User:Thennicke/Australian Alps

This page is about the general mountain range and bioregion. For the heritage classified series of national parks and nature reserves, see Australian Alps National Parks and Reserves.

Thennicke/Australian Alps
The Alps, Victorian Alps, Snowy Mountains, New South Wales Alps
Mount Feathertop in winter, Victorian Alps
Highest point
Peak	Mount Kosciuszko
Elevation	2,228 m (7,310 ft)
Geography
Country	Australia
Region	State of Victoria, New South Wales, Australian Capital Territory (ACT)
Range coordinates	37°S 148°E
Parent range	Great Dividing Range
Geology
Age of rock	Devonian
Type of rock	Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic

The Australian Alps, an IBRA bioregion, is the highest mountain range in Australia. This range is located in southeastern Australia, and it straddles eastern Victoria, southeastern New South Wales (NSW), and the Australian Capital Territory (ACT). The Australian Alps contain Australia's only peaks exceeding 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) in elevation above sea level. The Alps are the only bioregion on the Australian mainland in which deep snow falls annually.

The Australian Alps are part of the Great Dividing Range, the series of mountains, hills, and highlands that runs about 3,000 kilometres (1,900 mi) from northern Queensland, through New South Wales, and into the northern part of Victoria. This chain of highlands divides the drainage of the rivers that flow to the east into the Tasman Sea from those that flow west into the drainage of the Murray–Darling basin (and thence to the Southern Ocean) or into inland waters, such as Lake Eyre, which lie below sea level, or else evaporate rapidly. The Great Dividing Range reaches its greatest heights in the Australian Alps.

The Australian Alps consists of two biogeographic subregions: the Snowy Mountains including the Brindabella Ranges, located in New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory; and the Victorian Alps, located in Victoria. The latter region is also known as the "High Country", particularly within a cultural or historical context.

Terminology

• The "Eastern Highlands" refers to the greater amalgam of the series of mountains, hills and highlands that runs from Queensland to southern Victoria, down the east coast of Australia.
• The "Australian Alps" refers to the range located in north-eastern Victoria, south-eastern New South Wales, and the Australian Capital Territory. This range contains the highest peaks in the Eastern Highlands.
• The "Snowy Mountains" are a sub-range of the Australian Alps, containing the tallest mountains in continental Australia and characterised by their snow-coverage during the winter months. They are NSW only.
• "Kosciuszko National Park" is the area of the New South Wales division of the Australian Alps protected under national parks laws.
• "Alpine National Park", also known as "the high country", is the Victorian division of the range protected under the same laws.

(note: Define if and where where the Alps stop and the Blue Mountains start)

Geography

Geology

The east coast of Australia is much younger, geologically, than many other parts of the continent

See also: Geology of Australia

The Australian Alps are a dissected, eroded plateau, formed by geological uplift between 1 and 40 million years ago. The range itself is generally between 1,800 metres (5,900 ft) and 2,200 metres (7,200 ft) above sea level. The landforms and soils which resulted from the formation of the Australian Alps contribute significantly to the type of ecosystems which have developed.

Orogeny

Granite tors near Mount Kosciuszko

The earliest rocks found in the mountains are basalt lavas which date back to the Cambrian period, some 520 million years ago. These rocks are located in the Howqua and Dolodrook Valleys in Victoria, and resulted from undersea eruptions. At this time, the area that is now the Australian Alps was deep beneath the Paleo-Pacific Ocean and was not a mountain chain, although there were occasional volcanoes whose altitude was sufficient to surface from the ancient ocean.

During the Ordovician period, sand and mud predominately covered the ocean floor. Over time, this formed a layer of sandstone and mudstone covering vast undersea areas. At a similar time, a chain of volcanoes arose from the seabed, erupting andesite and basalt, examples of which can be found around the present-day localities of Kiandra and Jajungal.

Ancient range

Approximately 440 to 360 million years ago, tectonic activity folded the crust, lifting the seabed and forming islands in what is now the south-eastern part of the Australian mainland. Scientists speculate that the collision of various small continental plates was responsible for this activity. The evidence pointing to this Silurian and early Devonian mountain-building includes slate, schist and gneiss, the products of deep-crust pressure and heat, being found around the alpine areas of Australia. Slate is commonly identifiable in the Australian Alps, for example at or near the summits of Mount Feathertop and Hotham. Gneiss and schist are to be found nearer to Mount Bogong, Falls Creek and Omeo.

Other relevant geological events around this time included the formation of large and explosive volcanoes, which predominately erupted granite. This rock is common in the higher altitudes of the present mountain range, as the hardness of granite makes it erosion-resistant. Localities which largely or substantially feature granite bedrock, or granite formations, such as tors, include:

• The Kosciuszko Plateau (NSW)
• The Bimberi Ranges (ACT)
• The Clear Ranges (ACT)
• Mount Buffalo (Vic)
• Mount Baw Baw (Vic)
• Mount Wills (Vic)

The geography around 360 million years ago consisted of islands of varying sizes separated by ocean, which allowed coral reefs to develop. These conditions were optimum for the formation of limestone, which allowed the for slow weathering out of the Yarrangobilly Caves. This ancient volcanic mountain range has since eroded over the course of 200 million years of geological inactivity in the area, but it has left important evidence of its existence.

Present range

Lake Albina, an example of an alpine cirque

The subject of when the Australian Alps themselves were formed is still contested, but the majority view is that they arose between 100 and 60 million years ago. The continent Gondwanaland is hypothesised to have split into two new continents around 130 million years ago: the now mostly-submerged Zealandia and the large, predominately flat Australia. Magma was forced up into the lithosphere, heating and thus expanding the crust upwards—the site of todays Australian Alps. The raised area split across the middle, separating Tasmania and eventually forming what is now Bass Strait. Zealandia also split away, leaving behind the remnants of the raised area—the Australian Alps.

Australia's mountains have been subjected to weathering for millions of years, and are therefore much less rugged than the steep, rocky mountains of Asia, Europe and the Americas. The Australian Alps underwent a period of minor glaciation in the last ice age—up to 50 square kilometres (19 sq mi) of the Kosciuszko Plateau was covered in ice, possibly 100 metres (330 ft) thick. These glaciers had melted by 14 500 years BP, and periglacial conditions replaced them. The effects of this can be seen in various tarns and cirques (such as Blue Lake and Lake Albina), as well as small glacial valleys with U-shaped cross sections near Mount Kosciuszko.

Characteristics

A photograph from below the summit of Mount Kosciuszko, depicting glacial rock formations typical of the alpine regions.

Whilst not flat, the plateau is also not particularly rugged, with a hilly topography, rounded peaks and deep valleys. This is testament to the range's fairly gentle geological history, as well as heavy erosion since the last ice age. Another contributing factor to the physical shape of the area is the eruptions of what are now extinct volcanoes, from 50 million years ago to the present. These eruptions filled the limestone valleys with basalt and other erosion-resistant and volcanic rocks, slowing the process of weathering and averaging out the topography even more.

Peaks

The Australian Alps, being a relatively low-lying mountain range, have considerably smaller peaks than other global mountain ranges. The highest peak in the Alps, and in Australia, is Mount Kosciuszko, at 2,228 metres (7,310 ft) above sea level. However, if overseas Australian territories are taken into account, Mount McClintock, located in the Australian Antarctic Territory, at 3,490 metres (11,450 ft), is far taller. Other significant peaks in the Australian Alps include:

• Mount Townsend (Second-tallest peak in Australia)
• Mount Twynam (Third-tallest peak in Australia)
• Bimberi Peak (Tallest peak in the ACT)
• Mount Bogong (Tallest peak in Victoria)

Water bodies

The headwaters of the Murrumbidgee River, traversing the natural system of bogs and grasslands that store, filter and inherently regulate the release of precipitation.

Most of the water bodies in and around the Australian Alps are the man-made components of the Snowy Mountains Hydroelectric Scheme. Other water bodies besides these include Australia's only glacial lakes and the headwaters of many of Australia's largest rivers, including the:

• Murray River
• Tumut River
• Snowy River
• Murrumbidgee River

The Australian Alps, and the Great Dividing Range in general, act as a drainage divide between the eastern seaboard and the more drought-prone Western Plains.

On the western slopes of the range, the height and shape of the landform serves to facilitate orographic rainfall from westerly-driven clouds. This wind direction is de facto to the mid-latitudes of the Australian continent as a whole, and manifests itself in periodic fronts throughout the winter months which bring heavy precipitation to the Australian Alps When combined with the low rate of evapotranspiration the area experiences, the result is that the Australian Alps have some of Australia's highest annual rainfall measurements. The greatest falls occur during winter and spring, dumping meters of snow on the alpine regions.

This precipitation is then filtered through a complex natural system of grasses, heaths, bogs, soils and streams before finding its way to rivers. Sphagnum mosses are the locally dominant bog flora, and these augment the storage and discharge functions of the soils and grasses. These bogs also filter the water, cleaning it of debris and improving the quality of the water source. The bogs are voluminous enough in the alpine regions to hold water throughout the year, meaning that there is a constant flow of water from the mountain areas of Australia. The Australian Alps are fundamental to irrigation in the Murray Darling Basin, providing 2900 gigalitres of water annually to the basin—around 29% of its flows.

Montane grasslands, heaths and bogs store and filter water year-round

Soils

Because the slopes of the Australian Alps have relatively low gradients when compared to many other mountain ranges, the soils have been largely spared from erosion. Glaciation, which is also known to erode soils, via snow ice, water and wind, has been historically confined to the highest areas of the Kosciuszko main range. The net effect is that the Australian Alps have a substantial layer of topsoil in many areas, including on the main plateau.

Humus—the remains of dead plants and animals—decays slowly in the frigid temperatures of the Alps. Because of this, nutrients are less available at higher altitudes, which repels bacteria—they tend to prefer the warmer, nutrient-rich climates of the lower slopes. Bacteria are responsible for the decomposition of humus, so the humus accumulates and the soil becomes porous and crumbly, and thus able to store more water.

Soil types

The soils of this mountain range are quite diverse, due to the complex geological history, which resulted in many different types of bedrock. Because the chemical weathering of bedrock is a significant contributor to soil mass, the soils vary substantially throughout the range. One of the more common soil types is the porous humus mentioned above, which develops in relatively flat areas where water can pool. Sandy lithosols are another type of local soil; they form on exposed crests and ridgelines. There are also peat soils, loams, duplex soils and gradational soils, which have clay content increasing with depth.

Erosion

Erosion is a serious management problem for the Australian Alps for a variety of reasons. Soil without groundcover is particularly vulnerable to the most common types of erosion—wind, water and ice. The cold climate means that if vegetation is damaged or destroyed, as historically occurred when settlers brought cattle to the Kosciuszko plateau, it takes a longer time for the plants to regenerate. Vegetation loss can also occur after fires or the construction of roads and tracks.

Needle ice—note the displacement of soil.

The Australian Alps are cold enough to experience needle ice erosion, a phenomenon which occurs in places which get regular frosts. The cold temperatures, through a capillary action, draw moisture to the surface of the ground, where it accumulates in fine 'pillars' of ice. Soil particles are often trapped on the tops of these pillars, and this leaves them vulnerable to the forces of wind, water and gravity. If needle ice forms on a slope, significant erosion can occur as many surface particles are put in a precarious position at once.

The native groundcover is a barrier to needle ice, but due to the retarded plant growth in higher areas, significant amounts of material can be shifted if this groundcover is damaged. Chemical weathering of bedrock, the main process by which soil is formed, is also slowed by the frigid conditions, leading to an even more fragile balance of soils.

The higher parts of the plateau are strewn with cracked boulders; this is due to water percolating deep within the rock and then freezing. As the water freezes, it expands, cracking the rock it is inside. This speeds up the breakage of rocks, yet does not speed up soil formation; instead, the soluble products of weathering, such as minerals and nutrients, are carried away with the water, leaving the soil slightly more acidic.

Climate

The Australian alps consist of multiple biomes due to altitude differences. The main four are listed below with their corresponding elevations and average annual rainfall measurements.

Biome	Elevation (m)	Precipitation (mm)
Alpine	above 1800	1800-2300
Sub-alpine	1350-1800	1300-2000
Montane	below 1350	500-1300
Tableland	lower elevations	500-800

The climate is generally fairly mild, but this depends upon the biome referred to. For the true alpine areas, the average monthly temperature, even in summer, rarely exceeds 10 °C (50 °F). The treeline in the Alps is approximately 1,800 metres (5,900 ft); this is also the altitude above which the climate is considered alpine for the Australian Alps.

Sub-alpine areas typically have stunted trees and substantial meadow coverage, as seen in this image from Mount Buffalo

Climate change

The alpine parts of the Australian Alps cover approximately 0.01% of Australia's surface, and are highly responsive to outside influences. The effects of global warming are a threat to the continued existence of the alpine regions of mainland Australia. Due in part to Australia's continental isolation and also in part to the small alpine area, approximately 10% of the resident species are endemic to the Australian Alps. This includes species like the mountain pygmy possum and corroboree frog. As the climate warms, the alpine areas are projected to shrink, and empirical evidence already demonstrates this effect on the area. This has the potential to devastate Australian ski resorts, and the purchasing of snow-making equipment is therefore increasing, as well as endeavours into non-snow related areas.

Other effects of climate change projected for these ranges include a higher frequency and intensity of bushfires and extreme weather events, as well as more diverse and numerous weed species in the alpine regions.

However, many native species in the lower areas of the mountains will flourish with the effects of climate change, and the lower amounts of snow cover will allow the extending of their habitat boundaries.

Ecology

The Australian Alps are important for conservation, recreation, and as a water drainage basin, with much of the runoff from the eastern slopes being diverted artificially into the Murray River and its tributary, the Murrumbidgee River. This occurs through the Snowy Mountains Scheme, one of Australia's largest civil engineering projects.

The ecosystems are protected by large national parks, in particular the Kosciuszko National Park in New South Wales and the Alpine National Park in Victoria. These are managed cooperatively as Australian Alps National Parks by agencies of the Australian Government and the state governments of this region.

The Australian Alps also contain the only skiing areas of mainland Australia. Along with the town of Cabramurra, New South Wales, they are practically the only permanent settlements in the area. Several medium-sized towns can be found in the valleys below the foothills, such as Jindabyne, Corryong and Mount Beauty.

Flora

The precarious position, bent trunk and lopsided canopy of a snow gum (eucalyptus pauciflora) indicates the harsh mountain conditions it faces

The vegetation of the Alps includes species from nearly every Australian plant family—wattles, yellow billy buttons and trigger plants, as well as innumerable others. These species are visually similar to other mainland species, but in many cases have evolved to be more hardy, adapting to conditions which the rest of the Australian continent generally lacks. These conditions cause the inhibition of plant growth, and include:

• A frigid climate
• Steep slopes
• High winds
• Large temperature variations

Effects of altitude

The effects of altitude on vegetation are clearly visible in this image of a high country ridge

Further information: [[:Altitudinal zonation]]

In mountain areas around the world, the locations where certain species of plants will grow are often, though not always, quite marked and clear, and are classified as altitudinal zones. These zones each have specific climatic, aspect, gradient and soil characteristics which allow for their distinction. For the Australian Alps, they are, in order of increasing elevation:

1. Tablelands—Lower elevations, including tableland plains. Grassy woodlands and dry open woodlands grow here, and the canopy is scattered enough to allow plenty of light through.
2. Montane—Up to 1,350 metres (4,430 ft). Precipitation increases, bringing with it darker, denser, taller forests than at lower reliefs. The soils here are thick and nutrient-rich, due to the prevalence of decomposable material. In the upper slopes of the montane zone, alpine ash, the worlds tallest flowering trees, are the dominant species.
3. Sub-alpine—1,350 metres (4,430 ft) to 1,800 metres (5,900 ft). The twisted and stunted snow gum is the dominant species at this altitude, as much of the precipitation is snow, wind levels are high and soils are poor.
4. Alpine—1,800 metres (5,900 ft) to 2,300 metres (7,500 ft). This zone is too cold for the growth of trees. This is because of persistent snow cover—the ground is covered for around four months of the year—blocking the light from plants and stifling the process of photosynthesis. The start of the alpine zone generally coincides with both the treeline and the relief at which the mean summer temperature is around 10 °C (50 °F). The dominant species at this level are heaths, grasses and herbs.

Types of vegetation

Everlasting daisies (Xerochrysum) growing on a slope near Mount Hotham

Some prominent species in the Australian Alps, by biome, include:

• Woodland—Mountain Swamp Gum (Eucalyptus camphora), Yellow Box (Eucalyptus melliodora), River Red Gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis)
• Dry Sclerophyll—Red Stringybark (Eucalyptus macrorhyncha), Broad-leaved Peppermint (Eucalyptus dives), White Gum (Eucalyptus rossii)
• Wet Sclerophyll—Narrow-leaved Peppermint (Eucalyptus radiata), Candlebark (Eucalyptus rubida), Brown Barrel (Eucalyptus fastigata), Mountain Gum (Eucalyptus dalrympleana), Manna Gum (Eucalyptus viminalis)
• Alpine ash forest—Alpine Ash (Eucalyptus delegatensis), Mountain Gum (Eucalyptus dalrympleana)
• Subalpine woodland—Snow Gum (Eucalyptus pauciflora)
• Alpine shrubby heathland—Yellow Kunzea (Kunzea ericifolia), Alpine Grevillea (Grevillea australis), Leafy Bossiaea (Bossiaea foliosa), Common Oxylobium (Oxylobium ellipticum). Mountain Plum Pine (Podocarpus lawrencei)
• Tussock grassland—Prickly Snow Grass (Poa costiniana) and Mountain Gentian (Gentianella diemensis)
• Tall alpine herbfield—Snow Daisies (Celmisia), Snow Grasses (Poa) and Billy Buttons (Craspedia )
• Alpine bog—Sphagnum Moss (Sphagnum cristatum), Pineapple Grass (Astelia alpina) and Swamp Heath (Epacris paludosa)
• Short alpine herbfield—Alpine Marsh Marigold (Caltha introloba), Alpine Wallaby Grass (Danthonia nudiflora), Alpine Plantain (Plantago), Alpine Trachymene (Trachymene humilis), White Purslane (Neopaxia australasica)
• Feldmark—Rock Heath (Epacris petrophila), Chionohebe (Chionohebe densifolia), Spreading Coprosma (Coprosma pumila), Hard Cushion Plant (Colobanthus pulvinifica)

Fauna

Leadbeater's possum (Gymnobelideus leadbeateri) (taxidermied)

Every major animal group can be found in the Australian Alps. This includes mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish and invertebrates, as well as introduced species, such as the pig, cow and fox. Every animal needs food and, to some extent, shelter, and so in a mainly undeveloped mountain region, the range of these animals is determined by the range of the plant species, which provide these necessities, as well as the climate.

Most of the animals in the Australian Alps live in the lower altitudes—the tableland and montane woodlands have plentiful food and shelter, as well as an easily habitable climate. Many of these animals, particularly the marsupials, are nocturnal, and are not often witnessed.

Mammals

Dusky Antichinus (Antechinus swainsonii)

Some of the native mammals in the Australian Alps include:

• Large browsing marsupials—Common wombat (Vombatus ursinus), Red-Necked Wallaby (Macropus rufogriseus), Swamp Wallaby (Wallabia bicolor), Eastern Grey Kangaroo (Macropus giganteus)
• Smaller mammals—Smoky Mouse (Pseudomys fumeus), Long-nosed Bandicoot (Perameles nasuta), Brown Antechinus (Antechinus stuartii), Swainson's Antechinus (Antechinus swainsonii), Tiger Quoll (Dasyurus maculatus)
• Tree-dwelling marsupials—Common Brushtail Possum (Trichosurus vulpecula), Mountain Brushtail Possum (Trichosurus cunninghami), Leadbeater's Possum (Gymnobelideus leadbeateri), Common Ringtail possum (Pseudocheirus peregrinus), Eastern Pygmy Possum (Cercartetus nanus), various gliding possums
• Bats—Gould's Wattled Bat (Chalinolobus gouldii), Lesser Long-eared Bat (Nyctophilus geoffroyi), Chocolate Wattled Bat (Chalinolobus morio), various Flying Foxes

Some of the smaller mammals, such as the Broad-toothed rat, Swainson's antichinus and Mountain Pygmy Possum, can survive under a blanket of snow throughout the winter, as the temperatures remain constant. These species often nest together to stay warm, as one thermal body, through this period of cold. The Mountain Pygmy Possum also has another survival strategy, which is to hibernate during the depths of winter.

Birds

A Flame Robin

The Australian Alps have been classified by BirdLife International as an Important Bird Area, as their montane forests and woodlands support large breeding populations of Flame Robins and Pilotbirds. Some of the key native bird species in the Australian Alps are:

• Alpine and sub-alpine distribution—Australian Kestrel (Falco cenchroides), Australian Pipit (Anthus novaeseelandiae), White-browed Scrubwren (Sericornis frontalis), Flame Robin (Petroica phoenicea), Pied Currawong (Strepera graculina), Grey Currawong (Strepera versicolor), Little Raven (Corvus mellori)

• Montane and tablelands distribution—Gang-gang Cockatoo (Callocephalon fimbriatum), Crimson Rosella (Platycercus elegans), Fan-tailed Cuckoo (Cacomantis flabelliformis), Grey Fantail (Rhipidura albiscapa), Emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae), Superb Lyrebird (Menura novaehollandiae), Yellow-faced Honeyeater (Lichenostomus chrysops)
• Unsorted—Pink Robin (Petroica rodinogaster), Brush Cuckoo (Cacomantis variolosus), Satin Flycatcher (Myiagra cyanoleuca), Olive-backed Oriole (Oriolus sagittatus)

One avian survival adaptation in the cold winter months is migration—under half of the native birds stay in the Snowy Mountains area over winter.

Reptiles

Being cold-blooded animals, reptiles in the mountains are only found in locations with sunny basking sites and protection from winter temperatures, such as logs or caves. Some of the most dense groups of lizards sighted in Australia have been on rocks near mountain tops on warm summer days. The cohort of native alpine reptiles includes:

• Alpine and sub-alpine distribution—Alpine Water Skink (Eulamprus kosciuskoi), She-oak Skink (Cyclodomorphus casuarinae)
• Montane and tablelands distribution—Tree Dragon (Amphibolurus muricatus), McCoy’s Skink (Nannoscincus maccoyi), Southern Grass Skink (Pseudemoia entrecasteauxii), Alpine Water Skink (Eulamprus kosciuskoi), Southern Blue Tongue (Tiliqua nigrolutea), Highlands Copperhead Snake (Austrelaps ramsayi)

Fish and amphibians

Around half of Victoria's amphibian species and many of those living in New South Wales and the ACT live in the mountains, as it is a moist, clean environment. Some very unique species have evolved in the Australian Alps, such as the Mountain Galaxia, a fish. Vulnerable since the introduction of trout, it is capable of climbing rocks and sunbathes on them to regulate its body temperature. Some of the notable native fish and amphibian species with mountain distributions include:

• Fish—Mountain Galaxia (Galaxias oldius)
• Amphibians—Baw Baw Frog (Philoria frosti), Southern Corroboree Frog (Pseudophryne corroboree), Northern Corroboree Frog (Pseudophryne pengilleyi)

All of these species listed are now endangered, mainly due to competition with humans and introduced species.

Invertebrates

Various yabbies, cockroaches, insects, spiders and micro-organisms live in the Australian Alps, and are an important component of the food web. Some of the native invertebrates are:

• Insects —Flightless Mountain Grasshopper, Wingless Cockroach, Alpine Case Moth, Alpine Grass Caterpillar, Alpine Silver Xenica Butterfly, Bogong Moth
• Crustaceans—Various Yabbies

The Bogong Moth migrates to the high country every summer to escape the heat of the plains, and can be witnessed in swarms encompassing hundreds of thousands of individuals. These mass gatherings provide food for the endangered mountain pygmy possum, as well as various bird species, and are an important part of the food web.

Introduced species

Species that arrived in the Australian Alps after the colonisation of Australia, and have now made the area their habitat, include:

• Mammals—Hares, Horses, wild Pigs, Cats, Dogs, House Mouse (Mus musculus), European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), Black Rat (Rattus rattus), Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes), Fallo Deer (Dama dama), Sambar (Rusa unicolor)

• Fish—Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), Brown Trout (Salmo trutta)
• Plants—Blackberry (Rubus fruticosus)

These species are often invasive, and therefore a threat to the continuity of the existing native ecosystem. The Australian Alps are an important tourist destination, as well as being the catchment for much of Australia's water supplies. Therefore, the control and eradication of invasive species is in the interests of Australians, and the managers of the various national parks, such as Parks Victoria, or the National Parks and Wildlife Service, are the government bodies responsible for this activity.

Extensive weed control programs, as well as animal trapping programs, are enacted to remove species from vulnerable ecosystems. After the careful monitoring of species activities, methods used include shooting, poisoning, trapping, fencing, and for some wild horses, relocation. To attempt the replacement of damaged ecosystem components, erosion control and revegetation programs are also occurring. This happens both under the influence of government bodies and private landowners.

In 2005, 128 invasive species had been recorded in areas of treeless vegetation, of which only 22 were found above an altitude of 1,800 metres (5,900 ft).

Brumbies

Main article: Brumby

Bushfires

See also: Bushfires in Australia

Due to its mostly hot, dry climate, bushfires in Australia occur frequently, particularly in the heavily forested areas of the Australian Alps. The Alps, particularly the Victorian Alps, are periodically subjected to major bushfires and have been almost entirely burnt by bushfires on various occasions, notably Black Thursday in 1851, Black Friday in 1939, and during fires in 2003 and 2006-07.

The Victorian Alps Fire Complex during the 2006-07 Australian bushfire season, looking towards Dargo from Swifts Creek.

Certain native flora in Australia have evolved to rely on bushfires as a means of reproduction and fire events are an interwoven and an essential part of the ecology of the continent. In some eucalypt and banksia species, for example, fire causes seed pods to open, which allows them to germinate. Fire also encourages the growth of new grassland plants. Other species have adapted to recover quickly from fire.

Nevertheless, damage to surrounding human habitations and native fauna can be extensive and occasionally catastrophic. The 2003 Canberra bushfires severely affected almost 70% of the Australian Capital Territory’s pastures, pine plantations and nature parks. After burning for a week through the Brindabella Ranges above Canberra, the fires entered the suburbs of the city on 18 January 2003. Four people died and more than 500 homes were destroyed or severely damaged. The Victorian Black Saturday bushfires were particularly intense in parts of the Victorian High Country and destroyed several towns, including Kinglake and Marysville. The fires killed 173 people; Australia's highest ever loss of life from a bushfire. Statewide, the fires affected 78 townships and destroyed over 2,030 houses and 3,500+ structures.

Human interactions

Bogong Moth (Agrotis infusa)

Traditional management

The Australian Alps region has been populated for at least 21 000 years, predominately by Aboriginal Australians. Birrigai Rock Shelter, located within Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve in the ACT, contains ancient stone tools and the soot marks of ancient campfires which are dated back this far, when temperatures in this area were around 8 °C (46 °F) cooler than today. This site was used until the 1850s, when the indigenous people of this area were confronted with a European colonial presence. Similar evidence from Clogg's Cave, in Victoria, has shown that it was likely occupied around 17 000 years ago. Stone tools found in alpine and sub-alpine parts of the range have been dated to between 4500 and 5000 BP.

The Aboriginal people of the Australian Alps managed the ecosystem for thousands of years, using traditional skills and knowledge, and this impacted upon the ecology of the area. They left very little trace of their presence, with rock shelters and open campgrounds, along with stone tools, being the main tangible evidence of their existence. This meant that, unlike today, the Alps were managed in a way which did not upset the delicate ecological balance of species dominance. For example, with most of the Aboriginal people living in the south east of Australia, large corroborees would be held on the banks of the Murray River, and parties of foragers would travel into the mountains to collect the large amounts of Bogong Moths which migrate there during the summer to aestivate, or fall dormant to conserve energy in heat.The moths would be physically pulled off their ledges, or smoked out of caves with torches, roasted on a fire and ground to a paste with river stones, then eaten. This traditional activity had been taking place for between 1000 and 7000 years prior to European colonisation, yet Bogong moths are still incredibly numerous; so much so that in 1970's Canberra, so many moths invaded a block of new, brightly illuminated buildings that they caused the lifts to fail.

Fire

Aboriginal people in the Australian Alps used fire for a variety of tasks, including:

• For the provision of warmth and comfort
• For ceremonial and cultural displays
• To cook food
• As a hunting tool, used to flush out game
• To clear dense vegetation and undergrowth
• As a form of communication, via smoke signals

These instances of the use of fire, along with the long history of Aboriginal settlement, suggest that the landscape of the Australian Alps was manipulated significantly as these tribes became an integral component of the local biophysical environment.

The ecosystem that the Aboriginal people of the Australian Alps maintained is portrayed in this early painting of Mount Kosciuszko, from the Victorian border. Eugene Von Guerard, 1866.

Disagreements with European conservation strategies

Aboriginal groups have argued that the form of conservation advocated by someone such as Henry David Thoreau is inherently forgetting that indigenous Australians have been managing the Australian Alps ecosystem for tens of thousands of years, and have become an integral component of said ecosystem. This clashes with traditional European notions of 'wilderness' and 'untouched beauty', and has therefore been a contentious political topic in relation to both the management of the ecosystem and the desired function of National Parks in Australia.

The colonial European assumption of Terra nullius (or 'land belonging to no one') was partly a disbelieving reaction to the the pristine and sustainable state in which the land was kept by indigenous Australians.

Contemporary management

Hikers sitting near the summit of Mount Kosciuszko. Bushwalking and other recreational uses are part of the legal justification for national parks status.

In the contemporary setting, the demand for high quality water in Australia presents a major challenge in managing the alps. This is due to the inception of hydroelectric schemes, which change the natural flow of waterways and inundate previously dry areas. The introduction of feral species and the vulnerability of endemic and endangered species are also issues which affect contemporary management. Adding to these is the use of the area for recreation, with the ensuing pollution that entails; waste disposal, for example.

Conservation

The Australian Alps were first noted as a possible conservation site between 1872 and 1890. Areas around the Yarrangobilly Caves were set aside for public recreation and as reserves to protect the natural landforms. In 1898, the Victorian Government established Mount Buffalo National Park; the first park in the area. In 1906, the Snowy Mountains National Chase was established in NSW, expanding in 1921 and 1925 to protect more native species. Due to erosion problems in the mountains after the introduction of cattle, a soil erosion committee was formed in 1933, and declared various areas erosion hazards.

Also in 1933, Miles Dunfey, a bushwalker, proposed a Snowy-Indi Primitive Area of 1,000,000 acres (400,000 ha) in NSW and Victoria. The location was legally deemed a catchment area by 1938, the outcome of which was the prohibition of grazing and burning. National park status was being lobbied for by bushwalkers and other conservationists, and political figures of the time showed an interest in this proposal, such as then-premier of NSW, William McKell. By 1944, the NSW alpine regions were granted park status and named the Kosciusko State Park, establishing nature conservation and water catchment utilities as priority land uses for these regions. The bill that was passed in government to enact this legislation called for

"... the permanent preservation of all the water catchments, permanent reservation and development of the park for the

recreation and enjoyment of the people and the continued controlled use of the park for pastoral purposes, insofar as they

were consistent with the first and second principles."

— Minister of Lands, 1944

The Australian government did not back the endeavour financially and so the park, intended for conservation, was initially funded by a trust that ironically relied on the sale of grazing leases. More alpine and sub-alpine national parks for Victoria were recommended in 1949, including a 500,000 acres (200,000 ha) Alpine National Park. These recommendations were not carried through by the Victorian government until 1971, and as late as 1989 for the Alpine National Park.

The Snowy Mountains Hydroelectricity Act of 1949 aided the conservation of the watersheds, as the protection of catchment areas was deemed important for water quality in dams. This act halted both cattle grazing and the burning of forests for farming purposes. In 1963, the Snowy Hydro Commission proposed a plan to build aqueducts and dams in the alpine and sub-alpine regions deep within Kosciusko State Park. This caused the park trust to push for the establishment of a zone where infrastructure projects of this sort were excluded to conserve the natural heritage of the area. In 1965, Kosciusko State Park was renamed as Kosciuszko National Park, and by 1967, funding was made available by the Australian government for nature conservation and water catchment protection. Grazing in Kosciuszko National Park was completely halted by 1969 after lengthy debates with graziers who were illegally allowing their cattle access to the national park.

In 2008, the Australian Alps were added to the National Heritage List, where the values that the area has to stakeholders, such as conservationists, are described in detail. Any landuse that might impact upon these values has to now be referred to the Federal Government before proceeding.

Mining

The Australian Alps have historically been mined, particularly for tin, gold, copper, but since the formation of Alpine National Park, the only mine still functioning is Red Robin Mine, in Victoria.

Strzelecki was the first European explorer to find gold in the Alps.

The Kiandra gold rush was the largest gold rush in the Alps area, with approximately 10 000 people in the town at its peak, around 1860.

Forestry

Forestry is a factor that has affected the vegetation of the Australian Alps.

Grazing

See also: Alpine National Park § Agriculture

Small numbers of cattle still graze sections of the Bogong High Plains, in Victoria, though the practice was once far more widespread in the Australian Alps. Animals, mainly cows and sheep, have historically—since around 1820—had access to the land, in numbers that depended on the climate, terrain and biomass of that particular area. For example, in summer, when the lower mountain elevations became dry and unproductive, sheep and cows would be taken to higher-altitude grazing sites. The vegetation at these high-altitude sites happens to be less resilient than that of lower elevations, which makes overgrazing easier. A side-effect of the grazing was, particularly through the early 20th century, the periodic burning of areas, intended by drovers to encourage the growth of grasses and herbs. The periodic and intensive damage that the vegetation and soil sustained through these factors meant that the ecological balance shifted. The environmental effects—including erosion and the loss of native habitat—of unconstrained grazing have led to the restriction of this practice over time, and in recent years, only small numbers of animals have been allowed to graze in fenced sections of Alpine National Park. The purpose of these exceptions is to lower the fire danger in risk areas (such as those burned in the Black Saturday bushfires) by thinning vegetation, and they are regulated with government permits.

Snowy Mountains Scheme

Blowering Dam, south of Tumut, is one of 19 water bodies that together constitute the massive Snowy Mountains Hydroelectric Scheme.

Main article: Snowy Mountains Scheme

Because Australia is the driest permanently inhabited continent on Earth, the large volumes of water that spring from the Alps are required for human use if Australia's population of around 23 million is to have year-round access to water. The water originating in the Australian Alps is of a high quality, due to the filtering action of the montane grasslands, and is therefore a particularly precious resource in a dry country.

The Snowy Mountains Scheme was built to increase south-eastern Australia's water supply and buffer agricultural areas with retained water for use in hot, dry summers. An additional justification for the construction was the possibility of implementing hydroelectric power generation, which has been done, reducing the regional dependency on coal-fired power stations.

During construction, tens of thousands of immigrant workers, many of them refugees from post-war Europe, came to work on the project, bringing different cultures with them. In all, over 100 000 workers, including Australians from surrounding areas, were involved with the scheme.

The Snowy Mountains Scheme contains 7 power stations (2 underground), 16 major dams and 225 kilometres (140 mi) of tunnels, aqueducts and pipelines. It additionally includes hundreds of kilometers of roads and high-voltage transmission lines that were built to service the scheme. The total generating capacity of the scheme is 3756 MW, and the infrastructure is currently operated and maintained by Snowy Hydro Limited.

Power line cuttings for the Snowy Hydro power stations must be clear of trees to prevent arcing as well as to simplify maintenance access.

Environmental impacts

See also: Environmental impact of reservoirs

The headwaters of the Murrumbidgee, Snowy and Eucumbene rivers have been diverted to the west by the project, dropping through 800 vertical metres (2,600 ft) of dams, turbines and tunnels. This naturally affects fish? The addition of dams entails the regulation of the river's flow—the natural timing and volumes of water traveling down the watercourse has been changed. Besides these rivers, the Geehi, Swampy Plain, Tumut, Murray and Tooma River ecosystems have all been heavily modified with the impact from changing flows. The effects of this human modification to the environment include:

• In places where flows are increased, less stable riverbanks and more erosion.
• Where flows are reduced, silt build-up and deposition, and therefore a change in riverbed size.
• The voluminous releases of cold, deep-lake water differ from the historically warmer and shallower flows, which have negative effects on certain fish and insect species.
• Interruption of evolved migratory patterns in certain fish species, leading to a level of population decline or even a localised die-off.
• Where flows are reduced, salinity issues due to a compromised 'flushing' effect; exacerbated by agriculture and deforestation.
• A slower replenishment of groundwater supplies in places with reduced flows.

Along with these issues, there is the inevitable soil disturbance that groundwork involves, and the drowning of thousands of hectares of land under artificial lakes, inherent to dam construction. The secondary effects of this infrastructure are present as well, with trees having been cleared for the construction of hundreds of kilometres of power lines and service roads.

Tourism

Recreation and tourism in the Australian Alps is mainly influenced by the rugged landforms and associated mountain scenery and climate. Many popular recreational uses of the area, including activities such as hiking, skiing and rock climbing are facilitated by the terrain, itself unique within Australia. The majority of the visitors to the Australian Alps come for recreational purposes, such as tourism. State government departments are the bodies responsible for the upkeep of the environment so as not to jeopardise the original recreational land use justification. For example, the promotion of a "Leave no Trace" policy on waste disposal and general attitudes has been aimed at all users of the national parks in the Alps.

Attractions

• Australian Alps Walking Track: a long distance walking trail through the alpine areas of Victoria, New South Wales, and the ACT. It is 655 kilometres (407 mi) long, extending from Walhalla, Victoria to Tharwa, ACT, near Canberra.

New South Wales

• Mount Kosciuszko, Australia's highest peak at 2,228 metres (7,310 ft) above sea level
• Kosciuszko National Park
• Snowy Mountains
• Alpine Way
• Barry Way
• Snowy Mountains Highway
• Snowy Mountains Scheme
  • Lake Eucumbene
  • Lake Jindabyne
• Yarrangobilly Caves
• Kiandra gold & skifields (where Skiing in Australia began in the 1860s).
• Trout fishing in New South Wales
• Skiing in New South Wales

Victoria

• Alpine National Park
• Avon Wilderness Park
• Baw Baw National Park
• Mount Buffalo National Park
• Mount Bogong, Victoria's highest peak at 1,986 metres (6,516 ft) above sea level
• Mount Feathertop
• Mount Skene
• Bogong High Plains
• Great Alpine Road
• National Alpine Museum
• Lake Tali Karng
• Skiing in Victoria

Australian Capital Territory

• Namadgi National Park
• Bimberi Nature Reserve
• Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve
• Bimberi Peak, the ACT's highest peak at 1,912 metres (6,273 ft) above sea level
• Tharwa Road
• Corin Forest
• Mount Franklin (Australian Capital Territory)
• Skiing in the Australian Capital Territory

Resort skiing areas

Main article: Skiing in Australia

The Australian Alps are the main region in which skiing in Australia takes place (although skiing is also possible in Tasmania). Skiable terrain stretches through large areas of territory from June to October. New South Wales is home to Australia's highest snow country, oldest skifields and largest resort. Recreational skiing in Australia began around 1861 at Kiandra, New South Wales, when Norwegian gold miners introduced the idea to the frozen hills around the town. The first and longest surviving ski club in the world, The Kiandra Snow Shoe Club is believed to have been formed at Kiandra in that year. Steeper slopes and more reliable snows lie further to the south and in the 20th Century, the focus of recreational skiing in New South Wales shifted southward, to mountains in and around the Kosciuszko Main Range region, where Australia's best vertical drop is found at Thredbo and Australia's biggest resort, Perisher is now found. The State of Victoria is the one with the largest number of skiing areas in Australia.

Panoramic view of Thredbo ski resort and the Thredbo River valley in the Snowy Mountains from the Kosciuszko Express Terminal.

Mount Bogong is the highest peak in Victoria, with its peak at 1986 meters above sea level. The surrounding Bogong High Plains is one of the largest areas of snow country in Australia. It includes the leading resorts of Falls Creek and Mount Hotham. Recreational and practical skiing was being practised in the Victorian Alps by the 1880s and 1890s, with skis made from local timbers, and making use of single steering poles. Skiing began at Mount Buffalo in the 1890s and a chalet was constructed in 1910. Australia's first ski tow was constructed near Mount Buffalo in 1936.

Cross country skiing is possible in the Australian Capital Territory as well as in New South Wales and Victoria, but downhill skiing can only be done in New South Wales and Victoria.

New South Wales

• Perisher
  • Perisher Valley
  • Guthega
  • Mount Blue Cow
  • Smiggin Holes
• Thredbo
• Charlotte Pass
• Selwyn Snowfields

Victoria

• Mount Buller
• Falls Creek
• Mount Hotham
• Dinner Plain
• Mount Baw Baw
• Mount Buffalo
• Lake Mountain (cross country)
• Mount Stirling (cross country)
• Mount St Gwinear (cross country)
• Mount Donna Buang (snow play)

Wallace's Hut, Bogong high plains, Victoria. The oldest hut built in the Alps, it is typical of those built by miners.

Alpine huts

Within the Australian Alps there are around 120 active alpine huts that mostly date back to the early cattlemen's days, including early skiing, research and surveying huts. Many of these have remained in use by fly fishers (seasonal), hikers and skiing groups throughout the year. The huts are mostly maintained by volunteers through the Kosciuszko Huts Association and the local National Parks services.

Some of the more noteworthy huts include Moscow Villa Hut, Valentine Hut, Seaman's Hut and Mawsons Hut. In recent years many huts have been lost through lack of maintenance and in bush fires - as occurred with the Pretty Plain Hut and Mount Franklin Chalet, which were destroyed by the Canberra bushfires of 2003.

See Also

• Australian Alps montane grasslands

External links

• Australian Alps National Parks official government website
• A sketch of the physical structure of Australia, so far as it is at present known  – via Wikisource.
• Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Australia" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
• The Man From Snowy River  – via Wikisource.

Unsorted sources

• "National Heritage Places - Australian Alps National Parks and Reserves".
• "Alpine Ecosystems".
• ABS discussion on Aus. Alps

Category:IBRA regions Category:IBRA subregions Category:Mountain ranges of New South Wales Category:Mountain ranges of Victoria (Australia) Category:Regions of Victoria (Australia) Category:Regions of New South Wales Category:Important Bird Areas of Victoria (Australia) Category:Important Bird Areas of New South Wales