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Racism in the United States
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Racism and ethnic discrimination in the United States has been a major issue since the colonial era and the slave era. Legally sanctioned racism sanctioned privileges and rights for White Americans not granted to Native Americans, African Americans, Asian Americans, and Latin Americans. European Americans (particularly Anglo Americans) were privileged by law in matters of education, immigration, voting rights, citizenship, land acquisition, and criminal procedure over periods of time extending from the 17th century to the 1960s. At the time, many non-Protestant groups immigrating from Europe - particularly Jews, Irish people, Poles and Italians - suffered xenophobic exclusion and other forms of ethnicity-based discrimination in the American society.
Major racially and ethnically structured institutions included slavery, Indian Wars, Native American reservations, segregation, residential schools for Native Americans, and internment camps.[1] Formal racial discrimination was largely banned in the mid-20th century, and came to be perceived as socially unacceptable and/or morally repugnant as well.
Racial politics remains a major phenomenon. Racism continues to be reflected in socioeconomic inequality,[2] and has taken on more modern, indirect forms of expression, most prevalently symbolic racism.[3] Racial stratification continues to occur in employment, housing, education, lending, and government.
In the view of the U.S. Human Rights Network, a network of scores of US civil rights and human rights organizations, "Discrimination permeates all aspects of life in the United States, and extends to all communities of color".[4]
Historical context
[edit]African Americans
[edit]Pre-Civil War
[edit]Atlantic Slave Trade
While the existence of slavery is arguably the root of subsequent conceptualizations of African-Americans, it is the origins of African enslavement have a large economic foundation. Among the European elite who structured national policy throughout the age of the Atlantic system of trade, there existed a popular ideology called mercantilism, or the belief that policy pursuits were centralized around military power and economic wealth. They attributed the value of colonial possessions, as a source of mineral wealth and raw materials and as a means of exporting products to the home country.[5] The population of Native Americans as labor proved too exceedingly reduced, after decimation through disease and violence. The use of voluntary European peoples as labor also proved unsustainably expensive and detrimental to domestic labor and competitiveness. Unlike the previous populations, Africans were "available in large numbers at prices that made plantation agriculture in the Americas profitable"[6]
It is also argued that, along with the economic motives underlying slavery in the Americas, European world schemas played a large role in the enslavement of Africans. According to this view, the European in-group for humane behavior included the sub-continent, while African and American Indian cultures had a more localized definition of "an insider". While neither schema has inherent superiority, the technological advantage of Europeans became a resource to disseminate the conviction that underscored their schemas, that non-Europeans could be enslaved. With the capability to spread their schematic representation of the world, Europeans could impose a social contract, morally permitting three centuries of African slavery. While the disintegration of this social contract by the eighteenth century led to the abolition of slavery, it is argued that the removal of barriers to "insider status" is a very slow, and presently continued, process.[7]
As a result of these debated elements, the Atlantic slave trade arose. According to the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database, between 1626 and 1850, an estimated total of 305,326 slaves were forcibly transported via U.S. vessels to the Americas.[8][9] Furthermore, approximately one Southern family in four held slaves prior to war. According to the 1860 U.S. census, there were about 385,000 slaveowners out of approximately 1.5 million white families.[10]
Efforts toward Abolition
In the early part of the 19th century, a variety of organizations were established advocating the movement of black people from the United States to locations where they would enjoy greater freedom; some endorsed colonization, while others advocated emigration. During the 1820s and 1830s the American Colonization Society (A.C.S.) was the primary vehicle for proposals to return black Americans to greater freedom and equality in Africa,[11] and in 1821 the A.C.S. established the colony of Liberia, assisting thousands of former African-American slaves and free black people (with legislated limits) to move there from the United States. The colonization effort resulted from a mixture of motives with its founder Henry Clay stating; "unconquerable prejudice resulting from their color, they never could amalgamate with the free whites of this country. It was desirable, therefore, as it respected them, and the residue of the population of the country, to drain them off".[12]
Although the Constitution had banned the importation of new African slaves in 1808, and in 1820 slave trade was equated with piracy, punishable by death,[13] the practice of chattel slavery still existed for the next half century. All slaves in only the areas of the Confederate States of America that were not under direct control of the United States government were declared free by the Emancipation Proclamation, which was issued on January 1, 1863, by President Abraham Lincoln.[14] It should be noted that the Emancipation Proclamation did not apply to areas loyal to, or controlled by, the Union, thus the document only freed slaves where the Union still had not regained the legitimacy to claim freedom. Slavery was not actually abolished in the United States until the passage of the 13th Amendment which was declared ratified on December 6, 1865.[15]
About 4 million black slaves were freed in 1865. Ninety-five percent of blacks lived in the South, comprising one third of the population there as opposed to one percent of the population of the North. Consequently, fears of eventual emancipation were much greater in the South than in the North.[16] Based on 1860 census figures, 8% of all white males aged 13 to 43 died in the civil war, including 6% in the North and an extraordinary 18% in the South.[17]
Reconstruction Era to WWII
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Lynching-of-will-james.jpg/220px-Lynching-of-will-james.jpg)
Reconstruction Era
After the Civil War, the 13th amendment in 1865, formally abolishing slavery, was ratified. Furthermore, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which broadened a range of civil rights to all persons born in the United States. Despite this, the emergence of "Black Codes", sanctioned acts of subjugation against blacks, continued to bar African-Americans from due civil rights. The 14th amendment was ratified in 1868 to underscore this effort, and the Civil Rights Act of 1875 followed. The latter was eliminated, in a decision that undermined federal power to thwart private racial discrimination.[18] Nonetheless, the last of the Reconstruction Era amendments, the 15th amendment promised voting rights to African-American men, and these cumulative federal efforts, African-Americans began taking advantage of enfranchisement. African-Americans began voting, seeking office positions, utilizing public education. Yet by the end of Reconstruction in the mid 1870s, violent white supremacists came to power via paramilitary groups such as the Red Shirts and the White League and imposed Jim Crow laws that deprived African-American of voting rights and instituted systemic discriminatory policies through policies of unequal racial segregation[19]
Post-Reconstruction
The new century saw a hardening of institutionalized racism and legal discrimination against citizens of African descent in the United States. Throughout this post Civil War period, racial stratification was informally and systemically enforced, to solidify pre-existing social order. Although technically able to vote, poll taxes, pervasive acts of terror such as lynching in the United States (often perpetrated by groups such as the reborn Ku Klux Klan, founded in the Reconstruction South), and discriminatory laws such as grandfather clauses kept black Americans disenfranchised particularly in the South. Furthermore, discrimination extended to state legislation that "allocated vastly unequal financial support" for black and white schools. In addition to this, county officials sometimes redistributed resources earmarked for blacks to white schools, further undermining educational opportunities.[20] In response to de jure racism, protest and lobbyist groups emerged, most notably, the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) in 1909.
This time period is sometimes referred to as the nadir of American race relations because racism, segregation, racial discrimination, and expressions of white supremacy all increased. So did anti-black violence, including race riots such as the Atlanta Race Riot of 1906 and the Tulsa race riot of 1921.
The Great Migration
In addition, racism which had been viewed primarily as a problem in the Southern states, burst onto the national consciousness following the Great Migration, the relocation of millions of African Americans from their roots in the Southern states to the industrial centers of the North after World War I, particularly in cities such as Boston, Chicago, and New York (Harlem). Within Chicago, for example, between 1910 and 1970, the percentage of African-Americans leapt from 2.0 percent to 32.7 percent.[21] The demographic patterns of black migrants and external economic conditions are largely studied stimulants regarding the Great Migration.[22] For example, migrating blacks (between 1910 and 1920) were more likely to be literate than blacks that remained in the South. Known economic push factors played a role in migration, such as the emergence of a split labor market and agricultural distress from the boll weevil destruction of cotton economy.[23]
Southern migrants were often treated in alliance with pre-existing racial stratification. The rapid influx of blacks disturbed the racial balance within cities, exacerbating hostility from both black and white Northerners. Stereotypic schemas of Southern blacks were used to attribute issues in urban areas, such as crime and disease, to the presence of African-Americans. Overall, African-Americans in Northern cities experienced systemic discrimination in a plethora of aspects of life. Within employment, economic opportunities for blacks were routed to the lowest-status and restrictive in potential mobility . Within the housing market, stronger discriminatory measures were used in correlation to the influx, resulting in a mix of "targeted violence, restrictive covenants, redlining and racial steering"[24]
Throughout this period, racial tensions exploded, most violently in Chicago, and lynchings—mob-directed hangings, usually racially motivated—increased dramatically in the 1920s.
WWII to Civil Rights Era
[edit]The Jim Crow Laws were state and local laws enacted in the Southern and border states of the United States and enforced between 1876 and 1965. They mandated "separate but equal" status for black Americans. In reality, this led to treatment and accommodations that were almost always inferior to those provided to white Americans. The most important laws required that public schools, public places and public transportation, like trains and buses, have separate facilities for whites and blacks. State-sponsored school segregation was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1954 in Brown v. Board of Education. One of the first federal court cases to challenge segregation in schools was Mendez v. Westminster in 1946.
In response to heightening discrimination and violence, non-violent acts of protest began to occur. For example, in February 1960, in Greensboro, North Carolina, four young African-American college students entered a Woolworth store and sat down at the counter but were refused service. The men had learned about non-violent protest in college, and continued to sit peacefully as whites tormented them at the counter, pouring ketchup on their heads and burning them with cigarettes. After this, many sit-ins took place to non-violently protest against racism and inequality. Sit-ins continued throughout the South and spread to other areas. Eventually, after many sit-ins and other non-violent protests, including marches and boycotts, places began to agree to desegregate.[25][full citation needed]
The 16th Street Baptist Church bombing marked a turning point during the Civil Rights Era, by attracting national attention. On Sunday, September 15, 1963 with a stack of dynamite hidden on an outside staircase, Ku Klux Klansmen destroyed one side of the Birmingham church. The bomb exploded in proximity to twenty-six children preparing in basement assembly room. The explosion killed four black girls, Carole Robertson (14), Cynthia Wesley (14), Denise McNair (11) and Addie Mae Collins (14).[26][27]
With the bombing only a couple weeks after Martin Luther King's March on Washington, it became an integral aspect of transformed perceptions of conditions for blacks in America. It influenced the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act, which overruled remaining Jim Crow laws. Nonetheless, neither had been implemented by the end of the 1960s.
Segregation continued even after the demise of the Jim Crow laws. Data on house prices and attitudes toward integration from suggest that in the mid-20th century, segregation was a product of collective actions taken by whites to exclude blacks from their neighborhoods.[28] Segregation also took the form of redlining, the practice of denying or increasing the cost of services, such as banking, insurance, access to jobs,[29] access to health care,[30] or even supermarkets[31] to residents in certain, often racially determined,[32] areas. Although in the United States informal discrimination and segregation have always existed, redlining began with the National Housing Act of 1934, which established the Federal Housing Administration (FHA). The practice was fought first through passage of the Fair Housing Act of 1968 (which prevents redlining when the criteria for redlining are based on race, religion, gender, familial status, disability, or ethnic origin), and later through the Community Reinvestment Act of 1977, which requires banks to apply the same lending criteria in all communities.[33] Although redlining is illegal some argue that it continues to exist in other forms.
Present
[edit]While substantial gains were made in the succeeding decades through middle class advancement and public employment, black poverty and lack of education[34] deepened in the context of de-industrialization.[35] Prejudice, discrimination, and institutional racism (see below) continue to affect African Americans.
From 1981 to 1997, the United States Department of Agriculture discriminated against tens of thousands of Black American farmers, denying loans provided to white farmers in similar circumstances. The discrimination was the subject of the Pigford v. Glickman lawsuit brought by members of the National Black Farmers Association, which resulted in two settlement agreements of $1.25 billion in 1999 and of $1.15 billion in 2009.[36]
It is argued that there exists a color blindness or an "understanding that cultural differences rooted in racial identities are irrelevant for peoples' prospects and their overall well-being".[37] Yet, one counter-example to this claim is that employer interviews reveal reluctance from both black and white employers to employ "urban young males who exhibit lower-class behavioral styles", highlighting the existence of embedded socio-economic preconceptions.[38]
Furthermore, many cite the 2008 United States presidential election as a step forward in race relations: White Americans played a role in electing Barack Obama, the country's first black president.[39] In fact, Obama received a greater percentage of the white vote (43%),[40] than did the previous Democratic candidate, John Kerry (41%).[41] Racial divisions persisted throughout the election; wide margins of Black voters gave Obama an edge during the presidential primary, where 8 out of 10 African-Americans voted for him in the primaries, and an MSNBC poll showed that race was a key factor in whether a candidate was perceived as being ready for office. In South Carolina, for instance,"Whites were far likelier to name Clinton than Obama as being most qualified to be commander in chief, likeliest to unite the country and most apt to capture the White House in November. Blacks named Obama over Clinton by even stronger margins — two- and three-to one — in all three areas."[42]
Sociologist Russ Long alleged in 2013 that there is now a more subtle racism that associates a specific race with a specific characteristic.[43] In a 1993 study conducted by Katz and Braly, it was presented that "blacks and whites hold a variety of stereotypes towards each other, often negative."[44] The Katz and Braley also alleged that African-Americans and Whites view the traits that they identify each other with as threatening, interracial communication between the two is likely to be "hesitant, reserved, and concealing."[44] Interracial communication is guided by stereotypes; stereotypes are transferred into personality and character traits which lead to have an effect on communication. Multiple factors go into how stereotypes are established, such as age and the setting in which they are being applied.[44] For example, in a study done by the Entman-Rojecki Index of Race and Media in 2014, 89% of Black women in movies are shown swearing and acting in offensive behavior while only 17% of White women are portrayed in this manner.[45]
Asian Americans
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/YellowTerror.jpg/220px-YellowTerror.jpg)
In the Pacific States, racism was primarily directed against the resident Asian immigrants. Several immigration laws discriminated against the Asians, and at different points the ethnic Chinese or other groups were banned from entering the United States.[46] Nonwhites were prohibited from testifying against whites, a prohibition extended to the Chinese by People v. Hall.[47] The Chinese were often subject to harder labor on the First Transcontinental Railroad and often performed the more dangerous tasks such as using dynamite to make pathways through the mountains.[48] Anti-Chinese sentiment was also rife in early Los Angeles, culminating in a notorious 1871 riot in which a mob attacked Chinese residents.[49]
During World War II, the United States created internment camps for Japanese-American citizens in fear that they would be used as spies for the Japanese.[50] Currently implemented immigration laws are still largely plagued with national origin-based quotas that are unfavorable to Asian countries due to large populations and historically low U.S. immigration rates[51]
Over the winter spanning 1929 and 1930, anti-Filipino racism exploded in the Central Coast area surrounding Watsonville over labor tensions and general xenophobia. Filipino farm workers were terrorized for "taking jobs from whites", and for mixing with white women; in California, and many states, Filipinos were barred from marrying White Americans (a group which included Hispanic Americans). Violence was directed towards Filipinos, some resulting in deaths, and a Filipino establishment was dynamited. A race war broke out in the Bay Area, with roving gangs of whites pulling Filipinos from their homes and dwellings, until the violence subsided. As a result of the riots, California's attitude changed towards importing cheaper Asian labor, moving towards utilizing cheaper Mexican labor instead.[52]
European immigrants
[edit]Various European-American immigrant groups have been subject to discrimination either on the basis of their immigrant status (known as "Nativism") or on the basis of their ethnicities (country of origin).
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Philadelphia1844riot.jpg/220px-Philadelphia1844riot.jpg)
In the 19th century, this was particularly true of anti-Irish prejudice, which was partly anti-Catholic sentiment, partly anti-Irish as an ethnicity. This was especially true for Irish Catholics who immigrated to the U.S. in the mid-19th century; the large number of Irish (both Catholic and Protestant) who settled in America in the 18th century had largely (but not entirely) escaped such discimination and eventually blended into the American white population.
The 20th century saw discrimination against immigrants from southern and eastern Europe (notably Italian-Americans and Polish Americans), partly from anti-Catholic sentiment (as against Irish-Americans), and partly from Nordicism, which considered all non-Germanic, non-Scandinavian, or non-British immigrants as racially inferior – see Nordicism in the USA.
“ | Biological laws tell us that certain divergent people will not mix or blend. The Nordics propagate themselves successfully. With other races, the outcome shows deterioration on both sides. | ” |
— Future US president Calvin Coolidge, 1921.[53] |
Nordicism led to the reduction in Southern European, along with Slavic Eastern European and Russian immigrants in the National Origins Formula of the Emergency Quota Act of 1921 and the Immigration Act of 1924, whose goal was to maintain the status quo distribution of ethnicity by limiting immigration in proportion to existing populations. This reduced the inflow from the average prior to 1921 of 176,983 from northern, central and western Europe, and 685,531 for other countries, principally Southern and Russia, to a 1924 level of 140,999 for northern, central and western Europe, and 21,847 for other countries, principally Southern and Russia (from a 1:3.9 ratio to a 6.4:1 ratio).
There was also discrimination against German-Americans and Italian-Americans due to these being enemy countries in World War I (Germany) and World War II (Germany and Italy). This resulted in a sharp decrease in German-American ethnic identity and a sharp decrease in the use of German in the United States following WWI, which had hitherto been significant, and to German American internment and Italian American internment during WWII; see also World War I anti-German sentiment.
Specific European-American ethnicities significantly diminished as a political issue in the 1930s, being replaced by a bi-racialism of Black/White, as described and predicted by Lothrop Stoddard, due to numerous causes. The National Origins Formula significantly reduced inflows of non-Nordic ethnicities; the Great Migration (of African-Americans out of the South) displaced anti-White immigrant racism with anti-Black racism; and the Great Depression brought economic concerns to the fore.
Anti-Catholic sentiment remained evident in the presidential campaign of John F. Kennedy, who nevertheless went on to become the US's first Catholic (and indeed non-Protestant) president.
After the fall of the Berlin Wall and collapse of the Soviet Union in the late 1980s and early 1990s, many immigrants came to the United States from Russia. A new type of racism which is based on the former Cold War stereotypes began to target people from the former Soviet states. There are many jokes refer to a communist past, corruption, high alcohol consumption, high crime rate, prostitution, and unemployment. Some people began to use words like Eurotrash, mafia, commie, Borat, and Russki when refer to Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, or Balkan peoples (mainly Serbs and Albanians).[citation needed] During the 2010 Winter Olympic Games in Vancouver NBC's commenter Mike Milbury used the term Eurotrash to describe the Russian hockey team. Jokes about Russian mail-order brides, European prostitutes and fashion models, the revival of Eastern-European and Latin-European (especially Polish and Italian) ethnic stereotypes in movies and television shows (Jersey Shore, The Sopranos, My Big Fat Greek Wedding, The Real Housewives of New Jersey and It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia) and offensive images became popular among young people in the United States.
Latin Americans
[edit]Americans of Latin American ancestry (often categorized as "Hispanic") come from a wide variety of racial and ethnic backgrounds. Latinos are not all distinguishable as a racial minority.
After the Mexican-American War (1846–1848), the U.S. annexed much of the current Southwestern region from Mexico. Mexicans residing in that territory found themselves subject to discrimination. It is estimated that at least 597 Mexicans were lynched between 1848 and 1928 (this is a conservative estimate due to lack of records in many reported lynchings). Mexicans were lynched at a rate of 27.4 per 100,000 of population between 1880 and 1930. This statistic is second only to that of the African American community during that period, which suffered an average of 37.1 per 100,000 population.[54] Between 1848 to 1879, Mexicans were lynched at an unprecedented rate of 473 per 100,000 of population.[55]
During The Great Depression, the U.S. government sponsored a Mexican Repatriation program which was intended to encourage Mexican immigrants to voluntarily return to Mexico, however, many were forcibly removed against their will. In total, up to one million persons of Mexican ancestry were deported, approximately 60 percent of those individuals were actually U.S. citizens.[56]
The Zoot Suit Riots were vivid incidents of racial violence against Latinos (e.g. Mexican-Americans) in Los Angeles in 1943. Naval servicemen stationed in a Latino neighborhood conflicted with youth in the dense neighborhood. Frequent confrontations between small groups and individuals had intensified into several days of non-stop rioting. Large mobs of servicemen would enter civilian quarters looking to attack Mexican American youths, some of whom were wearing zoot suits, a distinctive exaggerated fashion popular among that group.[57] The disturbances continued unchecked, and even assisted, by the local police for several days before base commanders declared downtown Los Angeles and Mexican American neighborhoods off-limits to servicemen.[58]
Many public institutions, businesses, and homeowners associations had official policies to exclude Mexican Americans. School children of Mexican American descent were subject to racial segregation in the public school system. In many counties, Mexican Americans were excluded from serving as jurors in court cases, especially in those that involved a Mexican American defendant. In many areas across the Southwest, they lived in separate residential areas, due to laws and real estate company policies.[59][60][61][62]
During the 1960s, Mexican American youth formed the Chicano Civil Rights Movement.
Middle Eastern and South Asian Americans
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Assyrianchurchdetroit.jpg/220px-Assyrianchurchdetroit.jpg)
People of Middle Eastern and South Asian descent historically occupied an ambiguous racial status in the United States. Middle Eastern and South Asian immigrants were among those who sued in the late 19th and early 20th century to determine whether they were "white" immigrants as required by naturalization law. By 1923, courts had vindicated a "common-knowledge" standard, concluding that "scientific evidence", including the notion of a "Caucasian race" including Middle Easterners and many South Asians, was incoherent. Legal scholar John Tehranian argues that in reality this was a "performance-based" standard, relating to religious practices, education, intermarriage and a community's role in the United States.[64]
Arab Americans
[edit]Racism against Arab Americans[65] and racialized Islamophobia against Muslims has risen concomitantly with tensions between the American government and the Islamic world.[66] Following the September 11, 2001 attacks in the United States, discrimination and racialized violence has markedly increased against Arab Americans and many other religious and cultural groups.[67] Scholars, including Sunaina Maira and Evelyn Alsultany, argue that in the post-September 11 climate, Muslim Americans have been racialized within American society, although the markers of this racialization are cultural, political, and religious rather than phenotypic.[68][69]
Arab Americans in particular were most demonized which led to hatred towards Middle Easterners living in the United States and elsewhere in the Western world.[70][71] There have been attacks against Arabs not only on the basis of their religion (Islam), but also on the basis of their ethnicity; numerous Christian Arabs have been attacked based on their appearances.[72] In addition, other Middle Eastern peoples (Iranians, Assyrians, Armenians, Jews, Turks, Yezidis, Kurds, etc.) who are mistaken for Arabs because of perceived "similarities in appearance" have been collateral victims of anti-Arabism.
Non-Arab and non-Muslim Middle Eastern people, as well as South Asians of different ethnic/religious backgrounds (Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs) have been stereotyped as "Arabs". The case of Balbir Singh Sodhi, a Sikh who was murdered at a Phoenix gas station by a white supremacist for "looking like an Arab terrorist" (because of the turban that is a requirement of Sikhism), as well as that of Hindus being attacked for "being Muslims" have achieved prominence and criticism following the September 11 attacks.[73][74]
Those of Middle Eastern descent who are in the United States military sometimes face racism from fellow soldiers. Army Spc Zachari Klawonn endured numerous instances of racism during his enlistment at Fort Hood, Texas. During his basic training he was made to put cloth around his head and play the role of terrorist. His fellow soldiers had to take him down to the ground and draw guns on him. He was also called things such as "raghead", "sand monkey", and "Zachari bin Laden"."[75][76]
A 2011 study reported that while official parameters encompass Arabs as part of the White American racial category, many Arab Americans from places other than the Levant feel they are not white and are not perceived as white by American society."[77][failed verification]
Iranian Americans
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Man_holding_sign_during_Iranian_hostage_crisis_protest%2C_1979.jpg/220px-Man_holding_sign_during_Iranian_hostage_crisis_protest%2C_1979.jpg)
The November 1979 Iranian hostage crisis of the U.S. embassy in Tehran precipitated a wave of anti-Iranian sentiment in the United States, directed both against the new Islamic regime and Iranian nationals and immigrants. Even though such sentiments gradually declined after the release of the hostages at the start of 1981, they sometimes flare up. In response, some Iranian immigrants to the U.S. have distanced themselves from their nationality and instead identify primarily on the basis of their ethnic or religious affiliations.[78]
Since the 1980s and especially since the 1990s, it has been argued, Hollywood's depiction of Iranians has gradually shown signs of vilifying Iranians.[79] Hollywood network productions such as 24,[80] John Doe, On Wings of Eagles (1986),[81] Escape from Iran: The Canadian Caper (1981),[82] and JAG almost regularly host Persian speaking villains in their storyline.
Antisemitism
[edit]Antisemitism has also played a role in the United States. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, hundreds of thousands of Jews were escaping the pogroms in Europe. They boarded boats from ports on the Baltic Sea and in Northern Germany, and largely arrived at Ellis Island, New York.[83]
It is thought by Leo Rosten, in his book, 'The Joys of Yiddish', that as soon as they left the boat, they were subject to racism from the port immigration authorities. The derogatory term 'kike' was adopted when referring to Jews (because they often could not write so they may have signed their immigration papers with circles - or kikel in Yiddish).[84]
From the 1910s, the Southern Jewish communities were attacked by the Ku Klux Klan, who objected to Jewish immigration, and often used 'The Jewish Banker' in their propaganda. In 1915, Texas-born, New York Jew Leo Frank was lynched by the newly re-formed Klan, after being convicted of rape and sentenced to death (his punishment was commuted to life imprisonment).[85]
The events in Nazi Germany also attracted attention from the United States. Jewish lobbying for intervention in Europe drew opposition from the isolationists, amongst whom was Father Charles Coughlin, a well known radio priest, who was known to be critical of Jews, believing that they were leading the United States into the war.[86] He preached in weekly, overtly anti-Semitic sermons and, from 1936, began publication of a newspaper, Social Justice, in which he printed anti-Semitic accusations such as The Protocols of the Elders of Zion.[86]
A number of Jewish organizations, Christian organizations, Muslim organizations, and academics consider the Nation of Islam to be anti-Semitic. Specifically, they claim that the Nation of Islam has engaged in revisionist and antisemitic interpretations of the Holocaust and exaggerates the role of Jews in the African slave trade.[87] The Jewish Anti-Defamation League (ADL) alleges that NOI Health Minister, Abdul Alim Muhammad, has accused Jewish doctors of injecting blacks with the AIDS virus,[88] an allegation that Dr. Abdul Alim Muhammad has denied.[citation needed]
Although Jews are often perceived as white in the American mainstream, the relationship of Jews to whiteness remains complex, with many preferring not to identify as white.[89][90][91][92] Prominent activist and rabbi Michael Lerner argues, in a 1993 Village Voice article, that "in America, to be 'white' means to be the beneficiary of the past 500 years of European exploration and exploitation of the rest of the world" and that "Jews can only be deemed white if there is massive amnesia on the part of non-Jews about the monumental history of anti-Semitism".[93] African-American activist Cornel West, in an interview with the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, has explained:
“ | Even if some Jews do believe that they're white, I think that they've been duped. I think that antisemitism has proven itself to be a powerful force in nearly every post of Western civilization where Christianity has a presence. And so even as a Christian, I say continually to my Jewish brothers and sisters: don't believe the hype about your full scale assimilation and integration into the mainstream. It only takes an event or two for a certain kind of anti-Jewish, antisemitic sensibility to surface in places that you would be surprised. But I'm just thoroughly convinced that America is not the promised land for Jewish brothers and sisters. A lot of Jewish brothers say, "No, that’s not true. We finally—yeah—they said that in Alexandria. You said that in Weimar Germany."[94] | ” |
New antisemitism
[edit]In recent years some scholars have advanced the concept of New antisemitism, coming simultaneously from the Far Left, the far right, and radical Islam, which tends to focus on opposition to the creation of a Jewish homeland in the State of Israel, and argue that the language of Anti-Zionism and criticism of Israel are used to attack Jews more broadly. In this view, the proponents of the new concept believe that criticisms of Israel and Zionism are often disproportionate in degree and unique in kind, and attribute this to antisemitism.[95]
Yehuda Bauer, Professor of Holocaust Studies at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, considers the concept "new antisemitism" to be false, since it is in fact old antisemitism that remains latent and recurs whenever it is triggered. In his view, the current trigger is the Israeli situation, and if a compromise were achieved there antisemitism would decline but not disappear.
Noted critics of Israel, such as Noam Chomsky and Norman Finkelstein question the extent of new antisemitism in the United States. Chomsky has stated that the Anti-Defamation League casts any question of pro-Israeli policy as antisemitism;[96] Finkelstein stated supposed "new antisemitism" is a preposterous concept advanced by the ADL to combat critics of Israeli policy.[97]
Antiziganism
[edit]The Roma population in America has blended more-or-less seamlessly into the rest of society.[citation needed] In the U.S., the term "Gypsy" has come to be associated with a trade, profession, or lifestyle more than the Romani ethnic/racial group.[citation needed] Some Americans, especially those self-employed in the fortune-telling and psychic reading business,[98] use the term "Gypsy" to describe themselves or their enterprise, despite having no ties to the Roma people. This can be chalked up to misperception and ignorance regarding the term rather than any bigotry or even anti-ziganism.[99][dubious – discuss]
Native Americans
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Native Americans, who have lived on the North American continent for at least 10,000 years,[100] had an enormously complex impact on American history and racial relations. During the colonial and independent periods, a long series of conflicts were waged, with the primary objective of obtaining resources of Native Americans. Through wars, massacres, forced displacement (such as in the Trail of Tears), and the imposition of treaties, land was taken and numerous hardships imposed. In 1540, the first racial strife was with Spaniard Hernando de Soto's expedition who enslaved and murdered in many New World communities. In the early 18th century, the English had enslaved nearly 800 Choctaws.[101] After the creation of the United States, the idea of Indian removal gained momentum. However, some Native Americans chose or were allowed to remain and avoided removal whereafter they were subjected to racist institutions in their ancestral homeland. The Choctaws in Mississippi described their situation in 1849, "we have had our habitations torn down and burned, our fences destroyed, cattle turned into our fields and we ourselves have been scourged, manacled, fettered and otherwise personally abused, until by such treatment some of our best men have died."[102] Joseph B. Cobb, who moved to Mississippi from Georgia, described Choctaws as having "no nobility or virtue at all," and in some respect he found blacks, especially native Africans, more interesting and admirable, the red man's superior in every way. The Choctaw and Chickasaw, the tribes he knew best, were beneath contempt, that is, even worse than black slaves.[103] Ideological expansionist justification (Manifest Destiny) included stereotyped perceptions of all Native Americans as "merciless Indian savages" (as described in the United States Declaration of Independence) despite successful American efforts at civilization as proven with the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Creek, and Choctaw. An egregious attempt occurred with the California gold rush, the first two years of which saw the deaths of thousands of Native Americans. Under Mexican rule in California, Indians were subjected to de facto enslavement under a system of peonage by the white elite. While in 1850, California formally entered the Union as a free state, with respect to the issue of slavery, the practice of Indian indentured servitude was not outlawed by the California Legislature until 1863.[104]
Military and civil resistance by Native Americans has been a constant feature of American history. So too have a variety of debates around issues of sovereignty, the upholding of treaty provisions, and the civil rights of Native Americans under U.S. law.
Reservation marginalization
[edit]Once their territories were incorporated into the United States, surviving Native Americans were denied equality before the law and often treated as wards of the state.[105]
Many Native Americans were relegated to reservations—constituting just 4% of U.S. territory—and the treaties signed with them violated. Tens of thousands of American Indians and Alaska Natives were forced to attend a residential school system which sought to reeducate them in white settler American values, culture and economy, to "kill the Indian, save the man."[106][107]
Further dispossession of various kinds continues into the present, although these current dispossessions, especially in terms of land, rarely make major news headlines in the country (e.g., the Lenape people's recent fiscal troubles and subsequent land grab by the State of New Jersey), and sometimes even fail to make it to headlines in the localities in which they occur. Through concessions for industries such as oil, mining and timber and through division of land from the Allotment Act forward, these concessions have raised problems of consent, exploitation of low royalty rates, environmental injustice, and gross mismanagement of funds held in trust, resulting in the loss of $10–40 billion.[108]
The Worldwatch Institute notes that 317 reservations are threatened by environmental hazards, while Western Shoshone land has been subjected to more than 1,000 nuclear explosions.[109]
Assimilation
[edit]The government appointed agents, like Benjamin Hawkins, to live among the Native Americans and to teach them, through example and instruction, how to live like whites.[110] America's first president, George Washington, formulated a policy to encourage the "civilizing" process.[111] Washington had a six-point plan for civilization which included:
1. impartial justice toward Native Americans
2. regulated buying of Native American lands
3. promotion of commerce
4. promotion of experiments to civilize or improve Native American society
5. presidential authority to give presents
6. punishing those who violated Native American rights.[112]
The Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 granted U.S. citizenship to all Native Americans. Prior to the passage of the act, nearly two-thirds of Native Americans were already U.S. citizens.[113] The earliest recorded date of Native Americans becoming U.S. citizens was in 1831 when the Mississippi Choctaw became citizens after the United States Legislature ratified the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek. Under article XIV of that treaty, any Choctaw who elected not to move to Native American Territory could become an American citizen when he registered and if he stayed on designated lands for five years after treaty ratification. Citizenship could also be obtained by:
1. Treaty Provision (as with the Mississippi Choctaw)
2. Allotment under the Act of February 8, 1887
3. Issuance of Patent in Fee Simple
4. Adopting Habits of Civilized Life
5. Minor Children
6. Citizenship by Birth
7. Becoming Soldiers and Sailors in the U.S. Armed Forces
8. Marriage
9. Special Act of Congress.
“ | Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That all noncitizen Native Americans born within the territorial limits of the United States be, and they are hereby, declared to be citizens of the United States: Provided, That the granting of such citizenship shall not in any manner impair or otherwise affect the right of any Native American to tribal or other property. | ” |
— -Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 |
While formal equality has been legally estated, American Indians, Alaska Natives, Native Hawaiians, and Pacific Islanders remain among the most economically disadvantaged groups in the country, and according to National mental health studies, American Indians as a group tend to suffer from high levels of alcoholism, depression and suicide.[114]
Consequences
[edit]Developmental
[edit]Using The Schedule of Racist Events (SRE), an 18-item self-report inventory that assesses the frequency of racist discrimination. Hope Landrine and Elizabeth A. Klonoff found that racist discrimination is rampant in the lives of African Americans and is strongly related to psychiatric symptoms.[115] A study on racist events in the lives of African American women found that lifetime experiences of racism were positively related to lifetime history of both physical disease and frequency of recent common colds. These relationships were largely unaccounted for by other variables. Demographic variables such as income and education were not related to experiences of racism. The results suggest that racism can be detrimental to African American's well being.[116] The physiological stress caused by racism has been documented in studies by Claude Steele, Joshua Aronson, and Steven Spencer on what they term "stereotype threat."[117] Quite similarly, another example of the psychosocial consequences of discrimination have been observed in a study sampling Mexican-origin participants in Fresno, California. It was found that perceived discrimination is correlated with depressive symptoms, especially for those less acculturated in the United States, like Mexican immigrants and migrants.[118]
Along the vein of somatic responses to discrimination, Kennedy et al. found that both measures of collective disrespect were strongly correlated with black mortality (r = 0.53 to 0.56), as well as with white mortality (r = 0.48 to 0.54). These data suggest that racism, measured as an ecologic characteristic, is associated with higher mortality in both blacks and whites.[119] Some researchers also suggest that racial segregation may lead to disparities in health and mortality. Thomas LaVeist (1989; 1993) tested the hypothesis that segregation would aid in explaining race differences in infant mortality rates across cities. Analyzing 176 large and midsized cities, LaVeist found support for the hypothesis. Since LaVeist's studies, segregation has received increased attention as a determinant of race disparities in mortality.[120] Studies have shown that mortality rates for male and female African Americans are lower in areas with lower levels of residential segregation. Mortality for male and female Whites was not associated in either direction with residential segregation.[121]
Researchers Sharon A. Jackson, Roger T. Anderson, Norman J. Johnson and Paul D. Sorlie found that, after adjustment for family income, mortality risk increased with increasing minority residential segregation among Blacks aged 25 to 44 years and non-Blacks aged 45 to 64 years. In most age/race/gender groups, the highest and lowest mortality risks occurred in the highest and lowest categories of residential segregation, respectively. These results suggest that minority residential segregation may influence mortality risk and underscore the traditional emphasis on the social underpinnings of disease and death.[122] Rates of heart disease among African Americans are associated with the segregation patterns in the neighborhoods where they live (Fang et al. 1998). Stephanie A. Bond Huie writes that neighborhoods affect health and mortality outcomes primarily in an indirect fashion through environmental factors such as smoking, diet, exercise, stress, and access to health insurance and medical providers.[123] Moreover, segregation strongly influences premature mortality in the US.[124]
As early as 1866, the Civil Rights Act provided a remedy for intentional race discrimination in employment by private employers and state and local public employers. The Civil Rights Act of 1871 applies to public employment or employment involving state action prohibiting deprivation of rights secured by the federal constitution or federal laws through action under color of law. Title VII is the principal federal statute with regard to employment discrimination prohibiting unlawful employment discrimination by public and private employers, labor organizations, training programs and employment agencies based on race or color, religion, gender, and national origin. Title VII also prohibits retaliation against any person for opposing any practice forbidden by statute, or for making a charge, testifying, assisting, or participating in a proceeding under the statute. The Civil Rights Act of 1991 expanded the damages available in Title VII cases and granted Title VII plaintiffs the right to a jury trial. Title VII also provides that race and color discrimination against every race and color is prohibited.
Societal
[edit]Schemas and stereotypes
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/1900sc_Mammy_Card_Interracial.jpg/220px-1900sc_Mammy_Card_Interracial.jpg)
Media
Popular culture (songs, theater) for European American audiences in the 19th century created and perpetuated negative stereotypes of African Americans. One key symbol of racism against African Americans was the use of blackface. Directly related to this was the institution of minstrelsy. Other stereotypes of African Americans included the fat, dark-skinned "mammy" and the irrational, hypersexual male "buck".
In recent years increasing numbers of African-American activists have asserted that rap music videos utilize African-American performers commonly enacting tropes of scantily clothed women and men as thugs or pimps. Church organized groups have protested outside the residence of Phillipe Dauman (Upper East Side (New York, NY)) (president and chief executive officer of Viacom) and the residence of Debra L. Lee (Northwest Washington DC) (chairman and chief executive of Black Entertainment Television, a unit of Viacom). Rev. Donald Coates, leader of a protest organization formed around the issue of the videos, "Enough is Enough!" said, "In the wake of the Imus affair, I began to think that the African-American community must be consistent in its outrage." The Clifton, Maryland minister has also said, "Why are these corporations making these images normative and mainstream?" ... "I can talk about this in the church until I am blue in the face, but we need to take it outside." The NAACP and the National Congress of Black Women also have called for the reform of images on videos and on television. Julian Bond said that in a segregated society, people get their impressions of other groups from what they see in videos and what they hear in music.[125][126][127][128]
In a similar vein, activists protested against the BET show, Hot Ghetto Mess, which satirizes the culture of working-class African-Americans. The protests resulted in the change of the television show name to We Got to Do Better.[125]
It is understood that representations of minorities in the media have the ability to reinforce or change stereotypes. For example, in one study, a collection of white subjects were primed by a comedy skit either showing a stereotypical or neutral portrayal of African-American characters. Participants were then required to read a vignette describing an incident of sexual violence, with the alleged offender either white or black, and assign a rating for perceived guilt. For those shown the stereotypical African-American character, there was a significantly higher guilt rating for black alleged offender in the subsequent vignette, in comparison to the other conditions.[129]
While schemas have an overt societal consequence, the strong development of them have lasting effect on recipients. Overall, it is found that strong in-group attitudes are correlated with academic and economic success. In a study analyzing the interaction of assimilation and racial-ethnic schemas for Hispanic youth found that strong schematic identities for Hispanic youth undermined academic achievement.[130]
Additional stereotypes attributed to minorities continue to influence societal interactions. For example, a 1993 Harvard Law Review article states that Asian-Americans are commonly viewed as submissive, as a combination of relative physical stature and Western comparisons of cultural attitudes. Furthermore, Asian-Americans are depicted as the model minority, unfair competitors, foreigners, and indistinguishable. These stereotypes can serve to dehumanize Asian-Americans and catalyze hostility and violence.[131]
Formal discrimination
[edit]Formal discrimination against minorities has been present throughout American history. In recent decades, formal has become less violent yet still overt. Within education, a survey of black students in sixteen majority white universities revealed that four of five African-Americans reported some form of racial discrimination. For example, in February 1988, the University of Michigan enforced a new anti discrimination code following the distribution of fliers saying blacks “don’t belong in classrooms, they belong hanging from trees”. Other forms of reported discrimination were refusal to sit next to black in lecture, ignored input in class settings, and informal segregation. While the penalties are imposed, the psychological consequences of formal discrimination can still manifest. Black students, for example, reported feelings of heightened isolation and suspicion. Furthermore, studies have shown that academic performance is stunted for black students with these feelings as a result of their campus race interactions.[132]
Minority-minority racism
Minority racism is sometimes considered controversial because of theories of power in society. Some theories of racism insist that racism can only exist in the context of social power to impose it upon others.[133] Yet discrimination and racism between racially marginalized groups has been noted. For example, there has been ongoing violence between African American and Mexican American gangs, particularly in Southern California.[134][135][136][137] There have been reports of racially motivated attacks against Mexican Americans who have moved into neighborhoods occupied mostly by African Americans, and vice versa.[138][139] According to gang experts and law enforcement agents, a longstanding race war between the Mexican Mafia and the Black Guerilla Family, a rival African American prison gang, has generated such intense racial hatred among Mexican Mafia leaders, or shot callers, that they have issued a "green light" on all blacks. This amounts to a standing authorization for Latino gang members to prove their mettle by terrorizing or even murdering any blacks sighted in a neighborhood claimed by a gang loyal to the Mexican Mafia.[dead link][140] There have been several significant riots in California prisons where Mexican American inmates and African Americans have targeted each other particularly, based on racial reasons.[141][142]
There has also been noted conflict between recent immigrant groups and their established ethnic counterparts within the United States. Rapid growth in African and Caribbean immigrants has come into conflict with American blacks. Interaction and cooperation between black immigrants and American blacks are, ironically, debatable. One can argue that racial discrimination and cooperation is not ordinarily based on color of skin but more on shared common, cultural experiences, and beliefs.[143][144] Furthermore, conflict between Chinese immigrants and Japanese Americans are known to have occurred in the San Gabriel Valley of the Los Angeles area in the 1980s. [citation needed]
Interpersonal discrimination
[edit]In a manner that defines interpersonal discrimination in the United States, Darryl Brown of the Virginia Law Review states that while “our society has established a consensus against blatant, intentional racism and in decades since Brown v Board of Education has developed a sizeable set of legal remedies to address it”, our legal system “ignores the possibility that ‘race’ is structural or interstitial, that it can be the root of injury even when not traceable to a specific intention or action”[145]
Interpersonal discrimination is defined by its subtlety. Unlike formal discrimination, interpersonal discrimination is often not an overt or deliberate act of racism. For example, in an incident regarding a racial remark from a professor at Virginia Law, a rift was created by conflicting definitions of racism. For the students that defended the professor’s innocence, “racism was defined as an act of intentional maliciousness.” Yet for African-American’s, racism was broadened to a detrimental influence on “the substantive dynamics of the classroom”. As an effect, it is argued that the “daily repetition of subtle racism and subordination in the classroom and on campus can ultimately be, for African Americans, more productive of stress, anxiety and alienation than even blatant racists acts.” Moreover, the attention to these acts of discrimination diverts energy from academics, becoming a distraction that white students do not generally face.[145]
Institutional
[edit]Institutional racism is the theory that aspects of the structure, pervasive attitudes, and established institutions of society disadvantage some racial groups, although not by an overtly discriminatory mechanism.[146] There are several factors that play into institutional racism, including but not limited to: accumulated wealth/benefits from racial groups that have benefited from past discrimination, educational and occupational disadvantages faced by non-native English speakers in the United States, ingrained stereotypical images that still remain in the society (e.g. black men are likely to be criminals).[147]
Immigration
[edit]Access to United States citizenship was restricted by race, beginning with the Naturalization Act of 1790 which refused naturalization to "non-whites". Many in the modern United States forget the institutionalized prejudice against white followers of Roman Catholicism who immigrated from countries such as Ireland, Germany, Italy and France.[148] Other efforts include the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act and the 1924 National Origins Act.[149][150] The Immigration Act of 1924 was aimed at further restricting the Southern Europeans and Russians who had begun to enter the country in large numbers beginning in the 1890s.
In conjunction with immigration reform in the late 1980s (seen with the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986), there have been noted IRCA-related discriminatory behavior toward Hispanics within employment. As the measure made it unlawful to hire without authorization to work in the United States, avoidant treatment toward “foreign-appearing workers” increased to bypass the required record-keeping or risk of sanctions.[151]
Wealth
[edit]Massive racial differentials in account of wealth remain in the United States: between whites and African Americans, the gap is a factor of twenty.[152] An analyst of the phenomenon, Thomas Shapiro, professor of law and social policy at Brandeis University argues, "The wealth gap is not just a story of merit and achievement, it's also a story of the historical legacy of race in the United States."[153] Differentials applied to the Social Security Act (which excluded agricultural workers, a sector that then included most black workers), rewards to military officers, and the educational benefits offered returning soldiers after World War II. Pre-existing disparities in wealth are exacerbated by tax policies that reward investment over waged income, subsidize mortgages, and subsidize private sector developers.[154]
Health care
[edit]There are major racial differences in access to health care and in the quality of health care provided. A study published in the American Journal of Public Health estimated that: "over 886,000 deaths could have been prevented from 1991 to 2000 if African Americans had received the same care as whites." The key differences they cited were lack of insurance, inadequate insurance, poor service, and reluctance to seek care.[155] A history of government-sponsored experimentation, such as the notorious Tuskegee Syphilis Study has left a legacy of African American distrust of the medical system.[156]
Inequalities in health care may also reflect a systemic bias in the way medical procedures and treatments are prescribed for different ethnic groups. Raj Bhopal writes that the history of racism in science and medicine shows that people and institutions behave according to the ethos of their times and warns of dangers to avoid in the future.[157] Nancy Krieger contended that much modern research supported the assumptions needed to justify racism. Racism she writes underlies unexplained inequities in health care, including treatment for heart disease,[158] renal failure,[159] bladder cancer,[160] and pneumonia.[161] Raj Bhopal writes that these inequalities have been documented in numerous studies. The consistent and repeated findings that black Americans receive less health care than white Americans—particularly where this involves expensive new technology.[162]
Politics
[edit]It is argued that racial “coding” of concepts like crime and welfare has been used to strategically influence public political views. Racial coding is implicit; it incorporates racially primed language or imagery to allude to racial attitudes and thinking. For example, in the context of domestic policy, it is argued that Ronald Reagan implied linkages between concepts like “special interests” and “big government” with ill-perceived minority groups in the 1980s, using the conditioned negativity toward the minority groups to discredit certain policies and programs during campaigns. In a study analyzing how political ads prime attitudes, Valentino compares the voting responses of participants after being exposed to narration of a George W. Bush advertisement paired with three different types of visuals with different embedded racial cues to create three conditions: neutral, race comparison, and undeserving blacks. For example, as the narrator states “Democrats want to spend your tax dollars on wasteful government programs”, the video shows an image of a black woman and child in an office setting. Valentino found that the undeserving blacks condition produced the largest primed effect in racialized policies, like opposition to affirmative action and welfare spending.[163]
Justice system
[edit]Racism has been noted in all levels of the U.S. justice system. According to 2009 congressional testimony from Marc Mauer; while African Americans comprise 13% of the US population and 14% of monthly drug users they are 37% of the people arrested for drug offenses; as well as 56% of the people in state prisons for drug offenses. The U.S. Sentencing Commission reported in March 2010 that in the federal system black offenders receive sentences that are 10% longer than white offenders for the same crimes. A July 2009 report by the Sentencing Project found that two-thirds of the people in the US with life sentences are non-white.[164]
Contemporary issues in American racism
[edit]Hate crimes
[edit]Most hate crimes in the United States target victims on the basis of race or ethnicity (for Federal purposes, crimes targeting Hispanics based on that identity are considered based on ethnicity). Leading forms of bias cited in the FBI's Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program, based on law enforcement agency filings are: anti-black, anti-Jewish, anti-white, anti-homosexual, and anti-Hispanic bias in that order in both 2004 and 2005.[165] There are more hate crimes against whites than against Hispanics, Asians, American Indians, and multiracial groups - a statistically expected trend given that there far more whites than other ethnic groups put together. By contrast, the National Criminal Victimization Survey, finds that per capita rates of hate crime victimization varied little by race or ethnicity, and the differences are not statistically significant.[166]
The New Century Foundation, a white nationalist organization founded by Jared Taylor, argues that blacks are more likely than whites to commit hate crimes, and that FBI figures inflate the number of hate crimes committed by whites by counting Hispanics as "white".[167] Other analysts are sharply critical of the NCF's findings, referring to the criminological mainstream view that "Racial and ethnic data must be treated with caution. Existing research on crime has generally shown that racial or ethnic identity is not predictive of criminal behavior with data which has been controlled for social and economic factors."[168] NCF's methodology and statistics are further sharply criticized as flawed and deceptive by anti-racist activists Tim Wise and the Southern Poverty Law Center.[169][170]
The first post-Jim Crow era hate crime to make sensational media attention was the murder of Vincent Chin, an Asian American of Chinese descent in 1982. He was attacked by a two white assailants who were recently laid off from a Detroit area auto factory job and blamed the Japanese for their individual unemployment. Chin was not of Japanese descent, but the assailants testified at the criminal court case that he "looked like a Jap", an ethnic slur used to describe Japanese and other Asians, and that they were angry enough to beat him to death.
Hateful views from Americans
[edit]Continuing antisemitism in the United States has remained an issue as the 2011 Survey of American Attitudes Toward Jews in America, released by the Anti-Defamation League (ADL), has found that the recent world economic recession increased some antisemitic viewpoints among Americans. Most people express pro-Jewish sentiments, with 64% of those surveyed agreeing that Jews have contributed much to U.S. social culture. Yet the polling found that 19% of Americans answered "probably true" to the antisemitic canard that "Jews have too much control/influence on Wall Street" while 15% concurred with the related statement that Jews seem "more willing to use shady practices" in business. Reflecting on the lingering antisemitism of about in five Americans, Abraham H. Foxman, ADL national director, has argued, "It is disturbing that with all of the strides we have made in becoming a more tolerant society, anti-Semitic beliefs continue to hold a vice-grip on a small but not insubstantial segment of the American public."[171]
An ABC News report in 2007 recounted that past ABC polls across several years have tended to find that "six percent have self-reported prejudice against Jews, 27 percent against Muslims, 25 percent against Arabs," and "one in 10 concedes harboring at least some such feelings" against Hispanic Americans. The report also remarked that a full 34% of Americans reported "some racist feelings" in general as a self-description.[172] An Associated Press and Yahoo News survey of 2,227 adult Americans in 2008 found that 10% of white respondents stated that "a lot" of discrimination against African-Americans exists while 45% answered "some" compared to 57% of black respondents answering that "a lot" exists. In the same poll, more whites applied positive attributes to black Americans than negative ones, with blacks describing whites even more highly, but a significant minority of whites still called their fellow Americans "irresponsible", "lazy", or other such things.[173]
Stanford University political scientist Paul Sniderman has remarked that, in the modern U.S., racial prejudice "is a deep challenge, and it's one that Americans in general, and for that matter, political scientists, just haven't been ready to acknowledge fully."[173]
Alleviation
[edit]There is a wide plethora of societal and political suggestions to alleviate the effects of continued discrimination in the United States. For example, within universities, it has been suggested that a type of committee could respond to non-sanctionable behavior.[145]
It is also argued that there is a need for “white students and faculty to reformulate white-awareness toward a more secure identity that is not threatened by black cultural institutions and that can recognize the racial non-neutrality of the institutions whites dominate” (Brown, 334). Paired with this effort, Brown encourages the increase in minority faculty members, so the embedded white normative experience begins to fragment.[145]
Within media, it is found that racial cues prime racial stereotypic thought. Thus, it is argued that “stereotype inconsistent cues might lead to more intentioned thought, thereby suppressing racial priming effects” [163]
See also
[edit]- Anti-Americanism
- Affirmative Action
- Anti-French sentiment in the United States
- Anti-Irish racism
- Anti-Italianism
- Anti-Polish sentiment
- White power
- White privilege
- Bigotry
- Black supremacy
- Constitutional colorblindness
- Eugenics in the United States
- German American internment
- Illegal immigration to the United States
- Italian American internment
- Japanese American internment
- Judicial racism
- List of race riots
- List of racism-related topics
- Manifest Destiny
- Mass racial violence in the United States
- Nativism
- Post-racial America
- Racial equality proposal
- Racism by country
- Racism in Film of the United States
- Reverse discrimination
- U.S. Commission on Civil Rights
References
[edit]![]() | This article has an unclear citation style. (September 2009) |
- ^ Internment camps are particularly associated with World War II, but also occurred during World War I. Most significant was the Japanese American internment of 120,000 Japanese Americans during World War II. There was also internment of almost 11,000 German Americans in German American internment during World War II, and some Italian American internment.
- ^ In his 2009 visit to the US, the [UN] Special Rapporteur on Racism noted that "Socio-economic indicators show that poverty and race and ethnicity continue to overlap in the United States. This reality is a direct legacy of the past, in particular slavery, segregation, the forcible resettlement of Native Americans, which was confronted by the United States during the civil rights movement. However, whereas the country managed to establish equal treatment and non-discrimination in its laws, it has yet to redress the socioeconomic consequences of the historical legacy of racism."CERD Task Force of the US Human Rights Network (August 2010). "From Civil Rights to Human Rights: Implementing US Obligations Under the International Convention on the Elimination of All forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD)". Universal Periodic Review Joint Reports: United States of America. p. 44.
- ^ Henry, P. J., David O. Sears. Race and Politics: The Theory of Symbolic Racism. University of California, Los Angeles. 2002.
- ^ US Human Rights Network (August 2010). "The United States of America: Summary Submission to the UN Universal Periodic Review". Universal Periodic Review Joint Reports: United States of America. p. 8.
- ^ Darity Jr., William (2005). African Americans in the U.S. Economy (Africa, Europe, and the Origins of Uneven Development: The Role of Slavery) (PDF). Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield. pp. 15–16.
- ^ "Darity Jr., 2005"
- ^ Eltis, David (December 1993). "Europeans and the Rise and Fall of African Slavery in the Americas: An Interpretation". The American Historical Review. 98 (5): 1402–1422. doi:10.2307/2167060. JSTOR 2167060. Retrieved 2013-10-19.
- ^ Eltis, David (2008). Extending the Frontiers: Essays on the New Transatlantic Slave Trade Database. United States of America: Yale University Press. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-300-13436-0.
- ^ Eltis, David. "Estimates". Retrieved October 19, 2013.
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- ^ Maggie Montesinos Sale (1997). The slumbering volcano: American slave ship revolts and the production of rebellious masculinity. p.264. Duke University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-8223-1992-6
- ^ "The legal and diplomatic background to the seizure of foreign vessels". Pdavis.nl. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
- ^ "Emancipation Proclamation (1863)". Ourdocuments.gov. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
- ^ XIII - Slavery Abolished The Avalon Project
- ^ James McPherson, Drawn with the Sword, page 15
- ^ "The Deadliest War". Harvardmagazine.com. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
- ^ Estreicher, Samuel (1974). "Federal Power to Regulate Private Discrimination: The Revival of the Enforcement Clauses of the Reconstruction Era Amendments". Columbia Law Review. 74 (3): 452–454. doi:10.2307/1121764. JSTOR 112176.
- ^ Klarman, Michael (1998). "The Plessy Era". The Supreme Court Review. 1998: 307–308. doi:10.1086/scr.1998.3109701. JSTOR 3109701. S2CID 147074451.
- ^ Tolnay, Stewart E.; Beck, E. M. (1990). "Black Flight: Lethal Violence and the Great Migration, 1900–1930". Social Science History. 14 (3): 354. doi:10.2307/1171355. JSTOR 1171355.
- ^ Tolnay, Stewart (2003). "The African American 'Great Migration' and Beyond". Annual Review of Sociology. 29: 221. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.100009. JSTOR 30036966.
- ^ Tolnay, Stewart (2003). "The African American 'Great Migration' and Beyond". Annual Review of Sociology. 29: 213. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.100009. JSTOR 30036966.
- ^ Tolnay, Stewart E.; Beck, E. M. (1990). "Black Flight: Lethal Violence and the Great Migration, 1900-1930". Social Science History. 14 (3): 351–352. doi:10.2307/1171355. JSTOR 1171355.
- ^ Tolnay, Stewart (2003). "The African American 'Great Migration' and Beyond". Annual Review of Sociology. 29: 218–221. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.100009. JSTOR 30036966.
- ^ "The Dream of Equality, 1954-1974". American History.
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(help) - ^ Ravitz, Jessica. "Siblings of the bombing: Remembering Birmingham church blast 50 years on". Retrieved October 20, 2013.
- ^ "Birmingham Church Bombed". L.A. Rebellion: Film & Television Archive. Retrieved October 20, 2013.
- ^ The Rise and Decline of the American Ghetto David M. Cutler, Edward L. Glaeser, Jacob L. Vigdor The Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 107, No. 3 (Jun., 1999), pp. 455-506
- ^ "Racial Discrimination and Redlining in Cities" (PDF). Retrieved 2013-02-16.
- ^ See: Race and health
- ^ In poor health: Supermarket redlining and urban nutrition, Elizabeth Eisenhauer, GeoJournal Volume 53, Number 2, February 2001
- ^ How East New York Became a Ghetto by Walter Thabit. ISBN 0-8147-8267-1. Page 42.
- ^ Comeback Cities: A Blueprint for Urban Neighborhood Revival By Paul S. Grogan, Tony Proscio. ISBN 0-8133-3952-9. 2002. p. 114. "The goal was not to relax lending restrictions but rather to get banks to apply the same criteria in the inner-city as in the suburbs."
- ^ "JBHE Statistical Shocker of the Year". Jbhe.com. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
- ^ Ronald Takaki, A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America (New York: Little, Brown & Co., 1993), 400-414.
- ^ Southall, Ashley (2010-05-25). "Bias Payments Come Too Late for Some Farmers". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2010-05-26.
- ^ Blau, Judith (2002). "White Supremacy and Racism in the Post-Civil Rights Era by Eduardo Bonilla-Silva". Contemporary Sociology. 31 (5): 527. doi:10.2307/3090024. JSTOR 3090024.
- ^ Loury, Glenn (1998). "Discrimination in the Post-Civil Rights Era: Beyond Market Intercations". The Journal of Economic Perspectives. 12 (2): 123. doi:10.1257/jep.12.2.117. JSTOR 2646965.
- ^ White Americans play major role in electing the first black president, Los Angeles Times
- ^ "Inside Obama's Sweeping Victory". Pew Research Center. November 5, 2008.
- ^ "U.S. President: National: Exit Poll". CNN.
- ^ "Strong black vote gives Obama big boost". MSNBC. 2008-01-26. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
- ^ http://dmc122011.delmar.edu/socsci/rlong/problems/chap-08.htm
- ^ a b c Leonard, Rebecca and Locke, Don C. “Communication Stereotypes: Is Interracial Communication Possible?” Journal of Black Studies 23.3 (1993): 332-343. JSTOR. Web. 26 Jan 2014
- ^ Orbe, Mark P., and Tina M. Harris. "Interracial Communication: Theory Into Practice."Google Books. Sage Publications, n.d. Web. 02 Feb. 2014
- ^ "Immigration...Chinese:Exclusion". Memory.loc.gov. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
- ^ "Text of People v. Hall decision". Cetel.org. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
- ^ Ronald Takaki, A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America (New York: Little, Brown & Co., 1993), 196-98.
- ^ "The Chinese Outrage in Los Angeles – Verdict of the Corner's Jury". The New York Times. November 7, 1871.
- ^ "Internment of German Americans in the United States during World War II". Foitimes.com. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
- ^ "Diversity Visa Program and Its Susceptibility to Fraud and Abuse". Commdocs.house.gov. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
- ^ Racial hate once flared on the West Coast
- ^ Coolidge, Calvin (1921). "Whose Country is This?". Good Housekeeping: 14.
- ^ The lynching of persons of Mexican origin or descent in[dead link]
- ^ "The lynching of persons of Mexican origin or descent in the United States, 1848 to 1928 | Journal of Social History | Find Articles at BNET.com". Findarticles.com. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
- ^ http://digitalcommons.pace.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1038&context=lawrev
- ^ Richard Griswold del Castillo, "The Los Angeles "Zoot Suit Riots" Revisited: Mexican and Latin American Perspectives," Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos, Vol. 16, No. 2. (Summer, 2000), pp. 367-391.
- ^ Arthur C. Verge, "The Impact of the Second World War on Los Angeles," The Pacific Historical Review, Vol. 63, No. 3, Fortress California at War: San Francisco, Los Angeles, Oakland, and San Diego, 1941-1945. (Aug., 1994), pp. 306-7.
- ^ "Teachers' Domain: Mendez v. Westminster: Desegregating California's Schools". Teachersdomain.org. 2004-12-22. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
- ^ "Handbook of Texas Online - HERNANDEZ V. STATE OF TEXAS". Tshaonline.org. 1927-02-16. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
- ^ "RACE - History - Post-War Economic Boom and Racial Discrimination". Understandingrace.org. 1956-12-21. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
- ^ Pulido, Laura (2005-12-17). Black, Brown, Yellow, and Left: Radical Activism in Los Angeles - Laura Pulido - Google Boeken. ISBN 9780520938892. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
- ^ "Arab American Institute Still Deliberately Claiming Assyrians Are Arabs". Assyrian International News Agency. Retrieved 2008-02-09.
- ^ John Tehranian, "Performing Whiteness: Naturalization Litigation and the Construction of Racial Identity in America," The Yale Law Journal, Vol. 109, No. 4. (Jan., 2000), pp. 817–848.
- ^ Leonard, Karen. University of California, Irvine. Western Knight Center. "American Muslims: South Asian Contributions to the Mix." 2005. July 28, 2007. [1]
- ^ Netton, Ian Richard (2006). "From ambiguity to abjection: Iraqi-Americans negotiating race in the United States". In Zahia Smail Salhi (ed.) (ed.). The Arab diaspora: Voices of an anguished scream. Taylor & Francis. pp. 140–43. ISBN 978-0-415-37542-9.
{{cite book}}
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has generic name (help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
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suggested) (help) - ^ "United States". Hrw.org. 2001-09-11. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
- ^ "While African-Americans, Asians, and Native Americans are racialized according to phenotype, Arab-Americans are often racialized according to religion and politics. Religious racialization conflates Arabs and Islam, and consequently positions all Arabs as Muslim; represents Islam as a monolithic religion erasing diversity among Arabs and Muslims; and marks Islam as a backwards, fanatical, uncivilized, and a terroristic belief system" (p. 127). "Whereas before September 11, Arab- and Muslim-Americans were not included in discourses on race and racism in the United States, a public discourse emerged after September 11 on whether Arabs and Muslims were being treated fairly or being subjected to racism with the rise in hate crimes and government measures targeting Arabs and Muslims" (p. 141). Alsultany, Evelyn (2006). "From ambiguity to abjection: Iraqi-Americans negotiating race in the United States". In Zahia Smail Salhi, Ian Richard Netton (eds.) (ed.). The Arab diaspora: Voices of an anguished scream. Taylor & Francis. p. 127. ISBN 978-0-415-37542-9.
{{cite book}}
:|editor=
has generic name (help) - ^ "'Muslim' identity has certainly congealed as a marker of exclusion and marginalization, in relation to white or mainstream America, which is subjected to similar processes of racialization, and racism, that operate for racial minority groups."Maira, Sunaina (January 2009). Missing: youth, citizenship, and empire after 9/11. Duke University Press. p. 229. ISBN 978-0-8223-4409-4.
- ^ "Independent News Media - War in Iraq". Columbus Free Press. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
- ^ Abdul Malik Mujahid. "Demonization of Muslims Caused the Iraq Abuse". Soundvision.com. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
- ^ Attacks on Arab Americans (PBS)
- ^ February 11, 2009, 8:55 PM (2009-02-11). "Hindu Beaten Because He's Muslim, Mistaken Anti-Islam Thugs Pummel, Hogtie And Stab Deliveryman". CBS News. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ "ADL Condemns Hate Crime Against Hindu". Anti-Defamation League (ADL). Retrieved 2008-07-18.
- ^ Bradley Blackburn and Margaret Aro (April 14, 2010). "Muslim-American Soldier Claims Harassment in the Army". ABC World News with Diane Sawyer. American Broadcasting Company. Retrieved March 15, 2013.
- ^ "An American Soldier, who happens to be Muslim - The Documentary (51:36)". YouTube. Jan 28, 2011. Retrieved 14 March 2013.
- ^ "Caliber - Sociological Perspectives - 47(4):371 - Abstract". Caliber.ucpress.net. 2011-03-31. JSTOR 3738776.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^ Bozorgmehr, Mehdi (2001-05-02). "No solidarity: Iranians in the U.S". The Iranian. Retrieved 2007-02-02.
- ^ See detailed analysis in: The U.S. Media and the Middle East: Image and Perception. Praeger, 1997; Greenwood, 1995.
- ^ Los Angeles Times: Essay: Iranians moving past negative depictions in pop culture: "Iranians, left outside of the 9/11 conversation, began to leak fairly seamlessly into the best and worst of pop culture. In 2003, veteran Iranian actress Shohreh Aghadashloo starred in The House of Sand and Fog, for which she became the first Iranian nominated for an Academy Award (although two years later the pendulum swung back when she played a member of a terrorist family on the hit TV show 24)." June 27, 2010.
- ^ O'Connor, John J. (1986-05-18). "Tv View; 'On Wings Of Eagles' Plods To Superficial Heights". New York Times. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
- ^ Escape from Iran: The Canadian Caper (1981) (TV)
- ^ Ronald Takaki, A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America (New York: Little, Brown & Co., 1993), 277-283.
- ^ Rosten, Leo (1968) "The Joys of Yiddish"
- ^ Phagan, 1987, p. 27, states that "everyone knew the identity of the lynchers" (putting the words in her father's mouth). Oney, 2003, p. 526, quotes Carl Abernathy as saying, "They'd go to a man's office and talk to him or ... see a man on the job and talk to him," and an unidentified lyncher as saying "The organization of the body was more open than mysterious."
- ^ a b Father Charles Edward Coughlin (1891-1971) By Richard Sanders, Editor, Press for Conversion! Cite error: The named reference "Coughlin" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ "H-ANTISEMITISM OCCASIONAL PAPERS, NO. 1M". H-net.msu.edu. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
- ^ "Nation of Islam". Adl.org. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
- ^ Seth Korelitz, "The Menorah Idea: From Religion to Culture, From Race to Ethnicity," American Jewish History 1997 85(1): 75–100. 0164–0178
- ^ Peter Novick, The Holocaust in American Life (1999); Hilene Flanzbaum, ed. The Americanization of the Holocaust (1999); Monty Noam Penkower, "Shaping Holocaust Memory," American Jewish History 2000 88(1): 127–132. 0164–0178
- ^ Steve Siporin, "Immigrant and Ethnic Family Folklore," Western States Jewish History 1990 22(3): 230–242. 0749–5471
- ^ M. Lerner, Village Voice, 1993
- ^ M. Lerner, Village Voice May 18, 1993
- ^ "Voices on Antisemitism Podcast". USHMM. Retrieved 4 January 2014.
- ^
Sources for the following are:
- Bauer, Yehuda. "Problems of Contemporary Anti-Semitism" at the Wayback Machine (archived July 5, 2003), 2003, retrieved April 22, 2006.
- Chesler, Phyllis. The New Anti-Semitism: The Current Crisis and What We Must Do About It, Jossey-Bass, 2003, pp. 158-159, 181.
- Doward, Jamie. Jews predict record level of hate attacks: Militant Islamic media accused of stirring up new wave of anti-semitism, The Guardian, August 8, 2004.
- Kinsella, Warren. The New anti-Semitism, accessed March 5, 2006.
- Sacks, Jonathan. "The New Antisemitism", Ha'aretz, September 6, 2002, retrieved on January 10, 2007.
- Strauss, Mark. "Antiglobalism's Jewish Problem" in Rosenbaum, Ron (ed). Those who forget the past: The Question of Anti-Semitism, Random House 2004, p 272.
- ^ Noam Chomsky, Necessary Illusions, Appendix V, Segment 20
- ^ "Congressmember Weiner Gets It Wrong On Palestinian Group He Tried To Bar From U.S." Democracy Now!. 2006-08-30.
- ^ "Real Stories From Victims Who've Been Scammed". gypsypsychicscams.com. Archived from the original on 26 August 2007. Retrieved 26 August 2007.
- ^ Sutherland, Anne (1986). Gypsies: The Hidden Americans. Waveland Press. p. 86. ISBN 0881332356
ISBN 978-0881332353 - ^ Mann, Charles C., 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus, Vintage Books, 2006, c.2005, p. 18
- ^ Brescia, William (Bill) (1982). "Chapter 2, French-Choctaw Contact, 1680s-1763". Tribal Government, A New Era. Philadelphia, Mississippi: Choctaw Heritage Press. p. 8.
- ^ Walter, Williams (1979). "Three Efforts at Development among the Choctaws of Mississippi". Southeastern Indians: Since the Removal Era. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press.
- ^ Hudson, Charles (1971). "The Ante-Bellum Elite". Red, White, and Black; Symposium on Indians in the Old South. University of Georgia Press. p. 80. SBN 820303089.
- ^ Castillo, Edward D. (1998). "Short Overview of California Indian History", California Native American Heritage Commission.
- ^ "Our Daily Bleed..." Retrieved 2008-01-28.
- ^ Ward Churchill, Kill the Indian, Save the Man, 2006. The basis for this theory was that inside every native person, there was a repressed white person screaming to come to the surface. Abuse both physical and psychological was common in these schools, and often their objective of 'compulsory whiteness' was not even ultimately achieved, with many of the Indians who later returned to the reservations afterwards not at all 'becoming white', but instead simply becoming heavy alcoholics and displaying signs of permanent psychological distress, and even mental illness. Further, these individuals were often either totally unemployable or only marginally employed, as it was sensed by those around them that on the one hand, they had not successfully assimilated into 'white society', nor were they any longer acceptable to the Indian societies from which they had originated.
- ^ Strasser, Franz; Carpenter, Sharon (November 22, 2010). "Native Americans battle teenage suicide". BBC News.
- ^ United States Senate, Oversight Hearing on Trust Fund Litigation, Cobell v. Kempthorne. See also, Cobell v. Norton.
- ^ Winona LaDuke, All Our Relations: Native Struggles for Land and Life, 1999, p. 2-3.
- ^ Perdue, Theda (2003). "Chapter 2 "Both White and Red"". Mixed Blood Indians: Racial Construction in the Early South. The University of Georgia Press. p. 51. ISBN 0-8203-2731-X.
- ^
Remini, Robert (1977, 1998). ""The Reform Begins"". Andrew Jackson. History Book Club. p. 201. ISBN 0-9650631-0-7.
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(help)CS1 maint: year (link) - ^ Miller, Eric (1994). "Washington and the Northwest War, Part One". George Washington And Indians. Eric Miller. Retrieved 2008-05-02.
- ^ Kappler, Charles (1904). "Indian affairs: laws and treaties Vol. IV, Treaties". Government Printing Office. Retrieved 2008-10-14.
- ^ "Substance Abuse and Mental Health Publications| SAMHSA Store". Mentalhealth.samhsa.gov. 2011-11-19. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
- ^ The Schedule of Racist Events: A Measure of Racial Discrimination and a Study of Its Negative Physical and Mental Health Consequences Journal of Black Psychology, Vol. 22, No. 2, 144-168 (1996)
- ^ Kwate NO, Valdimarsdottir HB, Guevarra JS, Bovbjerg DH (June 2003). "Experiences of racist events are associated with negative health consequences for African American women". J Natl Med Assoc. 95 (6): 450–60. PMC 2594553. PMID 12856911.
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Finch, Brian (2000). "Perceived Discrimination and Depression among Mexican-Origin Adults in California". Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 41 (3): 309. doi:10.2307/2676322. JSTOR 2676322. Retrieved 5 November 2013.
- ^ Kennedy BP, Kawachi I, Lochner K, Jones C, Prothrow-Stith D (1997). "(Dis)respect and black mortality". Ethn Dis. 7 (3): 207–14. PMID 9467703.
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- ^ Hart KD, Kunitz SJ, Sell RR, Mukamel DB (March 1998). "Metropolitan governance, residential segregation, and mortality among African Americans". Am J Public Health. 88 (3): 434–8. doi:10.2105/AJPH.88.3.434. PMC 1508338. PMID 9518976.
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Jackson SA, Anderson RT, Johnson NJ, Sorlie PD (April 2000). "The relation of residential segregation to all-cause mortality: a study in black and white". Am J Public Health. 90 (4): 615–7. doi:10.2105/AJPH.90.4.615. PMC 1446199. PMID 10754978.
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ THE CONCEPT OF NEIGHBORHOOD IN HEALTH AND MORTALITY RESEARCH
- ^ Cooper RS, Kennelly JF, Durazo-Arvizu R, Oh HJ, Kaplan G, Lynch J (2001). "Relationship between premature mortality and socioeconomic factors in black and white populations of US metropolitan areas". Public Health Rep. 116 (5): 464–73. doi:10.1016/S0033-3549(04)50074-2. PMC 1497360. PMID 12042610.
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b Felicia R. Lee, "Protesting Demeaning Images in Media" New York Times November 5, 2007
- ^ Marissa Newhall, "Channeling Their Discontent, 500 Gather at Executive's D.C. Home to Protest Stereotypes," Washington Post, September 16, 2007
- ^ "Enough is Enough! Campaign". Enough is Enough! Campaign. 2011-03-09. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
- ^ "What About Our Daughters?". Whataboutourdaughters.com. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
- ^ Ford, Thomas (1997). "Effects of Stereotypical Television Portrayals of African-Americans on Person Perception". Social Psychology Quarterly. 60 (3): 266–275. doi:10.2307/2787086. JSTOR 2787086. Retrieved 5 November 2013.
- ^ Altschul, Inna; Oyserman, Daphna; Bybee, Deborah (September 2008). "Racial-Ethnic Self-Schemas and Segmented Assimilation: Identity and the Academic Achievement of Hispanic Youth". Social Psychology Quarterly. 71 (3): 303. doi:10.1177/019027250807100309. JSTOR 20141842. S2CID 18018980. Retrieved 5 November 2013.
- ^ "Racial Violence against Asian Americans". Harvard Law Review. 106 (8): 1926–1943. 1993. doi:10.2307/1341790. JSTOR 1341790. Retrieved 5 November 2013.
- ^ Wilkerson, Isabel (17 April 1988). "Campus Blacks Feel Racism's Nuances". The New York Times. Retrieved 5 November 2013.
- ^ For example, Catherine A. Hansman, Leon Spencer, Dale Grant, Mary Jackson, "Beyond Diversity: Dismantling Barriers in Education," Journal of Instructional Psychology, March 1999
- ^ Andrew Blankstein And Joel Rubin. L.A.'s top cops at odds: William Bratton, Lee Baca disagree on role of race in gang violence. Los Angeles Times, June 13, 2008.
- ^ "Race relations | Where black and brown collide". Economist.com. 2007-08-02. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
- ^ February 11, 2009, 5:52 PM (2009-02-11). "Riot Breaks Out At Calif. High School, Melee Involving 500 People Erupts At Southern California School". Cbsnews.com. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
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- ^ Paul Harris (2007-03-18). "A bloody conflict between Black and Hispanic gangs is spreading across Los Angeles". Observer.guardian.co.uk. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
- ^ The Hutchinson Report: Thanks to Latino Gangs, There's a Zone in L.A. Where Blacks Risk Death if They Enter[dead link]
- ^ [2][dead link]
- ^ JURIST - Paper Chase: Race riot put down at California state prison
- ^ Racial segregation continues in California prisons[dead link]
- ^ "African immigrants face bias from blacks". Post-gazette.com. 1969-12-31. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
- ^ "Racism not always black and white". Abcnews.go.com. 2008-06-25. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
- ^ a b c d Brown, Darryl (March 1990). "Racism and Race Relations in the University". Virginia Law Review. 76 (2): 295–335. doi:10.2307/1073204. hdl:10288/8306. JSTOR 1073204.
- ^ What is Institutional and Structural Racism? ERASE RACISM
- ^ Bullock III, C. S. & Rodgers Jr., H. R. (1976) "Institutional Racism: Prerequisites, Freezing, and Mapping". Phylon 37 (3), 212-223.
- ^ Roman Catholics and Immigration in Nineteenth-Century America by Julie Byrne, Dept. of Religion, Duke University, National Humanities Center
- ^ "Chinese Exclusion Act (1882)". Ourdocuments.gov. 1968-07-01. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
- ^ Immigration Act of 1924 HistoricalDocuments.com
- ^ Lowell, Lindsay (November 1995). "Unintended Consequences of Immigration Reform: Discrimination and HIspanic Employment". Demography. 32 (4): 617–628. doi:10.2307/2061678. JSTOR 2061678. S2CID 5720931. Retrieved 5 November 2013.
- ^ "Wealth gap widens: Whites' net worth is 20 times that of blacks". CSMonitor.com. 2011-07-26. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
- ^ "Census report: Broad racial disparities persist", November 14, 2006.
- ^ George Lipsitz, "The Possessive Investment in Whiteness: Racialized Social Democracy and the "White" Problem in American Studies," American Quarterly, Vol. 47, No. 3. (September 1995), pp. 369-387.
- ^ Woolf SH, Johnson RE, Fryer GE, Rust G, Satcher D (December 2004). "The health impact of resolving racial disparities: an analysis of US mortality data". Am J Public Health. 94 (12): 2078–81. doi:10.2105/AJPH.94.12.2078. PMC 1448594. PMID 15569956.
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "The History of Black 'Paranoia'", ch. 3 of Alexander Cockburn and Jeffrey St. Clair, Whiteout: The CIA, Drugs, and the Press, London: Verso, 1998.
- ^ Bhopal R (June 1998). "Spectre of racism in health and health care: lessons from history and the United States". BMJ. 316 (7149): 1970–3. doi:10.1136/bmj.316.7149.1970. PMC 1113412. PMID 9641943.
- ^ Oberman A, Cutter G (September 1984). "Issues in the natural history and treatment of coronary heart disease in black populations: surgical treatment". Am. Heart J. 108 (3 Pt 2): 688–94. doi:10.1016/0002-8703(84)90656-2. PMID 6332513.
- ^ Kjellstrand CM (June 1988). "Age, sex, and race inequality in renal transplantation". Arch. Intern. Med. 148 (6): 1305–9. doi:10.1001/archinte.148.6.1305. PMID 3288159.
- ^ Mayer WJ, McWhorter WP (June 1989). "Black/white differences in non-treatment of bladder cancer patients and implications for survival". Am J Public Health. 79 (6): 772–5. doi:10.2105/AJPH.79.6.772. PMC 1349641. PMID 2729474.
- ^ Yergan J, Flood AB, LoGerfo JP, Diehr P (July 1987). "Relationship between patient race and the intensity of hospital services". Med Care. 25 (7): 592–603. doi:10.1097/00005650-198707000-00003. PMID 3695664. S2CID 11637921.
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- ^ a b Valentino, Nicholas (March 2002). "Cues that Matter: How Political Ads Prime Racial Attitudes during Campaigns". The American Political Science Review. 96 (1): 83. doi:10.1017/s0003055402004240. JSTOR 3117811. S2CID 30996282. Retrieved 5 November 2013.
- ^ Bill Quigley (2010-07-26). "Fourteen Examples of Racism in Criminal Justice System".
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(help) - ^ Hate Crime Statistics, 2004. Hate Crime Statistics, 2005.
- ^ Hate Crime Reported by Victims and Police, Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report, November 2005, NCJ 209911.
- ^ The Color of Crime, 1999.
- ^ Preface to Minnesota's official crime data reports, quoted in Southern Poverty Law Center, Coloring Crime.
- ^ Tim Wise, "The Color of Deception: Race, Crime and Sloppy Social Science," 2004.
- ^ Southern Poverty Law Center, Coloring Crime.
- ^ "ADL poll: Anti-Semitic attitudes on rise in USA". The Jerusalem Post. November 3, 2011. Retrieved December 20, 2013.
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(help) - ^ "Aquí Se Habla Español – and Two-Thirds Don't Mind" (PDF). ABC News. Oct 8, 2007. Retrieved Dec 20, 2013.
{{cite news}}
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(help) - ^ a b Babington, Charles (September 22, 2008). "Poll: Views still differ sharply by race". Fox News Channel. Retrieved January 16, 2010.
[A] new Associated Press-Yahoo News poll, conducted with Stanford University, shows ... that a substantial portion of white Americans still harbor negative feelings toward blacks.