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Bureau of Indian Affairs (1824–present)[edit]
U.S. and Indian Relations: 1776-1830[edit]
The abolition of the factory system left a vacuum within the U.S. government regarding Native American relations. The Bureau of Indian Affairs was formed on March 11, 1824, by Secretary of War John C. Calhoun, who created the agency as a division within his department, without authorization from the United States Congress[1]. He appointed McKenney as the first head of the office, which went by several names. McKenney preferred to call it the "Indian Office", whereas the current name was preferred by Calhoun.
The Removal Era: 1830-1850[edit]
The Bureau of Indian Affairs goal to protect domestic and dependent nations was to reaffirmed in the court case of the Cherokee Nation v. Georgia in 1831. The Supreme Court originally refused to hear the case, because the tribe was not an independent state and could not litigate in the federal court.[2]Through the court case Worcester v. Georgia, Chief Justice John Marshall allowed for Native American tribes to be recognized "domestic dependent nations."[3] This court case set precedent for treaties to come, as more Native tribes were recognized as nations.
This period was encompassed by westward expansion and the removal of Native Nations. In 1833 Georgians fought for the removal of the Cherokee Nation from the state of Georgia. Despite the rulings of Worchester v. Georgia, President Monroe and John C. Calhoun created a detailed plan for removal. The Removal of the Cherokee Nation eventually occurred in 1838 and was accompanied by the Treaty of 1846. When reparations from the treaty were unfulfilled, the Senate Committee on Indian Affairs made the final settlement in 1850. This final settlement, "supported the position of the Cherokee that the cost of maintaining the tribesman during their removal and year's upkeep after the their arrival West should be paid by the federal government, and the expense of the removal agents should also be paid by the United states."[2]
Assimilation and Allotment:1890-1930[edit]
Euro-American pushed for assimilation through organizations like the Carlisle Indian Training School and other boarding schools. The Bureau of Indian Affairs formed a tribal police force, which was designed by its agents to decrease the power of American Indian leaders.[4]
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20th century: Reorganization[edit]
The bureau was renamed from Office of Indian Affairs to Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1947.[1]
The 1950's administration and fiscal conservatism affected all Bureau of Indian Affair programs. In the Secretary of Interiors 1954 projected budget, the Bureau's budget was cut by over $12,000,000. [5]
With the rise of American Indian activism in the 1960s and 1970s and increasing demands for enforcement of treaty rights and sovereignty, the 1970s were a particularly turbulent period of BIA history.[6] The rise of activist groups such as the American Indian Movement (AIM) worried the U.S. government; the FBI responded both overtly and covertly (by creating COINTELPRO and other programs) to suppress possible uprisings among native peoples.[7]
As a branch of the U.S. government with personnel on Indian reservations, BIA police were involved in political actions such as:
- The occupation of BIA headquarters in Washington, D.C. in 1972: On November 3, 1972, a group of around 500 American Indians with the AIM took over the BIA building, the culmination of their Trail of Broken Treaties walk. They intended to bring attention to American Indian issues, including their demands for renewed negotiation of treaties, enforcement of treaty rights and improvement in living standards. They occupied the Department of Interior headquarters from November 3 to 9, 1972.[8]
- Feeling the government was ignoring them, the protesters vandalized the building. After a week, the protesters left, having caused $700,000 in damages. Many records were lost, destroyed or stolen, including irreplaceable treaties, deeds, and water rights records, which some Indian officials said could set the tribes back 50 to 100 years.[9][10][citation needed]
- The Wounded Knee Incident of 1973, where activists at the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation occupied land for more than two months.
- The 1975 Pine Ridge shootout (for which Leonard Peltier was convicted of killing two FBI agents).[11]
The BIA was implicated in supporting controversial tribal presidents, notably Dick Wilson, who was charged with being authoritarian; using tribal funds for a private paramilitary force, the Guardians of the Oglala Nation (or "GOON squad"), which he employed against opponents; intimidation of voters in the 1974 election; misappropriation of funds, and other misdeeds.[12] Many native peoples continue to oppose policies of the BIA. In particular, problems in enforcing treaties, handling records and trust land incomes were disputed.
21st century[edit]
In 2002 the United States Congress and Bureau of Indian Affairs met to discuss the bills S.1392 and S.1393. Bill S.1392 established procedures for the Bureau of Indian Affairs of the Department of Interior with respect to the tribal recognition. S. 1393 ensured full and fair participation in decision making processes at the Bureau of Indian Affairs via grants. [13] Both bills addressed what services, limitations, obligations, and responsibilities a federally recognized tribe possessed. The Bills excluded any splinter groups, political factions, and any groups formed after December 31, 2002. [13]
In 2013 the Bureau was greatly affected by sequestration funding cuts of $800 million, which particularly affected the already-underfunded Indian Health Service.[14][15]
- ^ a b Jackson, Curtis (1997). A History of the Bureau of Indian Affairs and Its Activities Among Indians. San Francisco, California: R & E Research Associates. p. 43.
- ^ a b Harmon, George Dewey (1941). Sixty Years of Indian Affairs. New York: The University of North Carolina Press. pp. 174–196.
- ^ Jackson, Curtis (1977). A History of The Bureau of Indian Affairs And Its Activities Among Indians. San Francisco, California: R & E Research Associates, Inc. p. 59.
- ^ Lyden, Fremont (1992). Native Americans and Public Policy. Pittsburg: University of Pittsburg Press. pp. 23–41.
- ^ Burt, Larry Wayne (1979). United States Expansion and Federal Policy Toward Native Americans 1953-60. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Microfilms, International. pp. 30–33.
- ^ Philip Worchel, Philip G. Hester and Philip S. Kopala, "Collective Protest and Legitimacy of Authority: Theory and Research," The Journal of Conflict Resolution, 18 (1) 1974): 37–54
- ^ The COINTELPRO PAPERS – Chapter 7: COINTELPRO – AIM Archived July 23, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Paul Smith and Robert Warrior, Like a Hurricane: The Indian Movement from Alcatraz to Wounded Knee, New York: The New Press, 1996.
- ^ "Stop bandwidth theft!". Maquah.net. Retrieved June 8, 2012.
- ^ "Stop bandwidth theft!". Maquah.net. Retrieved June 8, 2012.
- ^ "American Indian Rights Activist Vernon Bellecourt", Washington Post, October 14, 2007
- ^ Ward Churchill, Jim Vander Wall, Agents of Repression: The FBI's Secret Wars Against the Black Panther Party and the American Indian Movement, South End Press, 2002.
- ^ a b United States, Congress (2003). Tribal Recognition : Hearing before the Committee on Indian Affairs, United States Senate, One Hundred Seventh Congress, Second Session, on S. 1392, to Establish Procedures for the Bureau of Indian Affairs of the Department of the Interior with Respect to Tribal Recognition and S. 1393, to Provide Grants to Ensure Full and Fair Participation in Certain Decisionmaking Processes at the Bureau of Indian Affairs, September 17, 2002, Washington, DC. United States. Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. pp. 1–3.
- ^ Gale Courey Toensing (March 27, 2013). "Sequestration Grounds Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs". Indian Country Today. Retrieved March 28, 2013.
- ^ Editorial Board (March 20, 2013). "The Sequester Hits the Reservation" (Editorial). The New York Times. Retrieved March 28, 2013.
