were sent forward in the first waves of attacks to help clear paths through minefields with their bodies and overwhelm Iraqi defenses. Iran's spiritual leader at the time, Ayatollah Khomeini, delighted in the children's sacrifice and extolled that they were helping Iran to achieve "a situation which we cannot describe in any way except to say that it is a divine country".[260]


The advent of the Safavid kings Iran 1501[edit]

In Persia 1501, Shah Esmail founded the Safavid Dynasty. He was a Shia and waged a jihad against Sunni Islam over the next decade. He eventually conquered all of Persia.[261]

The Shiite Safavids made Shiite Islam the official religion of Iran. They created a "a rigid religious hierarchy with unlimited power and influence in every sphere of life". Minorities: Christians, Zoroastrians and Jews suffered harsh measures including strict segregation, the era brought persecutions, massacres and forced conversions to Islam. "Jews were forced to wear both a yellow badge and a headgear."[262]


Forced conversions of Jews in Meshed Iran and massacre – 1838–39[edit]

There was a Massacre of Meshed Jews and forced conversions (to Islam) of the survivors.[45][36] A mob was incited to attack Jews, and slaughtered almost 40 of them. The rest were forced to convert.Ben-Dror Yemini, [263]

As a result, the entire community of Meshed was forcibly converted to Islam.[264][265]

However, these Persian Jews continued to practice Judaism privately[266] in their homes. They, their descendants were called Jugutis.[267]

Under Muhammad Shah. Oppression and persecution followed the forced conversions.[268]


Iran 1914[edit]

In Iran, on November 12, 1914 Sultan Mehmed V issued a jihad, "in his capacity as Caliph, proclaimed holy war and appealed to the Muslim subjects of the Entente powers to join in a common struggle with the Ottoman Empire." Then, two days later, Shaykh-ul-Islam on November 14 issued a fatwa that "the holy war was directed against the enemies of Islam, particularly Britain, France and Russia."[269]


References[edit]

  1. ^ a b "Pakistan Today: Front Page". Pakistan Today: Front Page. November 8, 2002. Retrieved 2010-09-28.[dead link]
  2. ^ William M. Watt: Muhammad at Medina, p. 4; q.v. theTafsir regarding these verses
  3. ^ Adel Th. Khoury: Was sagt der Koran zum Heiligen Krieg?, p. 91
  4. ^ [1]
  5. ^ a b c d David Cook, Understanding Jihad; University of California Press: CA, 2005
  6. ^ Cite error: The named reference autogenerated1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  7. ^ The Oxford Dictionary of Islam, Badr, Battle of; Oxfordislamicstudies.com. Retrieved February 17, 2008.
  8. ^ John L. Esposito, Islam, the Straight Path; Oxford University Press: New York,2005
  9. ^ a b Phillips, Rodney J. (2009). The Muslim Empire and the Land of Gold. AEG Publishing Group. p. 191. ISBN 9781606932896.
  10. ^ a b c d e f p. 695 Cite error: The named reference "Bostom-legacy-Islamic-Antisemitism" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  11. ^ Husain, Zakir Husain Presentation Volume Committee. Dr. Zakir Husain presentation volume: presented on his seventy first birthday. Dr. Zakir Husain Presentation Volume Committee; [available at Maktaba Jamia, 1968. p. 464–493.
  12. ^ Ankerberg, John; Emir Caner (2009). The Truth about Islam and Jihad. Harvest House Publishers. p. [2]. ISBN 0736925015.
  13. ^ Life of the Prophet Muhammad: Al-Sira Al-Nabawiyya, by Ibn Kathir (2000), 10
  14. ^ a b Bloomberg, Jon Irving (2000). The Jewish world in the Middle Ages. KTAV Publishing House, Inc.,. p. 35. ISBN 0881256846.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  15. ^ a b "The Treatment of Jews in Arab/Islamic Countries". Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved 2010-09-28.
  16. ^ University of Calcutta. The Calcutta review. Vol. 23. University of Calcutta, 1854. p. 67.
  17. ^ Rodgers, Russ; Adam Lowther (2008). Fundamentals of Islamic asymetric warfare: a documentary analysis of the principles of Muhammad. Edwin Mellen Press. p. 203. ISBN 0773449884.
  18. ^ a b Shujaat, Mohammad (2004). Islam and War. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD. p. 360. ISBN 9788126120086. Cite error: The named reference "islamandwar" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  19. ^ Phillips, Rodney J. (2009). The Muslim Empire and the Land of Gold. AEG Publishing Group. p. [3]. ISBN 1606932896.
  20. ^ The Jews of Old-Time Medina Forward.com, Mar 21, 2003
  21. ^ Ember, Melvin; Carol R. Ember, Ian Skoggard (2005). Encyclopedia of diasporas: immigrant and refugee cultures around the world. Diaspora communities, Volume 2. Springer, 2005. p. http://books.google.com/books?id=7QEjPVyd9YMC&pg=PA183. ISBN 0306483211.
  22. ^ Richard P. Bonney, Jihad: From Qu'ran to Bin Laden; Palgrave Macmillan: Hampshire, 2004
  23. ^ Ransoming Captives in Crusader Spain: The Order of Merced on the Christian-Islamic Frontier
  24. ^ The Almohads, My Jewish Learning
  25. ^ a b Frank and Leaman, 2003, p. 137–138.
  26. ^ The Forgotten Refugees
  27. ^ Sephardim, Jewish Virtual Library
  28. ^ Kraemer, 2005, pp. 16–17.
  29. ^ a b c O'Neill, John J. (2009). Holy Warriors. Felibri. p. 127. Cite error: The named reference "ONEILL" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  30. ^ "Why the Cairo speech was so sad" Real Clear Politics, June 9, 2009
  31. ^ Gross, Abraham (2005). Spirituality and law: courting martyrdom in Christianity and Judaism. University Press of America. p. [4]. ISBN 0761829970.
  32. ^ Olsen, Kirstin (1994). Chronology of women's history. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 35. ISBN 0313288038.
  33. ^ a b c d e Morris, Jan (1959). The Hashemite kings. Pantheon. p. 85. Cite error: The named reference "MORRIS" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  34. ^ morris, Benny (1999). Righteous victims: a history of the Zionist-Arab conflict, 1881–2001. Random House, Inc. p. [5]. ISBN 9780679421207.
  35. ^ Codex Judaica: chronological index of Jewish history, covering ... – Page 185 Máttis Kantor-2005 – 393 pages
  36. ^ a b Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. Princeton University Press. pp. 44–45. Cite error: The named reference "LEWIS-JEWSOFISLAM" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  37. ^ a b Laqueur, Walter (2006). The changing face of antisemitism: from ancient times to the present day. p. [6].
  38. ^ Rûbîn, Ûrî; David J. Wasserstein (1997). Dhimmis and others: Jews and Christians and the world of classical Islam. EISENBRAUNS. p. 89.
  39. ^ Andrew G. Bostom. "Brothers of Invention? – The Legacy of Islamic Antisemitism".
  40. ^ Anderson, James Maxwell (1991). Spain, 1001 sights: an archaeological and historical guide. University of Calgary Press. p. 45. ISBN 0919813933.
  41. ^ a b Beker, Avi (1998). Jewish Communities of the World. Lerner Publications. p. 203. ISBN 0822519348.
  42. ^ Aranov, Saul I. (1979). A descriptive catalogue of the Bension collection of Sephardic manuscripts and texts Canadian electronic library: Books collection. University of Alberta. p. 6. ISBN 9780888640161.
  43. ^ De Lange, Nicholas Robert; Michael De Lange; Jane S. Gerber (1997). The illustrated history of the Jewish people. Harcourt Brace. pp. 180–190. ISBN 0151003025.
  44. ^ Islam at war: a history, p. 230, George F. Nafziger, Mark W. Walton (2003)
  45. ^ a b c p. 308 Cite error: The named reference "stillman" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  46. ^ Michael: on the history of the Jews in the Diaspora Daniel Carpi, Yehuda Nini, Shlomo Simonsohn – Diaspora Research Institute, 1978 – History, p. 138[7]
  47. ^ Hughes, Stephen O. (2006). Morocco Under King Hassan. Garnet & Ithaca Press. p. [8]. ISBN 9780863723124.
  48. ^ "Jewish Girl Chooses Decapitation Over Converting to Islam". INN. September 5, 2008.
  49. ^ The Jews of the Middle East and North Africa in modern times by Reeva S. Simon, Michael M. Laskier, Sara Reguer, 2003, p. 481 [9]
  50. ^ The Jewish quarterly: Volumes 46–47, Jewish Literary Trust, London, England, 1999, p. 64
  51. ^ Shiloah, Amnon (1995). Jewish Musical Traditions. Jewish folklore and anthropology series. Wayne State University Press. p. 186. ISBN 0814322352.
  52. ^ The Wiener Library bulletin, the University of Michigan 1974, History, p. 66 [10]
  53. ^ Wistrich, Robert S. (1994). Antisemitism: the longest hatred. p. 205.
  54. ^ S. Baum, "Old New AntiSemitism"
  55. ^ The Wiener Library bulletin 1974, p. 11
  56. ^ La fin du judaïsme en terres d'islam, Shmuel Trigano – Denoël, 2009, p. 459 [11]
  57. ^ Iraqi Assyrians Seek Self Administered Region, Aina
  58. ^ The New Assyrian Martyrs Day
  59. ^ Foreign Office, ed. (1985). British documents on foreign affairs--reports and papers from the Foreign Office confidential print: From the First to the Second World War Series. B, Turkey, Iran, and the Middle East, 1918–1939, Volumen 9, Great Britain. University Publications of America. p. 325.[12]
  60. ^ "My father's paradise: a son's search for his Jewish past in Kurdish Iraq," Ariel Sabar, Algonquin Books, (2008), ISBN 1565124901, p. 64
  61. ^ "The broken crescent: the "threat" of militant Islamic fundamentalism," Fereydoun Hoveyda, National Committee on American Foreign Policy (2002),p. 12
  62. ^ "The Third Reich and the Arab East," Lukasz Hirszowicz, Routledge & K. Paul(1966),pp. 135, 265
  63. ^ "Iraq". JVL. Retrieved 2010-09-28.
  64. ^ Davis, Eric (2005). Memories of state: politics, history, and collective identity in modern Iraq. University of California Press. p. 70. ISBN 9780520235465.[13]
  65. ^ "BBC Amends Faulty Article on Iraqi Jews, Acknowledges Farhud". Camera. August 17, 2007.
  66. ^ a b The Farhud, the Mufti inspired Krystallnacht in Iraq, 1941 J. Katz
  67. ^ a b p. 131 Cite error: The named reference "icon" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  68. ^ The 1941 pogrom in the literature of Jews from Iraq, Harif
  69. ^ Sarkar, Jadunath. How the Muslims forcibly converted the Hindus of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh to Islam.
  70. ^ Akbar, Mobashar (2002). The shade of swords: Jihad and the conflict between Islam and Christianity. Routledge. p. 100. ISBN 9780415284707.
  71. ^ "Early Islam," Desmond Stewart, Time-Life Books, 1967 p. 165
  72. ^ "Currents of Asian history", Vernon L. B. Mendis, Lake House Investments, 1981 p 445
  73. ^ "Turn around and run like hell: amazing stories of unconventional military strategies that worked," Joseph Cummins, 2007, ISBN 1921208643 p. 35
  74. ^ "Empire of the Mongols, Michael Burgan, Publisher Infobase Publishing (2009), ISBN 1604131632 p. 71
  75. ^ The Shade of Swords Jihad and the Conflict between Islam and Christianity M. J. Akbar
  76. ^ K. S. Lal: Growth of Muslim Population in Medieval India, 1973
  77. ^ >> My jihad versus your jihad
  78. ^ "Americans React to Damascus Blood Libel". JVL. Retrieved 2010-09-28.]
  79. ^ [14]
  80. ^ Peters, Arab-Jew
  81. ^ a b p. 140
  82. ^ Florence, Ronald (2004). Blood libel: the Damascus affair of 1840. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 212. ISBN 0299202801.
  83. ^ The death of a nation: or, The ever persecuted Nestorians or Assyrian Christians by Abraham Yohannan, pp. 111–112. Publisher G. P. Putnam's sons, 1916 (Original from Princeton University)[15]
  84. ^ The Massacres of the Khilafah
  85. ^ Deadly attacks against the Assyrian Christians of Iraq
  86. ^ Iraqi Assyrian Christians in London: the construction of ethnicity Madawi Al-Rasheed, 1998, p. 35
  87. ^ "The Massacre in Syria.; Letter from the American Consul at Beirut". August 10, 1860 The New York Times
  88. ^ Jayapalan, N. (2001). History of India. Atlantic Publishers & Distri. p. 83. ISBN 8171569285.
  89. ^ Elst, Koenraad (1992). Negationism in India: concealing the record of Islam. Voice of India. p. 27.
  90. ^ "India, Hindus, Hinduism". The Peace FAQ. Retrieved 2010-09-28.
  91. ^ p. 456
  92. ^ Lal, Kishori Saran (1999). Theory and practice of Muslim state in India. Aditya Prakashan. p. 62. ISBN 8186471723.
  93. ^ Thelosingbattlewith Islam David Selbourne – 2005
  94. ^ B. Gascoigne, The Great Moghuls, Harper Row Publishers, New York, 1972, pp. 15, 85, 68–75, 88–93
  95. ^ The Cambridge History of India, Vol. IV, Mughal India, ed. Lt. Col. Sir W. Haig, Sir R Burn, S, Chand & Co., Delhi, 1963, pp. 71–73, pp. 97–99
  96. ^ M. Prawdin, The Builders of The Mogul Empire, Barnes & Noble Inc, New York, 1965, pp. 127–28, pp. 137–38
  97. ^ R. C. Majumdar, H. C. Raychoudhury, K. Datta, An Advanced History of India, MacMillen & Co., London, 2nd Ed, 1965, pp. 448–450
  98. ^ Encyclopedia Britannica, 15 th Ed, Vol.21, 1967, p. 65
  99. ^ The Real Akbar, The (not) So Great, Hindunet
  100. ^ rediff.com: Francois Gautier on the genocide beyond the Hindu Kush
  101. ^ a b Encyclopedia Britannica p. 432, James Louis Garvin – Reference – 1926 [16]
  102. ^ The Legacy of JihadMideastbooks
  103. ^ For the Tsar and the Raj p. 175, Thomas E. Berry, 2009
  104. ^ Ethnic conflict and civic life: Hindus and Muslims in India Ashutosh Varshney, 2003, p. 142 [17]
  105. ^ India from 1900 to 1947 – Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence
  106. ^ FISI News
  107. ^ Wales's India Trip Unaffected by Riot – Moplah Fanatics Massacre Europeans and Hindus and Loot Buildings as They March. Troops Shoot Down 700 Outbreak Ascribed Chiefly to Religion, The New York Times
  108. ^ R. K. Ohri, Long march of Islam: the future imperfect 2004, pp. 72–73
  109. ^ Call For An Intellectual Kshatriya. South Asia Analysis
  110. ^ Usman dan Fodio (Fulani leader)
  111. ^ Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History
  112. ^ Sufism in the Caucasus[dead link]
  113. ^ Imam Shamil of Dagestan
  114. ^ Tough lessons in defiant Dagestan, BBC News
  115. ^ Civil War in the Sudan: Resources or Religion?
  116. ^ Slave trade in the Sudan in the nineteenth century and its suppression in the years 1877–80.
  117. ^ Holt, P. M., The Mahdist State in Sudan, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1958, p. 51
  118. ^ A Country Study: Sudan, US Library of Congress
  119. ^ Saudi Arabia —The Saud Family and Wahhabi Islam
  120. ^ Nibras Kazimi, A Paladin Gears Up for War, The New York Sun, November 1, 2007
  121. ^ John R Bradley, Saudi's Shi'ites walk tightrope, Asia Times, March 17, 2005
  122. ^ Amir Taheri, Death is big business in Najaf, but Iraq's future depends on who controls it, The Times, August 28, 2004
  123. ^ Life Span of Suleiman The Magnificent, 1494–1566
  124. ^ Kinross, 187.
  125. ^ Dhimmitude
  126. ^ Supply of Slaves
  127. ^ The living legacy of jihad slavery
  128. ^ The Middle East during World War One
  129. ^ T. E. Lawrence, The Seven Pillars of Wisdom, Jonathan Cape, London (1926) 1954 p. 49.
  130. ^ a b c The Burning Tigris: The Armenian Genocide and America's Response pp. 160–162, Peter Balakian, 2004 [18] Cite error: The named reference "BALAKIAN" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  131. ^ Cook, Bernard A. (2006). Women and war: a historical encyclopedia from antiquity to the present. p. 91.
  132. ^ Bennet, Gaymon; Martinez J. Hewlett; Robert John Russell (2008). The evolution of evil. p. 323.
  133. ^ Jelavich, Charles; Barbara Jelavich (1986). The establishment of the Balkan national states, 1804–1920. University of Washington Press. p. 139.
  134. ^ Hamidian (Armenian) MassacresArmenianGenocide.org
  135. ^ Dadrian, Vahakn N. (2004). The history of the Armenian genocide: Ethnic conflict from the Balkans to Anatolia to the Caucasus (6th ed. ed.). Berghahn Books. p. 380. ISBN 1571816666. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
  136. ^ Totten, Samuel; Paul Robert Bartrop; Steven L. Jacobs (2008). Dictionary of Genocide: A–L: Volume 1 of Dictionary of Genocide. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 23. ISBN 9780313346422.
  137. ^ The Era of the Abdul Hamit Massacres Dadrian, Vahakn N. (2004). The history of the Armenian genocide: ethnic conflict from the Balkans to Anatolia to the Caucasus. Berghahn Books. p. [19]. ISBN 9781571816665.
  138. ^ a b Islam's Holy War Against Christianity – Turkey, 1894–1923 – Part 13 of a Series – Mike Scruggs – For The Tribune Papers
  139. ^ Burns, Robert E. (1994). The wrath of Allah. p. 68.
  140. ^ The Greek Genocide 1914–23. Greek-Genocide.org
  141. ^ The Hellenic Genocide. Greece.org
  142. ^ CNN, 10 February 2001
  143. ^ Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction, Adam Jones, Taylor & Francis, 2010 ISBN 041548619X, p. 150
  144. ^ Aprim, Frederick (2007). Assyrians: from Bedr Khan to Saddam Hussein. Driving into extinction the last Aramaic speakers (2 ed.). Pearlida Publ. ISBN 9781425712990.
  145. ^ "Assyrians: From Bedr Khan to Saddam Hussein (Second Edition)". Atour.
  146. ^ "Frederick A. Aprim".
  147. ^ a b Atabaki, Touraj; Mehendale (2005). Central Asia and the Caucasus: transnationalism and diaspora. Routledge Research in Transnationalism. Psychology Press. p. 217. ISBN 9780415332606.
  148. ^ a b c Gaunt, David; Jan Bet̲-Şawoce; Racho Donef (2006). Massacres, resistance, protectors: Muslim-Christian relations in Eastern Anatolia during World War I. Gorgias Press LLC. p. 123. ISBN 9781593333010. Cite error: The named reference "gaunt" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  149. ^ a b Shahbaz, Yonan Hoormuz (1918). The rage of Islam: an account of the massacre of Christians by the Turks in Persia. Roger William Press, 1918. Cite error: The named reference "shahbaz" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  150. ^ Yonan. The Rage of Islam: An Account of the Massacres of Christians by the Turks in Persia
  151. ^ a b Hovannisian, Richard G. (2007). The Armenian genocide: cultural and ethical legacies. Transaction Publishers. p. 271. ISBN 9781412806190. Cite error: The named reference "armeniangenocide" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  152. ^ a b Bisher, Jamie (2005). White terror: Cossack warlords of the Trans-Siberian, Cass Military Studies. Psychology Press. p. [20]. ISBN 9780714656908. Cite error: The named reference "whiteterror" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  153. ^ Campbell, Elizabeth Yoel (2007). Yesterday's Children: Growing Up Assyrian in Persia. Yesterday's Children. pp. 89–90. ISBN 9781601452771.
  154. ^ The Forgotten Tragedy in Helwa: Massacre of the Assyrians by the Kurds
  155. ^ http://www.betnahrain.am/genocide.html
  156. ^ Assyrians, Syrians and Syriac, Notes and Historical Facts, Jun 10, 1999
  157. ^ The Quiet Tragedy of Iraq's Assyrians, FrontPage Magazine
  158. ^ a b Islam's Idea of Holy War – Time
  159. ^ Lewis, Bernard (2004). From Babel to dragomans: interpreting the Middle East. Oxford University Press US. p. p. 165.
  160. ^ World Wars: The Middle East during World War One BBC October 15, 2010
  161. ^ a b "Armenian Genocide". Armeniapedia.org. Cite error: The named reference "armeniapedia" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  162. ^ "Armenian National Institute". Armenian National Institute.
  163. ^ Frey, Rebecca Joyce (2009). Genocide and international justice Global issues. Infobase Publishing. p. 365. ISBN 0816073104.
  164. ^ a b Three Arrested in Turkey for Murder of Outspoken Journalist Hrant Dink, Foxnews
  165. ^ Ye'or, bat (1996). The decline of Eastern Christianity under Islam: from Jihad to Dhimmitude : seventh-twentieth century. Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press. p. 197. ISBN 9780838636886.
  166. ^ [21] The New Armenia, Volume 8. Publisher The New Armenia Pub. Co., 1915 Original from Harvard University]
  167. ^ The Armenian genocide: news accounts from the American press, 1915–1922, by Richard Diran Kloian, p. 19[22]
  168. ^ http://cnn.com/2007/WORLD/europe/01/21/turkey.dink/index.html??iref=newssearch
  169. ^ Anguished hope: Holocaust scholars confront the Palestinian-Israeli conflict by Leonard Grob, John K. Roth, 2008, p. 117[23]
  170. ^ "Obama, Tell the Truth About the Armenian Genocide"
  171. ^ for a detailed account of the battle fought see Chapter VI of The Fall of the Moghul Empire of Hindustan by H. G. Keene. Available online at Emotional-literacy-education.com
  172. ^ Afghan Constitution: 1923
  173. ^ Mir Hekmatullah Sadat, Afghan History: kite flying, kite running and kite banning
  174. ^ First Afghan War - Battle of Kabul and Retreat to Gandamak
  175. ^ Alan G. Jamieson, Reason to hope Canadians don't repeat history in Afghanistan, The Edmonton Journal, July 31, 2006
  176. ^ "Leaflet War Rages in Afghan Countryside". Associated Press. 2003-02-14. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
  177. ^ Tohid, Owias (2003-06-27). "Taliban regroups – on the road". Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
  178. ^ Turning Out Guerrillas and Terrorists to Wage a Holy War, The New York Times, March 18, 2002
  179. ^ Rashid, Taliban (2000)
  180. ^ Abd al Qadir, Library of Congress
  181. ^ [24]
  182. ^ Centrifugal Tendencies In The Algerian Civil War, Arab Studies Quarterly (ASQ)
  183. ^ p. 61
  184. ^ a b Parfitt, Tudor (1996). The road to redemption: the Jews of the Yemen, 1900–1950. Brill's series in Jewish studies. Vol. 17. BRILL. p. 19. ISBN 9004105441. Cite error: The named reference "roadtoredemption" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  185. ^ Barnazi, Élie; Miriam Eliav-Feldon; Denis Charbit (2002). A historical atlas of the Jewish people: from the time of the patriarchs to the present. Schocken Books. p. [25].
  186. ^ Tudor Parfitt, Israel and Ishmael: studies in Muslim-Jewish relations, 2000, page 222, The Yemenite Jewish poet Shalom Shabazi mentions the 'stealing of orphans' in the seventeenth century and the practice seems to have been taken up again at the beginning of the nineteenth century.
  187. ^ John King Fairbank, Kwang-ching Liu, Denis Crispin Twitchett (1980). Late Ch'ing, 1800-1911. Cambridge University Press. p. 223. ISBN 0521220297. Retrieved 2010-06-28.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  188. ^ John King Fairbank, Kwang-ching Liu, Denis Crispin Twitchett (1980). Late Ch'ing. Cambridge University Press. p. 224. ISBN 0521220297. Retrieved 2010-06-28.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  189. ^ Lucien X. Polastron, Jon Graham (2007). Books on fire: the destruction of libraries throughout history. Lucien X. POLASTRON. p. 102. ISBN 1594771677. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  190. ^ Stéphane A. Dudoignon, Hisao Komatsu, Yasushi Kosugi (2006). Intellectuals in the modern Islamic world: transmission, transformation, communication. Taylor & Francis. pp. 135, 336. ISBN 00415368359. Retrieved 2010-06-28. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: length (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  191. ^ Giles Milton, White Gold: The Extraordinary Story of Thomas Pellow and Islam's One Million White Slaves (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2004), qtd in: Zechariah Donagan, Mountains Before the Temple, Xulon Press, 2009, ISBN 1615795316]
  192. ^ Jihad in the Days of Jefferson The Jerusalem Post, 04-26-2006
  193. ^ Peter Lamorn Wilson, Pirate Utopias (9781570271588)
  194. ^ "Terrorists by Another Name: The Barbary Pirates". The Washington Post.
  195. ^ "Pirates of Penzance' redo?-". The Washington Times.
  196. ^ "America's Earliest Terrorists, lessons from America's first war against Islamic terror" December 16, 2005, Joshua E. London, National Review
  197. ^ a b Ross Velton, Mali, Bradt Travel Guide, Bradt Guides, Edition 3, illustrated, 2009, ISBN 1841622184, 9781841622187]
  198. ^ The Encyclopedia of world history: ancient, medieval, and modern, ... p. 589, Peter N. Stearns, William Leonard Langer - 2001 [26]
  199. ^ Stefan Goodwin, Africas Legacy of Urbanization p. 123, 2008
  200. ^ The influence of Islam upon Africa, John Spencer Trimingham – 1980
  201. ^ Raphael Olu Afolalu, A history of Africa since 1800, 1972, p. 80
  202. ^ Coulibaly, Karen Brock, N'Golo (University of Sussex. Institute of Development Studies) (1999). Sustainable rural livelihoods in Mali (Volume 35 of IDS research reports), Institute of Development Studies. Institute of Development Studies. p. 89. ISBN 9781858642697.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  203. ^ Historical Society of Nigeria (2005). Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria, Volume 16. the Historical Society of Nigeria, by Impact. p. 137.
  204. ^ Danfulani, Umar Habila Dadem Danfulani (2003). Understanding Nyam: studies in the history and culture of the Ngas, Mupun and Mwaghavul in Nigeria. Westafrikanische Studien. Vol. 26. Köppe. p. [27]. ISBN 3896454625.
  205. ^ Butler, Daniel Allen (2007). The first Jihad: the battle for Khartoum and the dawn of militant Islam, Volume 2006. Casemate. ISBN 9781932033540.
  206. ^ a b c Merry, S. (2009). Those Origins, Those Claims. p. 49.
  207. ^ a b Peters, Joan (1985). From time immemorial: the origins of the Arab–Jewish conflict over Palestine. JKAP Publications. p. 178. Cite error: The named reference "peters" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  208. ^ Dolan, David P. (1991). Holy war for the promised land: Israel's struggle to survive. T. Nelson. p. 60.
  209. ^ Brice, William Charles (1981). An Historical atlas of Islam. BRILL. pp. 268–9. ISBN 9004061169.
  210. ^ Dolan, David P. (1991). Holy war for the promised land: Israel's struggle to survive. p. 60.
  211. ^ Alfred Lewis Pinneo Dennis, Eastern problems at the close of the eighteenth century, The University press, 1901, 192, original from Harvard University
  212. ^ Full text of "Eastern problems at the close of the eighteenth century"
  213. ^ Today in Jewish History (Part 3)
  214. ^ Abraham Yaari, Israel Schen, Isaac Halevy-Levin, 1958, p. 37
  215. ^ One a day: an anthology of Jewish ... - Google Books
  216. ^ Alexander William Kinglake, Eothen 1864, p. 291
  217. ^ Matthias, B. Lehmann (2005). Ladino rabbinic literature and Ottoman Sephardic culture. Indiana University Press. p. [28]. ISBN 0253346304.
  218. ^ Vital, David (1980). The Origins of Zionism. Clarendon. p. http://books.google.com/books?id=4XV9tgWpPt8C&pg=PA17. ISBN 0198274394.
  219. ^ The Myth of Moslem-Jewish coexistence in Palestine (Peters)
  220. ^ Timeline Jewish Zionist Education
  221. ^ Korot April 1920, Palestine
  222. ^ "The Grand Mufti of Jerusalem and the Nazification of the Arab world"
  223. ^ "Arab Riots of the 1920s". JVL. Retrieved 2010-09-28.
  224. ^ Britian, Haj Husseini and the Arab Riots of 1920
  225. ^ Myths & Facts The Six-Day War
  226. ^ a b c [29] Cite error: The named reference "tal" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  227. ^ "Megillat Chevron" Letter from a Survivor of the Hebron Massacre of August 1929
  228. ^ The Hebron Massacre Aish
  229. ^ Hebron – The Pogrom of 1929 ... NATIV – Sept. 1999
  230. ^ Pakistan Today: Front Page 192004
  231. ^ Wistrich, Robert S. (2010). A Lethal Obsession: Anti-Semitism from Antiquity to the Global Jihad. Random House, Inc. p. 902. ISBN 1588368998.
  232. ^ Kohn-Sherbok, Dan (2006). The paradox of anti-semitism. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. [30]. ISBN 082648896X.
  233. ^ [31]
  234. ^ Jerold S. Auerbach: Remembering the Hebron MassacreWSJ.com, Aug 27, 2009
  235. ^ Edwin Black "Massacred for sitting while praying at Kotel" Washington Jewish Week October 13, 2010
  236. ^ Seth Lipsky, What Happened in Hebron?, Tablet Magazine
  237. ^ Hass, Amira (2000). Drinking the sea at Gaza: days and nights in a land under siege. p. [32].
  238. ^ Lavsky, Hagit (1996). Before catastrophe: the distinctive path of German Zionism. p. 185.
  239. ^ Remembering the Hebron Riots, 1929 The Forward, August 20, 2004
  240. ^ Mattar, Philip Edition revised (1992). The Mufti of Jerusalem: Al-Hajj Amin al-Husayni and the Palestinian National Movement. Studies of the Middle East Institute. Columbia University Press. p. 48. ISBN 0231064632.
  241. ^ a b "The Mufti and the Fuhrer". JVL. Retrieved 2010-09-28.
  242. ^ Hajj Amin al-Husayni: The Mufti of Jerusalem United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Apr 1, 2010
  243. ^ The Faisal-Weizmann Agreement, the Mufti and Hitler, Nazism and Islamic Terror
  244. ^ Blamires, Cyprian; Paul Jackson (2006). World fascism: a historical encyclopedia. Vol. 1. ABC-CLIO. p. 497. ISBN 9781576079409.
  245. ^ Phares, Walid (2006). Future Jihad: Terrorist Strategies Against the West. Macmillan. p. 80. ISBN 9781403975119.
  246. ^ Daniel Schwammenthal. "Arab-Nazi Collaboration Is a Taboo Topic in the West". WSJ. Retrieved 2010-09-28. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  247. ^ a b Morris, Benny (2008). 1948: a history of the first Arab-Israeli war. Yale University Press. p. 21. ISBN 0300126964.
  248. ^ Carlson, John Roy (2008). Cairo to Damascus. READ BOOKS. p. [33]. ISBN 9781443728782.
  249. ^ Palestine, 1948: war, escape and the emergence of the Palestinian ... - Page 43
  250. ^ a b The Gramsci Factor: 59 Socialists in Congress - Page 72 - Chuck Morse - 2002
  251. ^ Islamic Economics and the Final Jihad: The Muslim Brotherhood to ... - Page 90
  252. ^ Fascist Muslim Group Expected to Loot Tel Aviv in 1948 San Francisco Sentinel
  253. ^ "Roots of terror: suicide, martyrdom, self-redemption and Islam". openDemocracy. Retrieved 2010-09-28.
  254. ^ M. Reiss, Suicide, 2006
  255. ^ a b c Feared Basij militia has deep history in Iranian conflict CNN, June 22, 2009
  256. ^ , Matthias Küntzel, "Ahmadinejad's Demons, A Child of the Revolution Takes Over" The New Republic, April 24, 2006
  257. ^ Iran's Basij Force -- The Mainstay Of Domestic Security Referl, December 07, 2008
  258. ^ The Iranian Revolution, Brendan January, Twenty-First Century Books, 2008, ISBN 0822575213, 9780822575214. p. 103
  259. ^ How Schoolchildren Are Brainwashed In Iran, by Hossein Aryan Rferl, May 27, 2010
  260. ^ Peter Warren Singer, Children at war, University of California Press, 2006, ISBN 0520248767, p. 22 AFT-A Union of Professionals - Child Soldiers (Ian Brown, Khomeini's Forgotten Sons: The Story of Iran's Boy Soldiers, London: Grey Seal, 1990, p. 2. Quoted in Karen Armstrong, The Battle for God, New York: Knopf, 2000, pp. 327–328)
  261. ^ Exploring the Middle Ages: Volume 6, Page 424, by Marshall Cavendish Corporation, 2006
  262. ^ Holocaust, The Jews of Iran, Project Aladin
  263. ^ "The Jewish Nakba: Expulsions, Massacres and Forced Conversions", Maariv, Hebrew, 15 May 2009 [34]
  264. ^ Alon, Alon (2004). Holocaust and Redemption. Trafford Publishing. p. 20. ISBN 141200358X.
  265. ^ Gilbert, Martin (2006). The Routledge atlas of Jewish history. Routledge Historical Atlases. Routledge. p. [35]. ISBN 0415399661.
  266. ^ Beauty in Holiness - Hebraic Collections: An Illustrated Guide (Library of Congress African & Middle Eastern Reading Room )
  267. ^ Abdol Hossein Sardari (1895–1981) United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, April 1, 2010
  268. ^ History of Jewish life in Persia. Sefarad.org
  269. ^ David Gaunt, Jan Bet̲-Şawoce, Racho Donef, Massacres, resistance, protectors: Muslim-Christian relations in Eastern Anatolia during World War I, Gorgias Press LLC (2006), ISBN 1593333013], p. 62