User:Tyrol5/Dwight D. Eisenhower 1952 presidential campaign

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Eisenhower for President
"I Like Ike" button
CampaignU.S. presidential election, 1952
CandidateDwight D. Eisenhower
General of the Army
Supreme Allied Commander Europe 1951–1952
AffiliationRepublican Party
SloganI Like Ike

The Dwight D. Eisenhower 1952 presidential campaign was an effort initiated by grassroots supporters to elect General of the Army Dwight D. Eisenhower to the office of President of the United States as a Republican candidate, beginning with a draft movement to convince him to run. Eisenhower had not indicated interest in seeking elected political office, which he had never held previously, prior to the effort to draft him and did not publicly agree to actively seek the Republican nomination until winning the New Hampshire primary and garnering a significant showing as a write-in candidate in the Minnesota primary. He declared his candidacy for the presidency in June 1952 after resigning from his post in the United States Army as Supreme Allied Commander in Europe.

Similar efforts to draft Eisenhower to run for President, in both the Republican and Democratic parties, had appeared during the early stages of the 1948 presidential election. In 1948 and, initially, 1952, Eisenhower was not publicly receptive to efforts to convince him to run for office, citing military regulations prohibiting active duty officers from engaging in political activity. In late 1951 and early 1952, the Korean War and Second Red Scare defined the political landscape for the 1952 presidential election. Efforts to draft Eisenhower began to appear again and were instrumental in his decision to run for President.[1] Eisenhower decided to resign from his military post to run after substantial support within the Republican party for a potential candidacy became apparent to him through his New Hampshire victory and showing in Minnesota. Eisenhower eventually defeated Robert A. Taft, among others, during the primary season and at the national convention to win the Republican nomination.

An insistence on reducing the size of the federal government and an emphasis on the need for economic stability formed the basis of Eisenhower's campaign platform.[2] Regarding foreign policy, Eisenhower emphasized a necessity for a program to establish international peace.[3] As opposed to thirty minute television blocks to broadcast campaign advertisements, preferred by most campaign strategists at the time, the Eisenhower campaign relied on short "spot" advertisements, launching a series of ads entitled "Eisenhower Answers America."[4] Eisenhower supported equal rights and made appeals to African American and female voters accordingly. As 1952 was the first time in modern history that Republicans saw the possibility of electoral victory in the Solid South, Southern voters were the focus of campaign efforts as well.[5] Later in the campaign, press reports emerged alleging that Eisenhower's running mate Richard Nixon had made a profit from a secret political slush fund. Although not illegal, the fund became controversial. In response, Nixon delivered an address, known as the Checkers speech, in which he discussed his personal finances in order to portray a sense of modesty.[6]

Eisenhower's opponent in the general election was Democratic nominee and Governor of Illinois Adlai Stevenson. Eisenhower and his running mate, United States Senator and future President Richard Nixon, defeated Stevenson and Democratic vice presidential nominee John Sparkman on Election Day, November 4, 1952. Eisenhower carried 39 states to Stevenson's nine, and won 54.9% of the popular vote. Eisenhower won the Electoral College vote 442 to 89.[7][8] Eisenhower and Nixon were inaugurated as the 34th President of the United States and the 36th Vice President of the United States, respectively, on January 20, 1953.

Background[edit]

Photograph of General Dwight Eisenhower, 1945
General Dwight Eisenhower, 1945.

Dwight Eisenhower's military career began when he received an appointment to the West Point Military Academy, from which he graduated in 1915. After serving in Panama for two years (1922–24), Eisenhower was accepted to the United States Army Command and General Staff College. In 1926, He graduated from the Command and General Staff College first in his class of 245 officers. After serving in the Department of War from 1929 to 1935, Eisenhower traveled with General Douglas MacArthur to the Philippines as a military adviser. During World War II, Eisenhower commanded the November 1942 landing of Allied Forces in North Africa. On June 6, 1944, he commanded the initial landing operations of the Allied Forces invasion of Normandy, popularly known as 'D-Day.' Eisenhower subsequently served as Chief of Staff of the United States Army from 1945 until 1948. After the conclusion of World War II, he resigned and became President of Columbia University, a post from which he took leave to become Supreme Commander of the newly created North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) forces in 1951.[9][10]

In 1948, Draft Eisenhower movements began appearing in both the Republican and Democratic parties in an effort to convince the General to run for President of the United States. Despite public interest in a potential candidacy, Eisenhower persistently iterated his disinterest in seeking political office, often citing Army regulations forbidding serving officers from engaging in political activity that advances the cause of a certain group.[1] Ultimately, Democratic incumbent Harry S. Truman was reelected in what would go on to be known as the "greatest upset in presidential election history,"[11] defeating Republican nominee Thomas E. Dewey and States' Rights Party nominee Strom Thurmond.[12]

Early stages[edit]

See also: Draft Eisenhower movement

'Winter of Discontent'[edit]

During the winter of 1951 to 1952, known to some historians as the American "Winter of Discontent,"[1] the Korean War and confronting the spread of Communism were among the host of issues influencing the political climate and it was unknown whether incumbent President Harry S. Truman would seek reelection. During 1951, draft movements to attempt to persuade General Dwight Eisenhower to run for President, much like those that had appeared in both parties in 1948, began to appear within the Republican Party. Like in 1948, Eisenhower did not appear to be initially receptive to the idea of launching a campaign for the Presidency, oftentimes replying to correspondence that he could not partake in partisan political activity while still serving in his capacity as an officer in the U.S. Army.[1] By this time, media outlets had begun speculating about a possible Eisenhower candidacy. On one occasion in November 1951, upon returning to New York from Europe, where he was still serving as supreme commander of the Allied powers, Eisenhower demurred: "I have never had any political aspirations—period."[13] At this time, even Eisenhower's party alignment was unknown.[13]

Despite his apparent lack of interest in seeking political office, Eisenhower recognized the political movement and authorized Clifford Roberts, a friend, to form a political advisory committee in December 1951 to keep him informed of the draft efforts and the political climate throughout the United States. At the time, the advisory committee was unknown to the public and consisted of several personal friends of Eisenhower's, including his younger brother Milton Eisenhower, W. Alton Jones and golfer Bobby Jones. None of the members breached the confidentiality of the committee. Republican U.S. Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. was a vocal proponent of the movement to convince Eisenhower to declare himself a candidate for President. Eisenhower, who still had not displayed any significant interest in entering the presidential race, eventually conceded to Lodge that he would not disavow an effort to convince him to run.[1] In response to a letter from Harry Truman inquiring about any political plans, Eisenhower wrote, "I do not feel that I have any duty to seek a political nomination."[1] Though Eisenhower indicated that while he would not seek political office, he would be responsive "if called"[1] to serve in a political capacity. On January 6, 1952, Lodge entered Eisenhower's name, without Eisenhower's apparent direction, to appear on the ballot in the New Hampshire Republican primary, scheduled for March. In response to media inquiry, Lodge insisted Eisenhower had "personally assured"[14] him that he was indeed Republican.[14] Eisenhower subsequently released a statement the next day, in response to the increased media speculation, saying that if he were offered the Republican nomination for President, he would accept it.[1][15] Senator Robert Taft, who had officially declared his candidacy for the nomination the preceding October,[16] interpreted the statement to mean he "is not and will not be a candidate,"[17] while backers of Eisenhower indicated excitement at the possibility that he would receive the nomination.[17]

Groundwork[edit]

By late January, a national movement was in the making to campaign on behalf of Eisenhower to win him delegates to the Republican National Convention and convince him to actively seek the Presidency. Small local groups such as "Volunteers for Eisenhower" and "Democrats for Eisenhower" had begun to appear. Slogans such as "I Like Ike" and "Aft with Taft" began to enter common usage. The New York Times endorsed Eisenhower for President, as had the Chicago Sun-Times and the Montgomery Advertiser.[18] Throughout what was transpiring back in the United States, Eisenhower continued to express doubt regarding the presence of a political movement of any significant proportion.[1] In early February, as the primary season approached, some supporters urged Eisenhower to return to the U.S. to campaign on his own behalf and make his positions on key issues known. He remained occupied, however, in his role in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). A statement issued by Canadian Foreign Minister Lester Pearson, in which he stated that NATO depended on Eisenhower's services until June, instigated speculation that he would return to campaign at that time.[19] Meanwhile, Robert Taft, who was actively seeking the nomination, had been campaigning in-person in New Hampshire ahead of the state's March 11th primary.[20] Several leaders of the movement to convince Eisenhower to run planned a rally to take place at Madison Square Garden in New York City on February 8th. The venue, which had a rated capacity of 16,000 people, was host to approximately 25,000 rally attendees. New York police and fire marshals were unsuccessful in their attempts to convince people to leave. Eisenhower viewed a film of the rally and wrote in his journal, "I've never been so upset in years."[1] Aviator Jacqueline Cochran, who had traveled to Paris to show the film to Eisenhower and his wife, made a toast to him following the film: "To the President of the United States."[1] The gesture brought Eisenhower to tears.[1] Meanwhile, it was unknown publicly if or when Eisenhower would return to the United States to join in the campaign. William Pfeiffer, chairman of the New York affiliate of the Republican Party, himself an Eisenhower supporter, urged him to do so: "It is essential that Gen. Eisenhower return as soon as possible."[21] Under the leadership of Eisenhower for President movement manager Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., efforts continued to secure state delegations supportive of Eisenhower to the national convention.[21]

By mid-February, Eisenhower's rising popularity had become evident as he topped nationwide polls conducted by two nationally circulated publications, one of which was a women's magazine, the Woman's Home Companion. In the other, the Saturday Review, 59.9% of the 3,000 readers polled believed Eisenhower would become the next President.[22] Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. continued to actively campaign as a surrogate for Eisenhower, completing a circuit of speeches on Lincoln Day, February 15th, becoming one of the more active figures of the 1952 presidential campaign.[23] The same day, Eisenhower backers in Louisiana won in a court ruling, forcing the certification of returns from the state's primary on January 15th, in which Eisenhower was the victor, by the State Central Committee, who were supportive of Robert Taft.[24] Eisenhower's name, along with those of General Douglas MacArthur and Harold Stassen, was entered to appear on the ballot for the Pennsylvania primary, scheduled for April 22, within an hour of the filing deadline on February 18th. Taft announced that he would not appear on the ballot in the state.[25] Despite the momentum for Eisenhower, by late February, a close race between Eisenhower's supporters and Taft, who was actively campaigning on his own behalf, was becoming apparent to some in the media. The Hartford Courant, on February 24th, predicted that Eisenhower and Taft would be running very close by the beginning of May.[26] In the final days of February, pressure mounted on Eisenhower from his backers, some of whom suggested directly or by implication that he resign his military position in Europe, to return to the United States and aide in the efforts to secure him the Republican nomination. Eisenhower, however, still continued in preoccupation with his efforts to form, through NATO, a "political and economic union"[27] of the countries of Western Europe.[27] At the end of February, Eisenhower held a forty-five minute conference with New Jersey State Senator Malcolm Forbes and President of Defiance College Kevin McCann, both supporters of him. Following their conference, Forbes and McCann met with Eisenhower's advisers. Media speculated that the meetings were political in nature, with Forbes confirming afterwards that Eisenhower would be entered in the New Jersey primary, scheduled for April 15.[28]

Primary season[edit]

Map showing results of 1952 Republican primaries and caucuses
Statewide caucuses and primaries labeled by winner.

Despite his political inactivity, Eisenhower did not remain completely silent on issues concerning government. He opined that "the concentration of too much power in centralized government need not be the result of violent revolution or great upheaval"[29] in an article as part of a book, entitled The Welfare State and the National Welfare, published March 3 by Addison-Wesley.[29] In a poll[30] conducted by the American Institute of Public Opinion in early March, Eisenhower led incumbent President Harry Truman 2 to 1 among voters in the Southern United States, with Robert Taft leading Truman by a smaller margin. Eisenhower led Truman 62% to 30% with 8% undecided. According to the same poll, Truman's approval rating in the South was 25% with 63% disapproval and 12% undecided.[30] Taft, who had just completed an intensive, three day stump in New Hampshire, traveled to Texas. With him out of state, Eisenhower supporters arranged several rallies the day before New Hampshire's March 11th primary.[31] Some of Eisenhower's supporters, such as Governor Sherman Adams, accused Taft of being an "isolationist."[31] Other than Eisenhower and Taft, Harold Stassen and Douglas MacArthur would also appear on the New Hampshire ballot.[32] The two major candidates on the Democratic side were President Truman, who had retracted[33] a previous statement[34] saying he would exclude himself from the ballot, and Senator Estes Kefauver of Tennessee.[31] For several hours on primary night, Taft held a slim lead over Eisenhower, who didn't make any politically-related statements at any time during the evening.[35] In the end, however, Eisenhower defeated Taft 46,661 to 35,838, winning all of the state's 14 delegates to the national convention. President Truman was defeated on the Democratic side by Kefauver. Eisenhower garnered a majority in all of the state's cities except Manchester, with his strongest showing in Concord, the capital, with 69% of ballots cast. Eisenhower's triumph over Taft, despite his absence, quickly became a nationally-covered news story, with The New York Times devoting a page to editorial reaction from several media outlets.[36][37] Newspapers heralded the New Hampshire contest as the first major test of Eisenhower's appeal to voters.[32][38][39]

Eisenhower, still not actively campaigning on his own behalf, continued to serve in his role in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. However, in a letter dated March 10, the day before the New Hampshire primary, Eisenhower wrote that he did not regard his service as "indispensable to the success of NATO."[40] The letter sparked interest among Eisenhower supporters, who hoped he would recognize what he described as a "clear-cut call"[40] from the movement of others campaigning on his behalf. Eisenhower, in a cablegram to New Hampshire Governor Sherman Adams on March 13, expressed his appreciation concerning his primary victory to voters in the state: "My congratulations to you and your associates. Through you could I express to the Republican voters of New Hampshire my profound appreciation of the extraordinary compliment they have paid me."[41] It was announced the same day, by Eisenhower for President headquarters, that Richard Jordan, Robert Taft's city chairman in Manchester, N.H., had reportedly encouraged Taft to throw his support behind Eisenhower.[42] The Minnesota primary, in which Eisenhower would not appear on the ballot due to a legal technicality, was highlighted by a write-in campaign on Eisenhower's behalf in the days leading up to the contest. The only candidates on the Republican ballot were former Governor of Minnesota Harold Stassen and Edward Slettedahl. Minnesota U.S. Senator Hubert Humphrey was the only candidate listed on the Democratic ballot.[43] Slettedahl, while not seeking the presidency on his own behalf, was a school teacher supportive of both Douglas MacArthur and Robert Taft, both of whom would not appear on the Minnesota ballot. Humphrey said prior to the primary that he planned to pledge his delegation to another candidate at the Democratic National Convention.[44] Supporters of Eisenhower had set a goal of achieving 50,000 write-in ballots. Eisenhower received, instead, more than 100,000 votes, despite not being listed on the ballot. While Henry Cabot Lodge, Eisenhower for President campaign chairman, declared the showing the "most spectacular political upsurge within the Republican party since the days of Teddy Roosevelt,"[45] the Taft campaign downplayed the results, calling the campaign run by Eisenhower supporters "feverish".[45] Harold Stassen, presenting himself as the favorite son to the state's electorate, ultimately won the primary with 129,076 votes. Write-in votes for Eisenhower totaled 108,692, with Robert Taft, also a write-in candidate, finishing third with 24,093 votes. Slettedahl finished close behind with 21,712. The New York Times described Eisenhower's strong showing a "political miracle."[46] Eisenhower's write-in success was attributed to a decision about a week before the primary, Minnesota's first, in which officials permitted write-in ballots to be counted.[47] Hubert Humphrey won the Democratic primary with just over 100,000 votes, with Estes Kefauver finishing second with about 20,000, followed by Harry Truman with about 3,600 votes.[48]

Eisenhower decides to run[edit]

Eisenhower, in a statement concerning his showing in Minnesota, said, "The mounting numbers of my fellow citizens who are voting to make me the Republican nominee are forcing me to re-examine my personal position and past decisions."[49] Eisenhower did not, however, make any indication as to whether he would return to the U.S. to campaign. On the subject of Eisenhower's political future, President Truman said he had given Eisenhower permission to return at any time.[49] Meanwhile, the Taft campaign continued to downplay the results of Eisenhower's showings in the New Hampshire and Minnesota primaries; David Ingalls, Taft's campaign manager, said in a statement that the Republican party would not succumb to a "Willkie blitz,"[50] referencing the 1940 Republican National Convention in which supporters of Wendell Willkie seized the nomination for him.[50] Eisenhower ultimately announced in late March that he had begun making arrangements to resign and transfer his position as commander of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. In correspondence with friends in Europe, Eisenhower implied that he would completely relinquish his position in the U.S. Army, including his rank of five-star general, after resigning from his post in NATO and returning to the States. The transition, however, was not expected to be complete until a target date between May 15 and June 1.[51]

Endorsements

On March 29, Harry Truman withdrew his name from the race and announced he would not seek reelection to the Presidency,[60][16] saying he did not "feel it's duty to serve again."[60] Just under two weeks later, the White House made an official announcement, along with a timetable, pertaining to Eisenhower's resignation from NATO. In the statement, it was announced that Eisenhower's command would officially end by June 1st, five weeks before the Republican National Convention.[61] On April 8, four days prior to the official announcement, Robert Taft, who was expected by analysts to enjoy his strongest support in the Midwest[62] won the Illinois primary with 73% of votes cast. Harold Stassen came in second with 12%, followed by Eisenhower with 11.59%.[63] On April 22, however, Eisenhower won the New York and Pennsylvania primaries;[64] in the later of which, he received more cumulative votes than the rest of the Republican and Democratic fields combined.[16] With the end of April approaching and just over a month remaining until Eisenhower's June 1 target resignation date, General Matthew Ridgway was appointed to replace Eisenhower as Supreme Allied Commander in Europe.[65] Meanwhile, at the beginning of May, a close race had formed between Eisenhower and Taft for the Republican nomination. A delegate count estimate by United Press International released on May 2 showed Eisenhower leading Taft by a mere 13 delegates out of 559 committed delegates.[66]

On May 30, Eisenhower officially handed command of NATO over to Matthew Ridgway. In his departure, Eisenhower warned Western Europe to "unite far more closely, or there will be no settlement to her difficulties."[67] He left Paris, France the following afternoon to return to the United States.[67] Polling released in early June by the American Institute of Public Opinion showed Eisenhower leading in the Republican race with 43% of respondents to Robert Taft's 36%. Among independents, Eisenhower led Taft by a larger margin, 46% to 19%.[68] On June 4, Eisenhower traveled to his hometown of Abilene, Kansas to formally declare his candidacy for the Republican nomination for President of the United States,[69] becoming the first presidential candidate to have his announcement broadcasted on live television.[70] Approximately 10,000 people attended his speech at the old Abilene parade ground, despite heavy rain, which Eisenhower dismissed as a "Kansas shower."[71] In his speech, Eisenhower called for economic unity and reduction of inflation and warned against the "gradual absorption by the federal government of the functions that belong to local communities and to individuals."[2]

As the Republican National Convention approached, the race between Eisenhower and Taft for the Republican nomination remained close. According to a June 5 Associated Press delegate count estimation, Taft had taken the lead in the delegate count, having secured 420 delegates to Eisenhower's 387. Earl Warren, who had won the California primary, had 76. A simple majority of 604 delegates was needed to win the nomination. With the convention about a month away, apportionment of delegates from Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi and Georgia was yet to be determined.[72] As the struggle between Eisenhower and Taft unfolded, the likelihood of internal dissension within the Republican party increased. A split in the party resulting from tensions during the nomination battle would possibly weaken the party and its nominee in the general election campaign. However, Eisenhower said in early June that he would support the Republican nominee, should the convention not nominate him in July.[72]

Republican National Convention[edit]

Attendees at the 1952 Republican National Convention
Attendees on the floor of the convention.

By the time the 1952 Republican National Convention opened on July 7 in Chicago, Illinois, it was still uncertain who would eventually become the party's nominee for President of the United States.[57] Immediately before the convention opened, the Associated Press projected 530 delegates for Taft to Eisenhower's 427. Although Eisenhower had fairly broad national appeal, this support was not translating completely into delegate support, owing to the fact that delegate slates from many states were contested. In Texas, a pro-Taft group held their own convention and elected a slate of their own delegates for the national convention.[53] The dispute over delegate credentials and whether some would be seated at the convention contributed to dissension within the party, which had been mounting through the primary season.[73] On the morning of the convention's opening Eisenhower had breakfast with the largely pro-Taft 18-member Florida delegation, followed by a meeting with fellow Republican presidential contender Earl Warren, during which the two came to agreement that contested delegations should not be permitted to vote on whether they would be seated; such was disclosed by Warren after the meeting.[74] On the delegate issue, Eisenhower later wrote in his memoirs that he wished to ensure "that those on trial would not sit on the jury."[53] In the week immediately prior to the convention, Eisenhower supporter Herbert Brownell reviewed accounts of the 1912 Republican National Convention, during which William Howard Taft defeated Theodore Roosevelt for the nomination. In light of his research, Brownell proposed the "Fair Play Amendment", designed to prevent unofficial delegations from being officially seated at the convention.[53] Thomas Dewey, an Eisenhower supporter, and Everett Dirksen, a Taft supporter, engaged in a heated debate during the convention's proceedings over the delegate dispute. At one point, Dirkson blamed Dewey for losing the 1948 presidential election, proclaiming to Dewey and his faction, "We followed you before. And you took us down the road to defeat."[57] However, the convention approved the Fair Play Amendment, preventing the unofficial state delegations from voting. Eisenhower subsequently won the Republican nomination on the first ballot. After winning the nomination, Eisenhower visited Taft to make amends and ask for his backing in the general election campaign; Taft pledged to support Eisenhower.[53]

To balance the Republican ticket in terms of age and geography, as well as to unite the Republican party in preparation for the general election campaign, Eisenhower selected U.S. Senator and future President Richard Nixon to be his running mate and the Republican vice-presidential nominee.[53] After his visit with Taft, Eisenhower met with political advisers and informed them of his choice for the vice-presidential nomination. Eisenhower's choice was approved unanimously by the convention according to a tradition of honoring the presidential nominee's running mate selection as a matter of courtesy. A coalition of female delegates to the convention, under the leadership of former U.S. Representative Clare Boothe Luce, had planned to nominate Maine Senator Margaret Chase Smith for Vice-President. Smith, wanting to prevent an impression of dissatisfaction, requested they abandon their plans, and they did so. Eisenhower, in his nomination acceptance speech, proclaimed he would lead a "great crusade"[75] for "total victory".[75] After Richard Nixon accepted the vice-presidential nomination and promised a "fighting campaign"[75] to take control of Congress and the White House, the convention adjourned at 8:21 PM CDT on July 11.[75]

General election[edit]

Shortly after the conclusion of the Republican National Convention, citizens of Western Europe applauded Dwight Eisenhower's nomination for the presidency, heralding it as assurance that the next administration, regardless of the election's victor, would not have an isolationist foreign policy.[76] Eisenhower, after becoming the Republican nominee, reversed the campaign policies of Thomas Dewey's unsuccessful bid for the presidency in the 1948 election, much to the satisfaction of Republican leadership, assuring that "every man or woman would be a general in the forthcoming battle."[77] Meanwhile, at the Democratic National Convention, Governor Paul Dever set the tone of the Democratic campaign in his keynote address by contrasting employment figures, corporate income and other figures indicative of the condition of the economy with those of the last Republican administration, that of Herbert Hoover. Illinois Senator Paul Douglas, while addressing the convention, defended the foreign policy of the Truman administration, specifically regarding Korea. Ultimately, Adlai Stevenson of Illinois was nominated by the Democratic Party on the third convention ballot.[78] John Sparkman, a Senator from Alabama, was named as Stevenson's running mate and vice-presidential nominee.[79] Eisenhower initially declined to comment on the result of the Democratic convention.[80]

Eisenhower waves to supporters from an automobile
Eisenhower waves to supporters while campaigning in Baltimore, Maryland.

Eisenhower and Nixon began the general election campaign with a series of meetings in late July and early August to discuss campaign strategy. Those in attendance included campaign manager and Republican National Committee chairman Arthur Summerfield. In addition to the presidential election in November, efforts to regain Republican control of Congress were discussed.[81] Shortly before a meeting in Denver, Colorado, Eisenhower was reported to have had intentions of incorporating the National Citizens for Eisenhower committee into the campaign organization, while ensuring smooth interaction between the committee and established Republican organizations. Those in attendance to the first major policy meeting in the campaign since the national convention included Nixon, Arthur Summerfield, New Hampshire Governor Sherman Adams and Massachusetts Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, who had actively campaigned for Eisenhower for the Republican nomination. In the campaign organization, Adams had become politics chief of staff and Lodge had assumed a leadership role in the campaign's advisory committee.[52]

Democratic nominee Adlai Stevenson, shortly into the general election campaign, stressed foreign policy as the most contentious issue of the election. Eisenhower, after being informed of this, emphasized a need for a program to develop international peace. When asked about his campaign itinerary during a news conference at campaign headquarters at the Brown Palace Hotel in Denver, Colorado, Eisenhower said the details had not been worked out, but that his headquarters were likely to remain in Denver at least until he departed to New York City in late August to address the national convention of the American Legion. He expressed his plans to remain in New York subsequently until the campaign got underway, at about the beginning of September.[3] Following this, the Eisenhower organization planned to campaign aggressively in the Southern States in an attempt to capture the Solid South, which traditionally supported Democratic candidates.[82] In terms of organizing the campaign, there remained the question of the status of the "Citizens for Eisenhower" movement. On the subject, Eisenhower himself announced in August that the organization would be a "separate and special agency"[83] during the campaign. This came after the organization had requested to share equal status with the Republican National Committee, but to continue to operate independently.[83]

In early August, Eisenhower introduced a 10-point program at a Veterans of Foreign Wars event, his first major speech of the general election campaign. The program centered around creating a country "closer to [Americans'] hearts' desire."[84] The speech, labelled as nonpolitical in its intentions,[84] coincided with a pro-Eisenhower movement among many members of the Mississippi Democratic Party, motivated largely by a strong pro-states' rights sentiment among Southern voters on the issue of civil rights.[85] To galvanize voters and potential supporters in the South, Eisenhower aides announced a campaign stump through at least seven states and a dozen cities, projected to last approximately two days, beginning on September 2. The use of an airplane to facilitate the tour marked a departure from the whistle stop campaigning used by previous campaigns.[86] Meanwhile, Southern Democratic leaders dissatisfied with the party's ticket and platform encouraged like-minded Southerners to cast their votes for Eisenhower.[87] On August 20, an Eisenhower state campaign manager said a three-way ballot split in Mississippi for the candidate might cause him to lose the state. Because Eisenhower's name was to appear on three different tickets, he would have to garner 65% of the vote to win in Mississippi.[88] On September 2—4, Eisenhower toured the South during his planned campaign stump, which he declared a success. Eisenhower returned from the South "inspired"[89] after turnout at events was higher than expected by political commentators and the Eisenhower campaign alike.[89][90] The tour included stops in Atlanta, Georgia, Jacksonville, Florida and Miami, Florida, on day one and Tampa, Florida, Birmingham, Alabama, and Little Rock, Arkansas, on day two.[89] In an effort to expand his support base, Eisenhower also made an appeal to women to join in the campaign during the Southern trip.[91] Following the Southern stump, Eisenhower returned to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to deliver a foreign policy address, dubbed the "formal opening"[92] of the fall campaign. Shortly thereafter, Robert Taft, whom Eisenhower had defeated for the Republican nomination, formally announced his backing of the Republican nominee's campaign. The two met at Columbia University, their first face-to-face meeting since the national convention in July.[93]

Checkers speech[edit]

Television still of Richard Nixon delivering his Checkers speech
Senator Nixon delivers his Checkers speech.

On September 18, the New York Post newspaper headlined a story entitled "Secret Nixon Fund!"[94] which claimed that some of Nixon's supporters had established a secret fund for his personal use. Eisenhower defended his running mate on September 19, calling him "an honest man"[95] and said that he would speak to him as soon as he could.[95] Nixon soon responded to the accusation, eventually producing an independent audit to show the funds were used for nothing but political purposes.[96] He also dismissed a call from the Democratic national chairman to resign as a "political smear."[97] Although not illegal, the fund became a major campaign issue and nearly caused Nixon to be removed from the Republican ticket. Democrats accused the Republican party of hypocritically criticizing the Truman administration and attacked Eisenhower's promise to remove the "crooks and cronies"[94] from the government. Several Democratic leaders began calling for Nixon's resignation from the ticket, as did the New York Herald Tribune and The Washington Post. Although Eisenhower did not immediately eliminate the possibility of Nixon's removal from the ticket, he continued to defend him.[94]

To explain his side of the controversy, Nixon ultimately elected to appear on national television on September 23, five days after the fund came to light. Hours before he was scheduled to deliver his address on television, Nixon received a call from Thomas Dewey informing him that Eisenhower advisers had decided it would be in the best interests of the campaign for him to offer his resignation following the conclusion of his message. Nixon then told Dewey, referring to the advisers, "I haven't the slightest idea what I am going to do and if they want to find out they'd better listen to the broadcast."[94] Nixon delivered his address, known as the Checkers speech, from a studio in Los Angeles, California. In the speech, which had an audience of approximately sixty million people, he discussed his personal finances in detail, including his mortgages and a single gift his family had accepted: a cocker spaniel named "Checkers," the namesake of the speech, by his daughters.[94][96] Nixon, through the speech, was able to discredit the allegation that he had used the fund to sustain a luxurious lifestyle. Reception of the speech was not completely positive, however; journalist Walter Lippmann called the speech "the most demeaning experience my country has ever had to bear."[94] Army General Lucius Clay, a friend of Eisenhower, found the speech "corny."[94] Nevertheless, the speech generated a considerable response among Americans. More than 160,000 telegrams were sent to Republican headquarters and party officials were swamped with phone calls urging Nixon be left on the ticket.[94]

Final weeks[edit]

The Nixon financial controversy was largely forgotten among those involved in the Eisenhower campaign in the days and weeks following the Checkers speech. Meanwhile, President Harry Truman campaigned in the Western States on behalf of the Democratic presidential nominee. Reportedly, Eisenhower himself wished to personally respond to statements issued by Truman, but those close to him advised Eisenhower that the most effective way of dealing with the issue would be to ignore Truman. Many of them believed Truman was stumping simply to vindicate his own record as President.[98] Meanwhile, Eisenhower, satisfied with the results of the initial week of his cross-country whistle-stop tour, headed toward the Pacific coast to counter Truman's regional stump.[99] In mid-October, Truman highlighted his campaign tour with two speeches, both critical toward Eisenhower, in New York.[100] Eisenhower delivered a now well-known campaign speech on October 24, the "I Shall Go to Korea" speech, stating his intention to visit the battlefield in Korea, which historians R.L. Donovan, J.R. Greene and R.J. Caridi dubbed "one of the most effective campaign speeches of modern times."[101] The speech had a significant impact on voters, particularly undecided voters, which Barton Bernstein attributes to "the military prestige of the General, a man whom many believed could end the war."[101] In the final weeks of the campaign, Eisenhower was favored over Stevenson five-to-three among first-time presidential voters. The ratio was better than two-to-one in Virginia, Florida, and Texas, but younger voters were nearly evenly split among Eisenhower and Stevenson in the rural Midwest. Eisenhower's popularity among younger voters in large cities was higher than with older voters in the same areas.[102] Eisenhower relied on his public image and reputation to sway independent and undecided voters into his column, while using campaign speeches as a medium to mend fractures within the Republican Party to unify it and prevent the collapse of the two-party system, a fear among some close to the campaign.[59] High turnout was expected, about 55 million voters, as both the Eisenhower and Stevenson campaigns remained optimistic in the days leading up to Election Day.[103] Going into Election Day, pollsters and journalists predicted there would be no statistical landslide either way, but that Eisenhower was the favorite among voters. Eisenhower concluded his campaign the evening before Election Day with a rally in Boston, Massachusetts, while Stevenson addressed voters via television from Chicago, Illinois.[104]

Results[edit]

Map showing 1952 election results by county
1952 Election results by county.
  Dwight D. Eisenhower
  Adlai Stevenson II
  Territories

On Election Day, Eisenhower defeated Stevenson, accumulating 442 Electoral votes to Stevenson's 89 and 54.9% of the popular vote (33,777,945) to Stevenson's 44.4% (27,314,992). Total turnout was 61,550,918.[7] Of the 48 states, Eisenhower carried all but nine: Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, West Virginia and Kentucky.[7] Eisenhower won the popular vote among both men and women with 53% and 58%, respectively, and also won the popular vote in all areas of the country (East, Midwest, West) except the South. Eisenhower's defeat in the South, however, was by a small margin. He garnered 49% of the vote to Stevenson's 51%. Eisenhower also won the white vote (57% to 43%), but was defeated by a wide margin among the non-white electorate (21% to 79%). Independents favored Eisenhower (65% to 35%), as did Protestants (63% to 37%), the college-educated population (66% to 34%) and the high school-educated population (55% to 45%). Stevenson was favored among the grade school-educated population, the Catholic electorate and voters with labor union membership (52% to 48%, 56% to 44% and 61% to 39%, respectively).[105]

Eisenhower's election to the Presidency of the United States marked the first time in twenty years, before the election and inauguration of Franklin D. Roosevelt, that a Republican would occupy the White House.[106] Eisenhower received more votes than any single presidential candidate in history up to that point and, additionally, Republicans won a majority of seats in the Senate, House of Representatives, and control of several state governorships. Eisenhower also won the second-highest number of Electoral College votes up to that point, next to Herbert Hoover in 1928, and won three heavily Democratic states in the "Solid South" (Virginia, Florida, and Texas) in addition to four typically Democratic border states (Oklahoma, Missouri, Tennessee, and Maryland).[107]

Aftermath[edit]

Photograph of President Eisenhower's inauguration
Inauguration of President Dwight Eisenhower.

Dwight Eisenhower was inaugurated as the 34th President of the United States on January 20, 1953, on the East Portico of the U.S. Capitol. The oath was administered by Chief Justice of the United States Frederick Vinson.[108] Eisenhower, during his presidency, ended the ongoing Korean War, presided over a portion of the Cold War amid the changing dynamic following the 1953 death of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, pursued a moderate domestic policy involving the continuation of several components of Roosevelt's New Deal and Truman's Fair Deal while emphasizing the need to balance the federal budget, authorized the Interstate Highway System via the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956, and presided over the desegregation of public schools and the Armed Forces. Eisenhower suffered a heart attack in September 1955 and spent seven weeks in the hospital. Following his recovery and subsequent release in February 1956, Eisenhower announced that he would seek re-election to the Presidency in the 1956 election.[109] He would again face Adlai Stevenson, who had announced he would run again the preceding November. Eisenhower won election to a second term as president on November 6, 1956, defeating Stevenson by approximately nine million votes. However, the Democrats maintained narrow control of both houses of Congress, which they had gained in the 1954 midterm elections. On January 17, 1961, three days before the inauguration of his successor, Democrat John F. Kennedy, Eisenhower delivered his well-known farewell address in which he warned the nation of the "military–industrial complex."[110]

Following his Presidency, Eisenhower retired to a farm near Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, where he painted, raised cattle, and spent time with his wife, Mamie. He retired from politics, but occasionally met with President John F. Kennedy to offer advice and frequently met with President Lyndon B. Johnson during the course of the Vietnam War. A heart attack in 1965 debilitated Eisenhower, followed by deterioration of his health in 1968. After nine months of treatment at the Walter Reed Army Medical Center, Eisenhower died on March 28, 1969, at the age of 78.[111]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

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Bibliography[edit]

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