User:Treetoes023/List of extinct languages of Europe

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All of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas during the pre-Columbian era belonged to one of five mitochondrial DNA haplogroups: A, B, C, D, or X,[1][2] specifically the sub-haplogroups A2, B2, C1b, C1c, C1d, D1, and X2a (with minor groups C4c, D2a, and D4h3a).[3][4]


The common occurrence of the mtDNA Haplogroups A, B, C, and D among eastern Asian and Indigenous American populations has long been recognized, along with the presence of Haplogroup X.[5] As a whole, the greatest frequency of the four Indigenous American associated haplogroups occurs in the Altai-Baikal region of southern Siberia.[6] Some subclades of C and D closer to the Indigenous American subclades occur among Mongolian, Amur, Japanese, Korean, and Ainu populations.[5][7] A 2023 DNA study found that "[i]n addition to previously described ancestral sources in Siberia, Australo-Melanesia, and Southeast Asia, ... northern coastal China also contributed to the gene pool of Native Americans" as well as that of Japanese people.[8]

Distribution of haplogroup X

When studying human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup, the results indicated that Indigenous American haplogroups, including haplogroup X, are part of a single founding East Asian population. It also indicates that the distribution of mtDNA haplogroups and the levels of sequence divergence among linguistically similar groups were the result of multiple preceding migrations from Bering Straits populations.[4]

X is one of the five mtDNA haplogroups found in Indigenous Americans. Native Americans mostly belong to the X2a clade, which has never been found in the Old World.[9] According to Jennifer Raff, X2a probably originated in the same Siberian population as the other four founding maternal lineages.[10]

Haplogroup X genetic sequences diverged about 20,000 to 30,000 years ago to give two sub-groups, X1 and X2. X2's subclade X2a occurs only at a frequency of about 3% for the total current Indigenous population of the Americas.[11] However, X2a is a major mtDNA subclade in North America; among the Algonquian peoples, it comprises up to 25% of mtDNA types.[12][13] It is also present in lower percentages to the west and south of this area — among the Sioux (15%), the Nuu-chah-nulth (11%–13%), the Navajo (7%), and the Yakama (5%).[14] The predominant theory for sub-haplogroup X2a's appearance in North America is migration along with A, B, C, and D mtDNA groups, from a source in the Altai Mountains of central Asia.[15][16][17][18] Haplotype X6 was present in the Tarahumara 1.8% (1/53) and Huichol 20% (3/15)[19]

Sequencing of the mitochondrial genome from Paleo-Eskimo remains (3,500 years old) are distinct from modern Indigenous Americans, falling within sub-haplogroup D2a1, a group observed among today's Aleutian Islanders, the Aleut and Siberian Yupik populations.[20] This suggests that the colonizers of the far north, and subsequently Greenland, originated from later coastal populations.[20] Then began a genetic exchange in the northern extremes introduced by the Thule people (proto-Inuit) approximately 800–1,000 years ago.[21][22] These final Pre-Columbian migrants introduced haplogroups A2a and A2b to the existing Paleo-Eskimo populations of Canada and Greenland, culminating in the modern Inuit.[21][22]

Codes for populations are as follow: North America: 1 = Chukchy, 2 = Eskimos; 3 = Inuit (collected from the HvrBase database; 4 = Aleuts; 5 = Athapaskan; 6 = Haida; 7 = Apache, 8 = Bella Coola; 9 = Navajo; 10 = Sioux, 11 = Chippewa, 12 = Nuu-Chah-Nult; 13 = Cheyenne; 14 = Muskogean populations; 15 = Cheyenne-Arapaho; 16 = Yakima; 17 = Stillwell Cherokee; Meso-America: 18 = Pima; 19 = Mexico; 20 = Quiche; 21 = Cuba; 22 = El Salvador; 23 = Huetar; 24 = Emberá; 25 = Kuna; 26 = Ngöbé; 27 = Wounan; South America: 28 = Guahibo; 29 = Yanomamo from Venezuela; 30 = Gaviao; 31 = Yanomamo from Venezuela and Brazil; 32 = Colombia; 33 = Ecuador (general population), 34 = Cayapa; 35 = Xavante; 36 = North Brazil; 37 = Brazil; 38 = Curiau; 39 = Zoró; 40 = Ignaciano, 41 = Yuracare; 42 = Ayoreo; 43 = Araucarians; 44 = Pehuenche, 45 = Mapuche from Chile; 46 = Coyas; 47 = Tacuarembó; 48 = Uruguay; 49 = Mapuches from Argentina; 50 = Yaghan
Frequency distribution of the main mtDNA American haplogroups in Indigenous American populations.

A route through Beringia is seen as more likely than the Solutrean hypothesis.[23] An abstract in a 2012 issue of the "American Journal of Physical Anthropology" states that "The similarities in ages and geographical distributions for C4c and the previously analyzed X2a lineage provide support to the scenario of a dual origin for Paleo-Indigenous Americans. Taking into account that C4c is deeply rooted in the Asian portion of the mtDNA phylogeny and is indubitably of Asian origin, the finding that C4c and X2a are characterized by parallel genetic histories definitively dismisses the controversial hypothesis of an Atlantic glacial entry route into North America."[24]

Another study, also focused on the mtDNA (which is inherited through only the maternal line),[3] revealed that the Indigenous people of the Americas can trace their maternal ancestry back to a few founding lineages from East Asia, which would have arrived by way of the Bering Strait. According to this study, it is probable that the ancestors of the Indigenous Americans would have remained for a time in the region of the Bering Strait, after which there would have been a rapid movement of settling of the Americas, taking the founding lineages to South America.

According to a 2016 study, focused on mtDNA lineages, "a small population entered the Americas via a coastal route around 16.0 ka, following previous isolation in eastern Beringia for ~2.4 to 9 thousand years after separation from eastern Siberian populations. Following a rapid movement throughout the Americas, limited gene flow in South America resulted in a marked phylogeographic structure of populations, which persisted through time. All of the ancient mitochondrial lineages detected in this study were absent from modern data sets, suggesting a high extinction rate. To investigate this further, we applied a novel principal components multiple logistic regression test to Bayesian serial coalescent simulations. The analysis supported a scenario in which European colonization caused a substantial loss of pre-Columbian lineages".[25]

Haplogroup A[edit]

Haplogroup B[edit]

Haplogroup C[edit]

Haplogroup D[edit]

Haplogroup X[edit]

  1. ^ Achilli, Alessandro; Perego, Ugo A.; Bravi, Claudio M.; et al. (12 March 2008). "The Phylogeny of the Four Pan-American MtDNA Haplogroups: Implications for Evolutionary and Disease Studies". PLOS ONE. 3 (3): e1764. Bibcode:2008PLoSO...3.1764A. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0001764. PMC 2258150. PMID 18335039.
  2. ^ Nina G. Jablonski (2002). The first Americans: the Pleistocene colonization of the New World. University of California Press. p. 301. ISBN 978-0-940228-50-4. Archived from the original on 2016-01-30. Retrieved 2011-06-15.
  3. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Tammetal was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  4. ^ a b Eshleman, Jason A.; Malhi, Ripan S.; Smith, David Glenn (14 February 2003). "Mitochondrial DNA Studies of Native Americans- Conceptions and Misconceptions of the Population Prehistory of the Americas". Evolutionary Anthropology. 12 (1): 7–18. doi:10.1002/evan.10048. S2CID 17049337.
  5. ^ a b Schurr, Theodore G. (May–June 2000). "Mitochondrial DNA and the Peopling of the New World". American Scientist. 88 (3): 246. doi:10.1511/2000.23.772.
  6. ^ Zakharov, Ilia A.; Derenko, Miroslava V.; Maliarchuk, Boris A.; et al. (April 2004). "Mitochondrial DNA variation in the aboriginal populations of the Altai-Baikal region: implications for the genetic history of North Asia and America". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1011 (1): 21–35. Bibcode:2004NYASA1011...21Z. doi:10.1196/annals.1293.003. PMID 15126280. S2CID 37139929.
  7. ^ Starikovskaya, Elena B.; Sukernik, Rem I.; Derbeneva, Olga A.; et al. (7 January 2005). "Mitochondrial DNA diversity in Indigenous populations of the southern extent of Siberia, and the origins of Native American haplogroups". Annals of Human Genetics. 69 (1): 67–89. doi:10.1046/j.1529-8817.2003.00127.x. PMC 3905771. PMID 15638829.
  8. ^ Felton, James (2023-05-09). "DNA Sheds Light On Mystery About Where Native Americans Came From". IFLScience. Retrieved 2023-05-24.
  9. ^ Scatena, Roberto; Bottoni, Patrizia; Giardina, Bruno (8 March 2012). Advances in Mitochondrial Medicine. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 446. ISBN 978-94-007-2869-1.
  10. ^ Raff, Jennifer A.; Bolnick, Deborah A. (October 2015). "Does Mitochondrial Haplogroup X Indicate Ancient Trans-Atlantic Migration to the Americas? A Critical Re-Evaluation". PaleoAmerica. 1 (4): 297–304. doi:10.1179/2055556315Z.00000000040. ISSN 2055-5563. S2CID 85626735. "These studies have all reached the same conclusion and suggest that haplogroup X2a is likely to have originated in the same population(s) as the other American founder haplogroups, by virtue of having comparable coalescence dates and demographic histories" ... "X2a has not been found anywhere in Eurasia, and phylogeography gives us no compelling reason to think it is more likely to come from Europe than from Siberia. Furthermore, analysis of the complete genome of Kennewick Man, who belongs to the most basal lineage of X2a yet identified, gives no indication of recent European ancestry and moves the location of the deepest branch of X2a to the West Coast, consistent with X2a belonging to the same ancestral population as the other founder mitochondrial haplogroups."
  11. ^ Cite error: The named reference SpencerWells2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  12. ^ Cite error: The named reference Genebase was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  13. ^ "The peopling of the Americas: Genetic ancestry influences health". Scientific American. 14 August 2009. Archived from the original on 14 September 2011. Retrieved 19 January 2010 – via Phys.org.
  14. ^ Fagundes, Nelson J.R.; Kanitz, Ricardo; Eckert, Roberta; et al. (3 March 2008). "Mitochondrial Population Genomics Supports a Single Pre-Clovis Origin with a Coastal Route for the Peopling of the Americas". American Journal of Human Genetics. 82 (3): 583–592. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2007.11.013. PMC 2427228. PMID 18313026.
  15. ^ Meltzer, David J. (2009). First Peoples in a New World: Colonizing Ice Age America. University of California Press. p. 162. ISBN 978-0-520-94315-5. Archived from the original on 2016-01-30. Retrieved 2016-01-05.
  16. ^ "An mtDNA view of the peopling of the world by Homo sapiens". Cambridge DNA. 2009. Archived from the original on 2011-05-11. Retrieved 2010-04-29.
  17. ^ Reidla, Maere; Kivisild, Toomas; Metspalu, Ene; et al. (November 2003). "Origin and Diffusion of mtDNA Haplogroup X". American Journal of Human Genetics. 73 (5): 1178–1190. doi:10.1086/379380. PMC 1180497. PMID 14574647.
  18. ^ "An mtDNA view of the peopling of the world by Homo sapiens". Cambridge DNA Services. 2007. Archived from the original on 2011-05-11. Retrieved 2011-06-01.
  19. ^ Peñaloza-Espinosa, Rosenda I.; Arenas-Aranda, Diego; Cerda-Flores, Ricardo M.; et al. (2007). "Characterization of mtDNA Haplogroups in 14 Mexican Indigenous Populations". Human Biology. 79 (3): 313–320. doi:10.1353/hub.2007.0042. PMID 18078204. S2CID 35654242.
  20. ^ a b Ferrell, Robert E.; Chakraborty, Ranajit; Gershowitz, Henry; et al. (July 1981). "The St. Lawrence Island Eskimos: Genetic variation and genetic distance". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 55 (3): 351–358. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330550309. PMID 6455922.
  21. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference inuit2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  22. ^ a b Helgason, Agnar; Pálsson, Gísli; Pedersen, Henning Sloth; et al. (May 2006). "mtDNA variation in Inuit populations of Greenland and Canada: Migration history and population structure". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 130 (1): 123–134. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20313. PMID 16353217.
  23. ^ Raghavan, Maanasa; Skoglund, Pontus; Graf, Kelly E.; et al. (January 2014). "Upper Palaeolithic Siberian genome reveals dual ancestry of Native Americans". Nature. 505 (7481): 87–91. Bibcode:2014Natur.505...87R. doi:10.1038/nature12736. PMC 4105016. PMID 24256729.
  24. ^ Kashani, Baharak Hooshiar; Perego, Ugo A.; Olivieri, Anna; et al. (January 2012). "Mitochondrial haplogroup C4c: A rare lineage entering America through the ice-free corridor?". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 147 (1): 35–39. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21614. PMID 22024980.
  25. ^ Llamas, Bastien; Fehren-Schmitz, Lars; Valverde, Guido; et al. (29 April 2016). "Ancient mitochondrial DNA provides high-resolution time scale of the peopling of the Americas". Science Advances. 2 (4): e1501385. Bibcode:2016SciA....2E1385L. doi:10.1126/sciadv.1501385. PMC 4820370. PMID 27051878.
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