User:Punetor i Rregullt5/sandbox/East African lion
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East African lion
East African lion | |
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A male lion at Murchison Falls National Park, Uganda | |
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Lioness at Samburu National Reserve, Kenya | |
Scientific classification ![]() | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Mammalia |
Order: | Carnivora |
Suborder: | Feliformia |
Family: | Felidae |
Subfamily: | Pantherinae |
Genus: | Panthera |
Species: | |
Subspecies: | P. l. melanochaita
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Trinomial name | |
Panthera leo melanochaita (Ch. H. Smith, 1842)
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The East African lion is a Panthera leo melanochaita population in East Africa.[1] During the 20th century, lion populations in this part of Africa became fragmented and declined in several range countries due to loss of habitat and prey base, poaching and killing of lions to protect livestock and human life.[2] In 2005, a Lion Conservation Strategy was developed for East and Southern Africa.[3] Today, lion populations are stable only in large protected area complexes.[4]
The scientific name P. l. melanochaita was proposed for the Cape lion in 1842 that was eradicated in the mid-19th century.[5] P. l. melanochaita differs genetically from P. leo leo; the two subspecies probably diverged at least 50,000 years ago.[1]
Taxonomy
[edit]Charles Hamilton Smith described the type specimen for Panthera leo melanochaita in 1842 using the scientific name Felis (Leo) melanochaitus.[6] In the 19th and 20th centuries, several naturalists described zoological specimens from East Africa and proposed subspecies, including:
- Felis leo somaliensis (Noack 1891), based on two lion specimens from Somalia[7]
- Felis leo massaicus (Neumann 1900), based on two lions killed near Kibaya and the Gurui River in Kenya[8]
- Felis leo sabakiensis (Lönnberg 1910), based on two lions from the environs of Mount Kilimanjaro[9]
- Felis leo bleyenberghi (Lönnberg 1914), a male lion from the Katanga Province of Belgian Congo[10]
- Felis leo roosevelti (Heller 1914), a lion from the Ethiopian Highlands presented to Theodore Roosevelt[11]
- Felis leo nyanzae (Heller 1914), a lion skin from Kampala, Uganda[11]
- Leo leo hollisteri (Joel Asaph Allen 1924), a male lion from the area of Lime Springs, Sotik on the eastern shore of Lake Victoria[12]
- Panthera leo webbensies Ludwig Zukowsky 1964, two lions from Somalia, one in the Natural History Museum, Vienna that originated in Webi Shabeelle, the other kept in a German zoo that had been imported from the hinterland of Mogadishu.[13]
Dispute over the validity of these purported subspecies continued among naturalists and curators of natural history museums until the early 21st century.[14][15][5][16]
In 2017, the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group revised lion taxonomy based on results of phylogeographic research on lion samples. Two lion subspecies are now recognised:[1]
- P. l. melanochaita is understood as comprising lion populations in the contemporary Southern and East African range countries;
- P. l. leo comprises lion populations in North, West and Central Africa and Asia.
Genetic research
[edit]Since the beginning of the 21st century, several phylogenetic studies were conducted to aid clarifying the taxonomic status of lion samples kept in museums and collected in the wild. Scientists analysed between 32 and 480 lion samples from up to 22 countries. They all agree that the species lion comprises two evolutionary groups, one in East and Southern Africa, and the other in the northern and eastern parts of its historical range; these groups diverged about 50,000 years ago. They assume that tropical rainforest and the East African Rift constituted major barriers between the two groups.[17][18][19][20][21][22]
Among six samples from captive lions that originated in Ethiopia, five samples clustered with samples from East Africa, but one clustered with samples from the Sahel.[20] For a subsequent study, also eight wild lion samples from the Ethiopian Highlands were included in the analysis. Of these, three clustered with the Central African lion and five with samples from East Africa. Scientists therefore assume that the Ethiopian Highlands east and west of the Rift Valley is a genetic admixture zone between both phylogeographic groups.[22]
Characteristics
[edit]The lion's fur varies in colour from light buff to dark brown. It has rounded ears and a black tail tuft. Average head-to-body length of male lions is 2.47–2.84 m (8.1–9.3 ft) with a weight of 148.2–190.9 kg (327–421 lb). Females are smaller and less heavy.[23] Until the late 20th century, mane colour and size was thought to be a distinct subspecific characteristic.[15]
Male lions killed in East Africa were less heavy than lions killed by hunters in Southern Africa.[24]
In 2002, research in Serengeti National Park revealed that mane darkens with age; its colour and size are influenced by environmental factors like temperature and climate, but also by individual testosterone production, sexual maturity and genetic precondition. Mane length apparently signals fighting success in male–male relationships.[25]
Manes
[edit]In the 19th and 20th centuries, lion type specimen were described on the basis of mane size and colour.[26] Male East African lions are known for a great range of mane types. Mane development is related to age: older males have more extensive manes than younger ones; manes continue to grow up to the age of four to five years, long after lions have become sexually mature. Males living in the highlands above 800 m (2,600 ft) elevation develop heavier manes than lions in the more humid and warmer lowlands of eastern and northern Kenya. The latter have thinner manes, or are even completely maneless.[27] Hence, lion manes reflect ambient temperature. The mane colour is also influenced by nutrition and testosterone. Its length is an indicator for age and fighting ability of the lion.[25]
Records
[edit]An exceptionally heavy male near Mount Kenya National Park weighed 272 kg (600 lb).[28] The largest East African lion reportedly measured 3.33 m (10.9 ft).[23]
Distribution and habitat
[edit]In East Africa, lions inhabit a wide variety of habitats including savanna and arid landscapes, open grasslands and miombo woodlands.[30][31] Lion populations declined in:
- Somalia since the early 20th century.[32] Intensive poaching since the 1980s and civil unrest in El Buur District posed a threat to lion persistence.[33][34]
- Uganda to near extinction due to poaching since the 1970s following civil unrest.[35][36]
- Democratic Republic of Congo in the 1990s during the first and second civil wars.[36]
- Kenya in the 1990s due to poisoning of lions and poaching of lion prey species.[34] At least 108 lions were killed between 2001 and 2006 in the Amboseli-Tsavo East-Tsavo West protected area network.[37]
- Rwanda and Tanzania due to killing of lions during the Rwandan Civil War and ensuing refugee crisis in the 1990s.[34]
Contemporary lion distribution and habitat quality in East Africa was assessed in 2005, and Lion Conservation Units (LCU) mapped.[3] Between 2002 and 2012, educated guesses for size of populations in the East African LCUs ranged from 20,485 to 18,308 individuals.[34][4]
Range countries | Lion Conservation Units | Area in km2 |
---|---|---|
Democratic Republic of Congo | Massif D'itombwe, Luama | 8,441[3] |
Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda | Queen Elizabeth-Virunga | 5,583[38] |
Uganda | Toro-Semulik, Lake Mburo, Murchison Falls | 4,800[39] |
Somalia | Arboweerow-Alafuuto | 24,527[3] |
Somalia, Kenya | Bushbush-Arawale | 22,540[3] |
Kenya | Laikipia-Samburu, Meru and Nairobi National Parks | 43,706[4] |
Kenya, Tanzania | Serengeti-Mara and Tsavo-Mkomazi | 75,068[29] |
Tanzania | Dar-Biharamulo, Ruaha-Rungwa, Mpanga-Kipengere, Tarangire, Wami Mbiki-Saadani, Selous | 384,489[29] |
The LCUs Serengeti-Mara, Tsavo-Mkomazi, Ruaha-Rungwa and Selous are currently considered lion strongholds in East Africa. They host more than 500 individuals each, and the population trend is stable.[4]
Ecology and behaviour
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Panthera_leo_massaica_mating.jpg/220px-Panthera_leo_massaica_mating.jpg)
In the Serengeti National Park, lion prides have been monitored since 1966.[40] Between 1966 and 1972, two observed lion prides comprised between seven and 10 females each that had litters once in 23 months on average.[41] Litters contained two to three cubs. Females suckled cubs of other females, when their cubs were of similar age. Of 87 cubs born until 1970, only 12 reached the age of two years. Cubs died due to starvation in months when large prey was not available, following take-over of prides by new males, or of unknown causes.[42] Male lion coalitions were more successful in taking over prides than single males. Coalitions of six males stayed longer with a pride than smaller male groups.[43] Between 1974 and 2012, 471 coalitions comprising 796 male lions entered a study area of 2,000 km2 (770 sq mi). Of these, 35 nomadic coalitions included male lions that were born in the area but had left and returned after about two years of absence. Coalitions became resident at between 3.5 and 7.3 years of age.[44]
Attacks on humans
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Colonel_Patterson_with_Tsavo-Lion.jpg/220px-Colonel_Patterson_with_Tsavo-Lion.jpg)
- A man-eating lion was killed by game scouts in Southern Tanzania in April 2004. It is believed to have killed and eaten at least 35 people in a series of incidents covering several villages in the coastal of this region.[45] Dr Rolf D. Baldus, the GTZ wildlife programme coordinator, said it was likely that the lion preyed on humans because it had a large abscess beneath a cracked molar and wrote, "This lion probably experienced a lot of pain, particularly when it was chewing".[46] This lion was large, had no mane and a tooth problem.
- In modern-days, Tanzania (between 1930s and 1940s) was inflicted by a pride known as the "Njombe lions". The hunter George Rushby eventually dispatched the pride, which over three generations is thought to have killed and eaten 1,500 to 2,000 people in Njombe district.[47]
Threats
[edit]In Somalia's Lower Shabeelle area, hunters kill female lions and collect cubs to trade them in wildlife markets, where they fetch at between US$ 500 and 600 per cub. In southern Somalia, people also keep lion cubs for export.[48]
Conservation
[edit]All lion populations in Africa have been included in CITES Appendix II since 1975.[2] Because of the negative impact of trophy hunting, it was proposed in 2004 to list them all in CITES Appendix I to reduce exports of lion trophies and implement a stricter permission process.[49]
In 2006, a Lion Conservation Strategy for East and Southern Africa was developed in cooperation between IUCN regional offices and several wildlife conservation organisations. The strategy envisages to maintain sufficient habitat, ensure a sufficient wild prey base, make lion-human coexistence sustainable and reduce factors that lead to further fragmentation of populations.[3]
Cultural significance
[edit]The lion is featured as an animal symbol in East Africa.[50][51] The name 'Simba' is a Swahili word for the lion, which also means 'aggressive', 'king' and 'strong'.[52]
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ a b c Kitchener, A. C.; Breitenmoser-Würsten, C.; Eizirik, E.; Gentry, A.; Werdelin, L.; Wilting, A.; Yamaguchi, N.; Abramov, A. V.; Christiansen, P.; Driscoll, C.; Duckworth, J. W.; Johnson, W.; Luo, S.-J.; Meijaard, E.; O’Donoghue, P.; Sanderson, J.; Seymour, K.; Bruford, M.; Groves, C.; Hoffmann, M.; Nowell, K.; Timmons, Z.; Tobe, S. (2017). "A revised taxonomy of the Felidae: The final report of the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group" (PDF). Cat News (Special Issue 11): 71–73.
- ^ a b IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2018-1. 2016. 2016.
{{cite journal}}
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ignored (help) {{cite iucn}}: error: no identifier (help) - ^ a b c d e f IUCN Cat Specialist Group (2006). Conservation Strategy for the Lion Panthera leo in Eastern and Southern Africa. Pretoria, South Africa: IUCN.
- ^ a b c d Riggio, J.; Jacobson, A.; Dollar, L.; Bauer, H.; Becker, M.; Dickman, A.; Funston, P.; Groom, R.; Henschel, P.; De Iongh, H.; Lichtenfeld, L. (2013). "The size of savannah Africa: a lion's (Panthera leo) view". Biodiversity and Conservation. 22 (1): 17–35. doi:10.1007/s10531-012-0381-4. S2CID 18891375.
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- ^ Smith, C.H. (1842). "Black maned lion Leo melanochaitus". In Jardine, W. (ed.). The Naturalist's Library. Vol. 15 Mammalia. London: Chatto and Windus. p. Plate X, 177.
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- ^ Neumann, O. (1900). "Die von mir in den Jahren 1892–95 in Ost- und Central-Afrika, speciell in den Massai-Ländern und den Ländern am Victoria Nyansa gesammelten und beobachteten Säugethiere". Zoologische Jahrbücher. Abtheilung für Systematik, Geographie und Biologie der Thiere. 13 (VI): 529–562.
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- ^ Allen, G. M. (1939). "A Checklist of African Mammals". Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College. 83: 1–763.
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- ^ Wozencraft, W. C. (2005). "Panthera leo". In Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M. (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 546. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494.
- ^ Barnett, R.; Yamaguchi, N.; Barnes, I.; Cooper, A. (2006). "The origin, current diversity and future conservation of the modern lion (Panthera leo)" (PDF). Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 273 (1598): 2119–2125. doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3555. PMC 1635511. PMID 16901830. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 August 2007.
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- ^ a b Guggisberg, C.A.W. (1975). "Lion Panthera leo (Linnaeus 1758)". Wild Cats of the World. London: David and Charles. pp. 138–179. ISBN 0715371142.
- ^ Smuts, G. L.; Robinson, G. A.; Whyte, I. J. (1980). "Comparative growth of wild male and female lions (Panthera leo)". Journal of Zoology. 190 (3): 365–373. Bibcode:2010JZoo..281..263G. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1980.tb01433.x.
- ^ a b West, P. M.; Packer, C. (2002). "Sexual Selection, Temperature, and the Lion's Mane". Science. 297 (5585): 1339–1943. Bibcode:2002Sci...297.1339W. doi:10.1126/science.1073257. PMID 12193785. S2CID 15893512.
- ^ Guggisberg, Charles Albert Walter (1963). Simba: The Life of the Lion. Philadelphia, PA: Chilton Books. ASIN B000OKBJQ0.
- ^ Gnoske T. P.; Celesia, G. G.; Kerbis, Peterhans J. C. (2006). "Dissociation between mane development and sexual maturity in lions (Panthera leo): solution to the Tsavo riddle?". Journal of Zoology. 270 (4): 551–560. Bibcode:2010JZoo..281..263G. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2006.00200.x.
- ^ Nowell, K.; Jackson, P. (1996). "African lion" (PDF). Wild Cats: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group. pp. 17–21. ISBN 978-2-8317-0045-8.
- ^ a b c Conservation status of the lion (Panthera leo Linnaeus, 1758) in Tanzania. Paris: SCI Foundation, MNRT-WD, TAWISA & IGF Foundation. 2010.
{{cite book}}
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(help) - ^ Sinclair, A.R.E., Arcese, P., ed. (1995). "Ecology, demography and behavior of lions in two contrasting habitats: Ngorongoro Crater and the Serengeti Plains". Serengeti II: Dynamics, Management, and Conservation of an Ecosystem. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. pp. 315–331.
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(help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link) - ^ "Lion densities in Selous Game Reserve, Tanzania". South African Journal of Wildlife Research. 48 (1): 014001. 2018. doi:10.3957/056.048.014001. S2CID 91115400.
{{cite journal}}
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(help) - ^ Funaioli, U.; Simonetta, A.M. (1966). "The Mammalian Fauna of the Somali Republic: Status and Conservation Problems". Monitore Zoologico Italiano, Supplemento. 1 (1): 285–347. doi:10.1080/03749444.1966.10736746.
- ^ Fagotto, F. (2009). "Larger Animals of Somalia in 1984". Environmental Conservation. 12 (3): 260−264. doi:10.1017/S0376892900016015. S2CID 86042501.
- ^ a b c d Chardonnet, P. (2002). "Chapter II: Population Survey" (PDF). Conservation of the African Lion : Contribution to a Status Survey. Paris: International Foundation for the Conservation of Wildlife, France & Conservation Force, USA. pp. 21–101. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 November 2013.
- ^ Treves, A.; Naughton-Treves, L. (1999). "Risk and opportunity for humans coexisting with large carnivores" (PDF). Journal of Human Evolution. 36 (3): 275–282. doi:10.1006/jhev.1998.0268. ISSN 0047-2484. PMID 10074384.
- ^ a b "Transboundary conservation in the greater Virunga landscape: its importance for landscape species". Biological Conservation. 134 (2): 279−287. 2007. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2006.08.012.
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(help) - ^ Lion Killing in the Amboseli-Tsavo Ecosystem, 2001–2006, and its Implications for Kenya's Lion Population (PDF). Nairobi: Living with Lions. 2006.
{{cite book}}
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(help) - ^ Treves, A.; Plumptre, A. J.; Hunter, L.T.B.; Ziwa, J. (2009). "Identifying a potential lion Panthera leo stronghold in Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda, and Parc National des Virunga, Democratic Republic of Congo". Oryx. 43 (1): 60–66. doi:10.1017/S003060530700124X. S2CID 73692646.
- ^ National census of lions and hyaenas in Uganda. Uganda: Uganda Wildlife Authority. 2010.
{{cite book}}
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(help) - ^ Schaller, G. B. (1972). The Serengeti lion: A study of predator–prey relations. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-73639-6.
- ^ Bertram, B.C.R. (1973). "Lion population regulation". East Africa Wildlife Journal. 11 (3–4): 215−225. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1973.tb00088.x.
- ^ "Social factors influencing reproduction in wild lions". Journal of Zoology. 177 (4): 463–482. 1975. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1975.tb02246.x.
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(help) - ^ "Male lions in large coalitions gain reproductive advantages". Nature. 282 (5741): 839–841. 1979. doi:10.1038/282839a0. S2CID 4249090.
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(help) - ^ Borrego, N., Ozgul, A., Slotow, R. and Packer, C. (2018). "Lion population dynamics: do nomadic males matter?". Behavioral Ecology. 29 (3): 660–666. doi:10.1093/beheco/ary018.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Dickinson, Daniel (19 October 2004). "Toothache 'made lion eat humans'". BBC News. Retrieved 25 January 2011.
- ^ Baldus, R (March 2006). "A man-eating lion (Panthera leo) from Tanzania with a toothache". European Journal of Wildlife Research. 52 (1): 59–62. doi:10.1007/s10344-005-0008-0. S2CID 26533479.
- ^ Rushby, George G. (1965). No More the Tusker. London: W. H. Allen.
- ^ Amir, O.G. (2006). "5.2.2. Lion" (PDF). Wildlife trade in Somalia. Report to the IUCN/SSC Antelope Specialist Group. Darmstadt, Germany. pp. 14−15.
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: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Nowell, K. (2004). "The Cat Specialist Group at CITES 2004". Cat News. 41: 29.
- ^ Hogarth, C.; Butler, N. (2004). "Animal Symbolism (Africa)". In Walter, M. N. (ed.). Shamanism: An Encyclopedia of World Beliefs, Practices, and Culture, Volume 1. pp. 3–6. ISBN 978-1-57607-645-3.
- ^ Lynch, P. A. (2004). African Mythology A to Z. Infobase Publishing. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-8160-4892-2.
- ^ Brakefield, T. (1993). Big Cats: Kingdom of Might. Voyageur Press. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-89658-329-0.
External links
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png)
- PetaPixel, September 2018: Lioness Steals Photographer’s Canon DSLR and Gives It to Her Cubs
- National Geographic Wildlife Watch, June 2018: As Tigers Become Rarer, Poachers Are Targeting Lions
- East African lion