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La Campagne antiesclavagiste lancée en 1888 par le Cardinal Lavigerie fut mise à profit. La Conférence antiesclavagiste de Bruxelles en 1890 fournissait une excellente façade éthique et humanitaire à l’entreprise de Léopold II : il fallait, en ouvrant le continent au commerce et à ce qu’on appelait « la » civilisation, le débarrasser de la traite des esclaves qui sévissait par l’Est. Opérant à partir de Zanzibar (actuelle Tanzanie), des marchands arabisés, notamment le célèbre Tippo Tip, s’emparaient de vastes régions à l’est du Congo, d’où ils menaient leurs expéditions esclavagistes. À partir de 1888, Tippo Tip collabora quelque temps avec le gouvernement du Congo avant d’être lâché par celui-ci.

Je passe aussi sur les péripéties de ce régime Léopoldien qui, pour des raisons de rentabilité économique, mit progressivement en place un système impitoyable d’exploitation du caoutchouc et de l’ivoire.[1]

Pages I'm interested in (notes)

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Ku, Robert Ji-Song. “Yellow.” Keywords for Asian American Studies, edited by Cathy J. Schlund-Vials et al., NYU Press, 2015, pp. 244–246. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt15r3zv2.65. Accessed 18 Aug. 2020.

scholar, JSTOR Only two results: https://books.google.de/books?hl=en&lr=&id=oxlrUXf7xr4C&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=%22Howard+hypothesis%22&ots=MIN3Awy0xN&sig=wP9k2LKIZahltVAeKa6Sq9_GeRM&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=%22Howard%20hypothesis%22&f=false and (without mention of George Howard) https://etheses.bham.ac.uk/id/eprint/3329/

Hoepker, Karin. "Frederick Douglass's "The Heroic Slave" - Risk, Fiction, and Insurance in Antebellum America." Amerikastudien / American Studies 60, no. 4 (2015): 441-62. Accessed September 27, 2020. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44071920.

Further ideas for some pages

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Es muy relevante que el mapa ha sido creado por un títere, porque este títere es bloquedo por evasión de bloqueo. Una descripción del usuario se encuentra en en:Wikipedia:Long-term_abuse/WorldCreaterFighter.
Además, "todos los artículos deben tener referencias suficientes" (WP:VER), y si una imagen no se puede verificar, no hay otra solución: Debemos eliminarla. La imagen no está correctamente referenciada, porque es . El mismo problema se ve en commons:File:Haplogroup_R1b_(Y-DNA).PNG. En la discución sobre el asunto de eliminarlo, a lo menos dos participiantes que votaron en favor del mapa dijeron que es WP:IO ("original research", "creative process"). En Commons no existe norma que prohiba IO, pero en WP sí hay. Por eso, hay que referenciar cada región del mapa (como por ejemplo, se lo hizo con el mapa commons:File:Languages_Europe.svg o elimar los dos.
Un ejemplo para mostrar la importancia de que cada región sea referenciada: Antes del 26 de Augusto el artículo en:Bashkirs usó Haplogroup_R1b_(Y-DNA).PNG para demostrar que los Bashquir viven en una cierta región. Eso puede convertirse facilmente en exigencias políticas, y por eso es importante que las informaciones que nosotros presentamos al lector sean ciertas y verificables.
A certain region of such a map can be used to argue for a certain point of view on national heritage, a highly political issue. A similar map has been used in that way, e.g. in this version of en:Bashkirs. The problem is that the individual regions of the map cannot be attributed to a single source. A similar map has been called OR by participants in this discussion on Commons.

Sources on genetics

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Isolation by distance, but with exceptions due to social or religious barriers[3]

Today, many people assume that humans can be grouped biologically into "primeval" groups, corresponding to our notion of "races"... But this long-held view about "race" has just in the last years been proven wrong.

— David Reich, Who We Are and How We Got Here, (Introduction, pg. xxii).

From Human genetic variation: The lack of discontinuities in genetic distances between human populations, absence of discrete branches in the human species, and striking homogeneity of human beings globally, imply that there is no scientific basis for inferring races or subspecies in humans, and for most traits, there is much more variation within populations than between them.[4][5][6][7][8][9]Cite error: A <ref> tag is missing the closing </ref> (see the help page).

Interesting articles

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  • How photography adds credibility to pseudo-science: Visualising invisibility: photography and physical anthropology in Norway - quote from the text: "What happens when identification based on inherent, genetically transferred, foolproof racial principles proves defective? To those committed to racial principles, these “inconvenient realities” do not alter the fixation of their principles but rather give rise to attempts to fine tune their distinctions and definitions and to overcome the obstacles in reality. Particularly important is the gradual replacement of physiognomy by internal, often latent, indicators not easily applied to identification and representation (Morris-Reich 2016, 24)."

... and the idea that it weakens Lewontin's disproof of biological race is long since debunked [2][3][4][5]. We have an entire article on it, in fact. (from a reply by Joe Roe)

  • Belgian Anti-Slavery Society - improve using Laqua, Daniel. “The Tensions of Internationalism: Transnational Anti-Slavery in the 1880s and 1890s.” The International History Review, vol. 33, no. 4, 2011, pp. 705–726. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/23240858. Accessed 14 July 2021.

Germans

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P.375: debate about "what religions, values, and world views make a German", in: Kranz, Dani. “Changing Measures of the Quantum of Sufficient Germanness: Access to German Citizenship of Children of German/Non-German Parentage, and Children Eligible Under Jus Soli Provisions.” Journal of Comparative Family Studies, vol. 48, no. 3, 2017, pp. 367–379. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/44509034. Accessed 11 Dec. 2020.

Search at JSTOR for: Defining Germanness

p.33: History of definitions, including "völkisch" definition: Lene Rock (2019). "CONSTITUTIVE OUTSIDERS". As German as Kafka: Identity and Singularity in German Literature around 1900 and 2000. Leuven (Belgium): Leuven University Press. pp. 31–66. doi:10.2307/j.ctvss3xg0.5. ISBN 9789462701786. JSTOR j.ctvss3xg0.5. S2CID 241537448.

Coury, David N. “A Clash of Civilizations? Pegida and the Rise of Cultural Nationalism.” German Politics & Society, vol. 34, no. 4, 2016, pp. 54–67. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/44631787. Accessed 12 Dec. 2020.

NYT on German identity in 2019

"Ethnisch geschlossenes Volksverständnis" as a reason for observation by Verfassungsschutz [6]

Rejection of such an understanding by AfD

French people: share a common French culture, history, and language

Dutch people: They share a common history and culture

Irish people: share a common history and culture

Swedes: who share a common ancestry, culture, history and language

Norwegians: They share a common culture

Italians: Italians share a common culture, history, ancestry and language.

Racism

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CNN: Georgia voting law Definitions of races and ethnicities (still in use according to [7]; see link from "standards")

Sons of Confederate Veterans

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  • SPLC
  • "Neo-Confederate": Hale, Grace Elizabeth. “The Lost Cause and the Meaning of History.” OAH Magazine of History, vol. 27, no. 1, 2013, pp. 13–17., www.jstor.org/stable/23489628. Accessed 8 June 2021., page 16
  • UDC larger and more active than SCV, both promoting Lost Cause: Case, Sarah H. “The Historical Ideology of Mildred Lewis Rutherford: A Confederate Historian's New South Creed.” The Journal of Southern History, vol. 68, no. 3, 2002, pp. 599–628. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3070160. Accessed 8 June 2021., page 602
  • First pages: Short, good summary of Lost Cause. Page 220: SCV neo-Confederate, promoting Lost Cause. Winsboro, Irvin D.S. “The Confederate Monument Movement as a Policy Dilemma for Resource Managers of Parks, Cultural Sites, and Protected Places: Florida as a Case Study.” The George Wright Forum, vol. 33, no. 2, 2016, pp. 217–229., www.jstor.org/stable/44131254. Accessed 8 June 2021.
  • Paul Duggan (28 November 2018). "Sins of the Fathers: The Confederacy was built on slavery. How can so many Southern whites still believe otherwise?". The Washington Post Magazine.
  • UDC were founded in order to fight against the spirit of reconciliation, Janney, Caroline E. “War over a Shrine of Peace: The Appomattox Peace Monument and Retreat from Reconciliation.” The Journal of Southern History, vol. 77, no. 1, 2011, pp. 91–120. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/27919388. Accessed 8 June 2021., page 101
  • On how to talk about slavery in 1999, funny and shocking examples of the lack of education about slavery and the difficulty to talk about it. Horton, James Oliver. “Presenting Slavery: The Perils of Telling America's Racial Story.” The Public Historian, vol. 21, no. 4, 1999, pp. 19–38. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3379471. Accessed 8 June 2021.

Blight

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S.86: Democrats regain power in North Car., election hinged in part on resistance against federal enforcement of black civil rights S.214: Geburt des Lost Cause aus Lees Kapitulationsansprache S.271: Lee fought for slavery S.382: Lost Cause as "historical fiction"

Guelzo S.50: Colonization promised to eliminate both slavery and blacks S.181: Lincoln wants colonization S.336: Lee wants to see slavery abolished at the right time, but feels that the right time will never come in the foreseeable future

Harriet Jacobs

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Grandmother

Uncle Benjamin / Joseph.

Aunt Betty

Theme: Northern racism

Names and titles of God in the New Testament

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Howard hypothesis deleted

I deleted the sections on Howard's hypothesis for the following reasons:

  • The title of this article is Names and titles of God in the New Testament, not "Howard hypothesis". But most of the article was about the "Howard hypothesis", this is WP:COATRACK.
  • A WP article should follow the mainstream, in this case the mainstream of biblical scholarship, see WP:MAINSTREAM. A search for , JSTOR renders five results, none of them connected with the Bible. At scholar there are more results, two of them connected with the Bible, but not with George Howard.
  • WP:NPOV forbids ample coverarge of a small minority view.

Crimea

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Academic researchers note that it's Russian propaganda which characterizes Euromaidan as a coup, and the actual military coup was performed by Russia in Ukrainian Crimea on the 27th February 2014, when Russian military seized Crimean parliament and government buildings and replaced Ukrainian elected officials with Russian-controlled figures.[10][11][12]

After the overthrow of the highly corrupt[13] regime of Russian-leaning president Viktor Yanukovych in the Revolution of Dignity in 2014, the Russian president Vladimir Putin

Ukrainians and Russians have a long history of interactions and mutual influences, which is often used to explain and also to justify the Russo-Ukrainian War.

The legacy of the Kyivan Rus'

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Ukrainians and Russians both see the Kyivan Rus' (Russian: Kievan Rus') as the place where the history of their nations, states, and Orthodox churches originated.[14] Starting in the 12th century, the Kyivan Rus' disintegrated into several centres of power, the most important of which were Vladimir-Suzdal in the north-east and Galicia–Volhynia in the south-west.[15] Danylo of Galicia–Volhynia was crowned "King of Rus'" (rex Russiae) by a papal legate in 1253.[16]

According to the Russian national narrative, the Russian state was founded in Kiev (Kyiv), then - in the 13th century - its centre was transferred to the principality of Vladimir-Suzdal and soon afterwards to Moscow.[17] This narrative of a common history of state, people and church spanning more than 1000 years is still prevalent in Russia today. It includes the notion that Ukrainians are a part of the Russian people, having no history of their own.[18] Until very recently, Western historiography mostly followed the Russian narrative, using terms like Old Russia or Kievan Russia instead of Kyivan Rus' and turning a blind eye to the existence of Ukrainians and their history.[19]

On the other hand, Mykhailo Hrushevsky, the founder of modern Ukrainian historiography,[20] claimed the legacy of the Rus' exclusively for Ukraine, arguing in an essay published 1904 that the true successor state of the Rus' was not Vladimir-Suzdal, but Galicia–Volhynia which passed on the legacy to Poland and Lithuania.[21] Hrushevsky compared the relationship between the Kievan and Muscovite states to the relationship between Rome and its Gallic provinces.[21]

On the occasion of the milennial of the death of prince Vladimir the Great of Kiev (as the Russians call him) or Volodymyr the Great of Kyiv (as the Ukrainians call him) in 2015, the presidents of Russia and of Ukraine both claimed the legacy of the Kyivan Rus' exclusively for their own people. Vladimir Putin said that Vladimir "cleared the way for the establishment of a strong, centralized Russian state",[22] while his Ukrainian counterpart Petro Poroshenko quoted Hrushevsky's formula of the "Kyivan Rus-Ukraine".[23]

From an academic point of view, this dispute is unproductive because national categories cannot be applied to the Middle Ages, and there were neither Russians nor Ukrainians.[24]

Mongol and Polish rule

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After the Mongol invasion, those parts of Rus' that would later become Ukraine came under the control of Lithuania and Poland, while the north-east around the emerging centre of Moscow was under Mongol control. Historian Serhii Plokhy agrees that Russian religion, written language and arts, system of laws and ruling dynasty originated in Kyiv. He points out however that linking Russian ethnicity, spoken language and culture to those of Kyiv is "problematic".[25] Both the princes of Lithuania and of Muscovy claimed to be Princes of all Rus'.[26] The legal and bureaucratic traditions of the Kievan Rus' were inherited by Lithuania, but not by Muscovy,[27] where a new legal system centered on a very powerful tsar was being developed.[28][29]

Pereiaslav Agreement

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Russian historian Nikolay Ustryalov (1805 – 1870) created the myth that the 1654 Pereiaslav Agreement meant the "reunification" of the "Little Russian" and "Great Russian" people.[30]

Russian Empire

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Historian Serhii Plokhy finds the roots of XXI-century Russian war with Ukraine in years and centuries before, in XIX - XX centuries collapse of the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union. Plokhy detects and observes patterns of similarities between the current war and previous historical events.[31]

Soviet Ukraine

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Starved peasants on a street in Kharkiv, 1933

The politics of Joseph Stalin's government brought about a catastrophic famine in 1932–33. Estimates range from 6 to 7 million dead, among them about 3.5 million Ukrainians and 1.5 million Kazakhs.[32] There is an ongoing debate as to whether the famine—called Holodomor in Ukraine—can be labelled as a genocide.[33]

Independent Ukraine

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The 2011–2013 Russian protests which were sparked by election fraud in a similar way as Ukraine's Orange Revolution, increased Russian president Vladimir Putin's fear of being deposed by a colour revolution.[34]

References

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  1. ^ Pirotte, Jean (2013). "L'Afrique centrale ex-belge". Histoire, Monde et Cultures Religieuses. 25: 107–132. doi:10.3917/hmc.025.0107.
  2. ^ Tony Fitzpatrick (20 may 2003). "Evolutionary biologist: race in humans a social, not biological, concept". Washington University in St. Louis. Retrieved 1 Nov 2012. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link).
  3. ^ Jeong, Choongwon; Balanovsky, Oleg; Lukianova, Elena; Kahbatkyzy, Nurzhibek; Flegontov, Pavel; Zaporozhchenko, Valery; Immel, Alexander; Wang, Chuan-Chao; Ixan, Olzhas; Khussainova, Elmira; Bekmanov, Bakhytzhan (2019). "The genetic history of admixture across inner Eurasia". Nature Ecology & Evolution. 3 (6): 966–976. doi:10.1038/s41559-019-0878-2. ISSN 2397-334X. PMC 6542712. PMID 31036896. ...the Upper Paleolithic genomes from the Mal'ta and Afontova Gora sites in southern Siberia revealed a genetic profile, often called "Ancient North Eurasians (ANE)", which is deeply related to Paleolithic/Mesolithic hunter-gatherers in Europe and also substantially contributed to the gene pools of present-day Native Americans, Siberians, Europeans and South Asians.
  4. ^ Reich, David (23 March 2018). "Opinion | How Genetics Is Changing Our Understanding of 'Race'". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 15 August 2022.
  5. ^ Williams, David R. (1 July 1997). "Race and health: Basic questions, emerging directions". Annals of Epidemiology. Special Issue: Interface Between Molecular and Behavioral Epidemiology. 7 (5): 322–333. doi:10.1016/S1047-2797(97)00051-3. ISSN 1047-2797. PMID 9250627.
  6. ^ "1". Race and racism in theory and practice. Berel Lang. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield. 2000. ISBN 0-8476-9692-8. OCLC 42389561.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  7. ^ Lee, Jun-Ki; Aini, Rahmi Qurota; Sya’bandari, Yustika; Rusmana, Ai Nurlaelasari; Ha, Minsu; Shin, Sein (1 April 2021). "Biological Conceptualization of Race". Science & Education. 30 (2): 293–316. doi:10.1007/s11191-020-00178-8. ISSN 1573-1901. S2CID 255009763.
  8. ^ Kolbert, Elizabeth (4 April 2018). "There's No Scientific Basis for Race—It's a Made-Up Label". National Geographic. Retrieved 15 August 2022.
  9. ^ Templeton, Alan Robert (2018). Human Population Genetics and Genomics. London. pp. 445–446. ISBN 978-0-12-386026-2. OCLC 1062418886.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  10. ^ Maria Popova, Oxana Shevel (8 November 2023). Russia and Ukraine: Entangled Histories, Diverging States. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-5095-5738-7.
  11. ^ Wilson Andrew (18 November 2014). Ukraine Crisis: What It Means for the West. Yale University Press. pp. 108, 110. ISBN 978-0-300-21292-1.
  12. ^ Mychailo Wynnyckyj (30 April 2019). Ukraine's Maidan, Russia's War. BoD – Books on Demand. p. 28. ISBN 978-3-8382-1327-9.
  13. ^ Plokhy, Serhii (16 May 2023). The Russo-Ukrainian War: The Return of History. W. W. Norton & Company 2023. p. 93. ISBN 978-1324051190. These enhanced presidential powers allowed Yanukovych to embark on the formation of elements of authoritarian rule, followed by the establishment of a highly corrupt system of government that siphoned billions of dollars from the state budget into secret accounts held by the president, members of his family, and close advisers and associates.
  14. ^ Kappeler, Russians and Ukrainians p.29
  15. ^ Kappeler, Russians and Ukrainians p. 37
  16. ^ Kappeler, Russians and Ukrainians p.40
  17. ^ Kappeler, Russians and Ukrainians p. 29
  18. ^ Kappeler, Russians and Ukrainians p. 31, 33
  19. ^ Kappeler, Russians and Ukrainians p. 33
  20. ^ Plokhy, Gates of Europe p. xx
  21. ^ a b Kappeler, Russians and Ukrainians p. 32
  22. ^ Kappeler, Russians and Ukrainians p. 35, quoted from: Ivan Nechepurenko (28 July 2015). "Moscow, Kiev Grapple With Historic Ties to Prince Vladimir". The Moscow Times. Retrieved 16 July 2024.
  23. ^ Kappeler, Russians and Ukrainians p. 35, quoted from: "Із прийняттям християнства Володимир визначив європейський напрямок України" [With the adoption of Christianity, Volodymyr defined the European direction of Ukraine] (in Ukrainian). Retrieved 16 July 2024.
  24. ^ Kappeler, Russians and Ukrainians p. 34 "Der Erbstreit ist wissenschaftlich unergiebig, denn von beiden Seiten werden nationale Kategorien zurück ins Mittelalter projiziert, als von Russen oder Ukrainern noch keine Rede sein konnte." [The dispute about the legacy is academically unproductive, because both sides project national categories back to the Middle Ages, when neither Russians nor Ukrainians had been heard of.]
  25. ^ Plokhy, Russo-Ukrainian War p. 4 "The Russians can indeed trace back to Kyiv the origins of their religion, written language, literature, arts, law code, and—extremely important in the premodern era—their ruling dynasty. Their attempts to claim Kyiv as the source of their ethnicity, language, and popular culture turned out to be more problematic. Travelers from Moscow and St. Petersburg found that the locals in Kyiv and environs spoke a language different from theirs, sang different songs, and had a distinct culture. But that did not matter too much, as the myth of Russia's Kyivan origins had already embedded itself in the consciousness of the Russian elites by the late fifteenth century."[1]
  26. ^ Snyder, Muscovite Power 19–31 minutes in
  27. ^ Snyder, Muscovite Power 32 minutes in
  28. ^ Snyder, Muscovite Power 32–33 minutes in
  29. ^ Kappeler, Russian History p. 49–51
  30. ^ Kappeler, Russians and Ukrainians p.31
  31. ^ Plokhy, Serhii (9 May 2023). The Russo-Ukrainian War: The Return of History. W. W. Norton & Company. pp. XX - XXII - Preface. ISBN 978-1-324-05120-6.
  32. ^ Kappeler, Russians and Ukrainians p.167–168
  33. ^ Kappeler, Russians and Ukrainians p.168 "Der weit überproportionale Anteil an ukrainischen Opfern wirft die Frage auf, ob die sowjetische Führung mit der von ihr herbeigeführten Hungersnot nicht nur allgemein die Bauern, sondern spezifisch die ukrainischen Bauern und damit die Basis der ukrainischen Nation treffen wollte." [The vastly disproportionate number of Ukrainian victims raises the question whether the Soviet leadership was targeting not just the peasants in general with the famine it caused, but specifically the Ukrainian peasants and thereby the foundations of the Ukrainian nation.]
  34. ^ Kappeler, Russians and Ukrainians p.229

Bibliography

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