User:Veumesi/Oral microbiology
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Oral Microbiology (Article Draft)[edit]
Oral microbiology is the study of the microorganisms (microbiota) of the oral cavity and their interactions between oral microorganisms or with the host.[1] The environment present in the human mouth is suited to the growth of characteristic microorganisms found there. It provides a source of water and nutrients, as well as a moderate temperature.[2] Resident microbes of the mouth adhere to the teeth and gums to resist mechanical flushing from the mouth to stomach where acid-sensitive microbes are destroyed by hydrochloric acid.[2][3]
Anaerobic bacteria in the oral cavity include: Actinomyces, Arachnia (Propionibacterium propionicus), Bacteroides, Bifidobacterium, Eubacterium, Fusobacterium, Lactobacillus, Leptotrichia, Peptococcus, Peptostreptococcus, Propionibacterium, Selenomonas, Treponema, and Veillonella.[4][needs update] Genera of fungi that are frequently found in the mouth include Candida, Cladosporium, Aspergillus, Fusarium, Glomus, Alternaria, Penicillium, and Cryptococcus, among others.[5] Bacteria accumulate on both the hard and soft oral tissues in biofilms. Bacterial adhesion is particularly important for oral bacteria.
Oral bacteria have evolved mechanisms to sense their environment and evade or modify the host. Bacteria occupy the ecological niche provided by both the tooth surface and mucosal epithelium.[6][7] Factors of note that have been found to affect the microbial colonization of the oral cavity include the pH, oxygen concentration and availability at specific oral surfaces, mechanical forces acting upon oral surfaces, salivary and fluid flow through the oral cavity, and age.[7] However, a highly efficient innate host defense system constantly monitors the bacterial colonization and prevents bacterial invasion of local tissues. A dynamic equilibrium exists between dental plaque bacteria and the innate host defense system.[6] Oral Of particular interest is the role of oral microorganisms in the two major dental diseases: dental caries and periodontal disease.[6] Additionally, research has correlated poor oral heath and the resulting ability of the oral microbiota to invade the body to affect cardiac health as well as cognitive function.[8]
Oral Microflora[edit]
The oral microbiome, mainly comprising bacteria which have developed resistance to the human immune system, has been known to impact the host for its own benefit, as seen with dental cavities. The environment present in the human mouth allows the growth of characteristic microorganisms found there. It provides a source of water and nutrients, as well as a moderate temperature.[10] Resident microbes of the mouth adhere to the teeth and gums to resist mechanical flushing from the mouth to stomach where acid-sensitive microbes are destroyed by hydrochloric acid.[10][11]
Anaerobic bacteria in the oral cavity include: Actinomyces, Arachnia, Bacteroides, Bifidobacterium, Eubacterium, Fusobacterium, Lactobacillus, Leptotrichia, Peptococcus, Peptostreptococcus, Propionibacterium, Selenomonas, Treponema, and Veillonella.[12] In addition, there are also a number of fungi found in the oral cavity, including: Candida, Cladosporium, Aspergillus, Fusarium, Glomus, Alternaria, Penicillium, and Cryptococcus.[13] The oral cavity of a new-born baby does not contain bacteria but rapidly becomes colonized with bacteria such as Streptococcus salivarius. With the appearance of the teeth during the first year colonization by Streptococcus mutans and Streptococcus sanguinis occurs as these organisms colonise the dental surface and gingiva. Other strains of streptococci adhere strongly to the gums and cheeks but not to the teeth. The gingival crevice area (supporting structures of the teeth) provides a habitat for a variety of anaerobic species. Bacteroides and spirochetes colonize the mouth around puberty.[14] Of particular interest is the role of oral microorganisms in the two major dental diseases: dental caries and periodontal disease.[14]
Ecological Sites for Oral Microbiota[edit]
As a diverse environment, a variety of organisms are able to inhabit unique ecological niches present in the oral cavity including the teeth, gingiva, tongue, cheeks, and palates.[15]
Dental Plaque[edit]
The dental plaque is made up of the microbial community that is adhered to the tooth surface; this plaque is also recognized as a biofilm. While it is said that this plaque is adhered to the tooth surface, the microbial community of the plaque is not directly in contact with the enamel of the tooth. Instead, bacteria with the ability to form attachments to the acquired pellicle, which is contains certain salivary proteins, on the surface of the teeth begin the establishment of the biofilm. Upon dental plaque maturation, in which the microbial community grows and diversifies, the plaque is covered in an interbacterial matrix.[7]
Dental Calculus[edit]
The calculus of the oral cavity is the result of mineralization of and around dead microorganisms; this calculus can then be colonized by living bacteria. Dental calculus can be present on supragingival and subgingival surfaces.[7]
Oral Mucosa[edit]
The mucosa of the oral cavity provides a unique ecological site for microbiota to inhabit. Unlike the teeth, the mucosa of the oral cavity is frequently shedding and thus its microbial inhabitants are both kept at lower relative abundance than those of the teeth but also must be able to overcome the obstacle of the shedding epithelia.[7]
The Tongue[edit]
Unlike other mucosal surfaces of the oral cavity, the nature of the top surface of the tongue, due in part to the presence of numerous papillae, provides a unique ecological niche for its microbial inhabits. One important characteristic of this habitat is that the spaces between the papillae tend to not receive much, if any, oxygenated saliva, which creates an environment suitable for microaerophilic and obligate anaerobic microbiota.[16]
Acquisition of Oral Microbiota[edit]
Acquisition of the oral microbiota heavily depends on the route of delivery as an infant - vaginal versus caesarian; upon comparing infants three months after birth, infants born vaginally were reported to have higher oral taxonomic diversity than their cesarean born counterparts.[17][15] Further acquisition is determined by diet, developmental accomplishments, general lifestyle habits, hygiene, and the use of antibiotics.[17] Breastfed infants are noted to have higher oral lactobacilli colonization than their formula-fed counterparts.[15] Diversity of the oral microbiome is also shown to flourish upon the eruption of primary teeth and later adult teeth, as new ecological niches are introduced to the oral cavity.[15][17]
References[edit]
- ^ Schwiertz A (2016). Microbiota of the human body : implications in health and disease. Switzerland: Springer. p. 45. ISBN 978-3-319-31248-4.
- ^ a b Sherwood L, Willey J, Woolverton C (2013). Prescott's Microbiology (9th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. pp. 713–721. ISBN 9780073402406. OCLC 886600661.
- ^ Wang ZK, Yang YS, Stefka AT, Sun G, Peng LH (April 2014). "Review article: fungal microbiota and digestive diseases". Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 39 (8): 751–66. doi:10.1111/apt.12665. PMID 24612332. S2CID 22101484.
In addition, GI fungal infection is reported even among those patients with normal immune status. Digestive system-related fungal infections may be induced by both commensal opportunistic fungi and exogenous pathogenic fungi. ... Candida sp. is also the most frequently identified species among patients with gastric IFI. ... It was once believed that gastric acid could kill microbes entering the stomach and that the unique ecological environment of the stomach was not suitable for microbial colonisation or infection. However, several studies using culture-independent methods confirmed that large numbers of acid-resistant bacteria belonging to eight phyla and up to 120 species exist in the stomach, such as Streptococcus sp., Neisseria sp. and Lactobacillus sp. etc.26, 27 Furthermore, Candida albicans can grow well in highly acidic environments,28 and some genotypes may increase the severity of gastric mucosal lesions.29
- ^ Sutter VL (1984). "Anaerobes as normal oral flora". Reviews of Infectious Diseases. 6 Suppl 1: S62-6. doi:10.1093/clinids/6.Supplement_1.S62. PMID 6372039.
- ^ Cui L, Morris A, Ghedin E (July 2013). "The human mycobiome in health and disease". Genome Medicine. 5 (7): 63. doi:10.1186/gm467. PMC 3978422. PMID 23899327.
Figure 2: Distribution of fungal genera in different body sites
{{cite journal}}: External link in|quote= - ^ a b c Rogers A H (editor). (2008). Molecular Oral Microbiology. Caister Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-904455-24-0.
{{cite book}}:|author=has generic name (help) - ^ a b c d e Oral microbiology and immunology. Richard J. Lamont, George Hajishengallis, Howard F. Jenkinson (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: ASM Press. 2014. ISBN 978-1-55581-673-5. OCLC 840878148.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link) - ^ Noble JM, Scarmeas N, Papapanou PN (October 2013). "Poor oral health as a chronic, potentially modifiable dementia risk factor: review of the literature". Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports. 13 (10): 384. doi:10.1007/s11910-013-0384-x. PMC 6526728. PMID 23963608.
- ^ Dorfman J, The Center for Special Dentistry.
- ^ a b Sherwood L, Willey J, Woolverton C (2013). Prescott's Microbiology (9th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. pp. 713–721. ISBN 9780073402406. OCLC 886600661.
- ^ Wang ZK, Yang YS, Stefka AT, Sun G, Peng LH (April 2014). "Review article: fungal microbiota and digestive diseases". Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 39 (8): 751–66. doi:10.1111/apt.12665. PMID 24612332. S2CID 22101484.
In addition, GI fungal infection is reported even among those patients with normal immune status. Digestive system-related fungal infections may be induced by both commensal opportunistic fungi and exogenous pathogenic fungi. ... Candida sp. is also the most frequently identified species among patients with gastric IFI. ... It was once believed that gastric acid could kill microbes entering the stomach and that the unique ecological environment of the stomach was not suitable for microbial colonisation or infection. However, several studies using culture-independent methods confirmed that large numbers of acid-resistant bacteria belonging to eight phyla and up to 120 species exist in the stomach, such as Streptococcus sp., Neisseria sp. and Lactobacillus sp. etc.26, 27 Furthermore, Candida albicans can grow well in highly acidic environments,28 and some genotypes may increase the severity of gastric mucosal lesions.29
- ^ Sutter VL (1984). "Anaerobes as normal oral flora". Reviews of Infectious Diseases. 6 Suppl 1: S62-6. doi:10.1093/clinids/6.Supplement_1.S62. PMID 6372039.
- ^ Cui L, Morris A, Ghedin E (2013). "The human mycobiome in health and disease". Genome Medicine. 5 (7): 63. doi:10.1186/gm467. PMC 3978422. PMID 23899327.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ a b Rogers A H (editor). (2008). Molecular Oral Microbiology. Caister Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-904455-24-0.
{{cite book}}:|author=has generic name (help) - ^ a b c d Kilian, M.; Chapple, I. L. C.; Hannig, M.; Marsh, P. D.; Meuric, V.; Pedersen, A. M. L.; Tonetti, M. S.; Wade, W. G.; Zaura, E. (18 November 2016). "The oral microbiome – an update for oral healthcare professionals". British Dental Journal. 221 (10): 657–666. doi:10.1038/sj.bdj.2016.865. ISSN 1476-5373.
- ^ Wilson, Michael, April 12- (2005). Microbial inhabitants of humans : their ecology and role in health and disease. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-84158-5. OCLC 54931635.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ a b c Marchesi, J. R., ed. (2014). The human microbiota and microbiome. Wallingford: CABI. doi:10.1079/9781780640495.0000. ISBN 978-1-78064-049-5.