Ancient Jewish art

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Ciborium of the Holy Ark of the synagogue of Doura Europos

Ancient Jewish art, is art created by Jews in both the Land of Israel and in the Diaspora prior to the Middle Ages. It features symbolic or figurative motifs often influenced by biblical themes, religious symbols, and the dominant cultures of the time, including Egyptian, Hellenistic, and Roman art.

During the Second Temple Period, Jewish decorative art followed the biblical prohibition against images, avoiding figurative or symbolic depictions. Motifs from Eastern Mediterranean art were used, but without human or animal figures, reflecting Torah injunctions and a resistance to Roman influence.[1]

In Late Antiquity, the biblical commandment avoidance of figurative or symbolic painting was gradually ignored in part due to the influence of Christianity. Symbols such as the Menorah served as both artistic as well as national symbols of Jewish identity, growing more acute after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem.

Outline[edit]

In the Second Temple period, Jewish art, both in the Land of Israel and the diaspora, was characterized by a marked avoidance of figurative or symbolic motifs. Adhering to the Biblical commandment against creating graven images (Exodus 20:4; Deuteronomy 5:8), the predominant artistic themes were geometric, floral, and architectural. Symbols such as the menorah and the shewbread table were used, primarily as representations of priestly duties with figurative representations of symbols of the Temple initially resisted by religious authorities.[2] This approach was partly in response to Hellenistic rulers' efforts to impose idolatry, which threatened Jewish religion and culture[3][4][5]

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A significant shift occurred in Jewish artistic expression during Late Antiquity, when Jews began incorporating symbolic motifs in their synagogal and funerary art. This change was not only evident in the variety of contexts and localities but also in the diverse range of objects that featured these symbols. The repertoire of symbols, initially limited, expanded over time.[6][5][7]

This change in artistic expression was influenced by the rise of Christianity and its establishment as the official religion of the Roman Empire. The new religious landscape presented a challenge to Judaism, necessitating a shift in cultural representation. The Jews began to use specific symbols in their art as a means of expressing and affirming their Jewish identity. These symbols included the menorah, the shewbread table, the ark, ritual objects, and the conch. Originally part of the Temple rites, these symbols held significant meaning and became a prominent feature in Jewish art of the period. They served not only as religious symbols but also as emblems of national and communal identity.[8][9]

The menorah's evolution is understood as a key example of this transition. Initially a sign of priestly roles during the Second Temple period, the menorah transformed into a widely recognized symbol of Jewish identity after the Temple's destruction.[10][7][11]

Motives[edit]

Menorah[edit]

The menorah, a seven-armed candelabrum originally used in the Temple, is a central symbol in Judaism, frequently depicted to signify synagogues or Jewish burial sites. Often accompanied by other ritual objects such as the lulav, etrog, shofar, and flask, its symbolic importance is so profound that it was chosen as the national emblem of modern Israel. Described in the Bible (Exodus 25:31-40; 37:17-24), the menorah has a central shaft with six branches extending from it.[12][13][14][15]

The origin of the menorah as a Jewish symbol is debated. It was a dominant symbol in Jewish art both in Israel and the diaspora. The menorah gained prominence from the third to fourth centuries, helping to differentiate Jews from Christians. In the diaspora, it symbolized Jewish identity, possibly as a response to living outside Israel, and was depicted at synagogues and catacombs. Post the destruction of the Temple, the menorah symbolized the Temple itself and Judaism, distinguishing Jewish places from Christian or pagan ones.[16][14]

Scholars debate its meaning, particularly the significance of its seven branches. Some suggest they represent the seven planets or days of the week, symbolizing a divine light or a ritual calendar. The menorah was used in daily rituals in both the Temple and synagogues, with its lighting pattern reflecting the weekly Sabbath cycle.[16][14]

In Late Antiquity, the menorah was a prominent symbol in diaspora synagogues, often found in various artistic forms. Inscriptions from Side in Pamphylia and Sardis mention donations of menorahs to these synagogues.[7][14]

Menoroth were painted in the wall paintings at the Dura Europos synaoguge. Mosaics with menorahs were also discovered in diaspora locations such as Apaemea, Bova Marina, Hamam-Lif, and Philippopolis. Reliefs, engravings and incisions featuring menorahs were found at Ostia, Priene, Sardis and Stobi. Menoroth were also found on architectural and stone fragmenets at Acmonia, Aphordisias, Athens, Bithynion-Caludiopolis, Corinth, Nicaea, Pergamon, Porto (Italy) and Tarragona.[17][14]

Shewbread Table[edit]

The shewbread table, a key Temple vessel, is depicted in various Jewish art forms. Described in Exodus as a golden table for shewbread, it's one of three central Temple vessels. Its earliest representations include coins from Mattathias Antigonus's reign (40-37 BCE) and a Jerusalem house's plastered wall. In diaspora art, the shewbread table appears notably on the Arch of Titus, depicted as a heavy, rectangular table with animal feet and two cups on top, carried by eight bearers. Additionally, two trumpets are shown crossed on it. At Dura Europos, a gold, round table with molded legs is painted, resembling three-legged stone tables from Second Temple Jerusalem. This round table style also appears in the Callistus catacomb. There's debate among scholars about its depiction on Bar Kokhba coins and in the Dura synagogue. After the Second Temple period, its appearances are rare but notable, like in the Qasrin synagogue lintel, a mosaic in a fifth-century Sepphoris synagogue showing a round, three-legged table with twelve loaves, and a similar depiction in a fourth-century Samaritan synagogue at el-Hirbeh. These various depictions, particularly the round, three-legged tables in Dura, Sepphoris, and el-Hirbeh, suggest a common source, possibly a Jewish pattern book, in contrast to the Arch of Titus's rectangular table, which aligns more closely with the Biblical description.[18][15]

Ritual Objects[edit]

Main article: Jewish ceremonial art

In Late Antiquity Jewish art, four ritual objects - the lulav, ethrog, shofar, and flask - commonly appear alongside the menorah. These objects are associated with Sukkoth, the Feast of the Tabernacles, a significant festival during the Second Temple period. This festival, marking the final harvest of the year, was one of the three annual pilgrimages in the Jerusalem Temple.[19][20][21][22]

Diaspora Jewish art differs from that in the Land of Israel; for instance, the flask in diaspora art replaces the incense shovel found in Israel. Additionally, Torah scrolls emerge as a unique element in diaspora art, while the hanging lamp, prevalent in Israeli Jewish art, is absent in the diaspora.[19][20][22]

Common combinations of these ritual objects in synagogue mosaics and reliefs include the lulav, ethrog, shofar, and flask; the lulav, ethrog, and shofar; the lulav and ethrog; and the lulav and shofar.[19][20][21]

The Temple, the Ark of the Scrolls, and the Ark of the Covenant[edit]

Mordecai and Esther

In diaspora Jewish art, images of structures are depicted on wall paintings, tombstones, gold glasses, and clay lamps. These images represent the Temple in Jerusalem, the Ark of the Scrolls, aediculae, and the Ark of the Covenant, each differing in form and design to signify their unique identifications and functions.[23][24]

At Dura Europos, a synagogue in modern day Syria, several murals from Late Antiquity portraying biblical themes have been uncovered.[25][26][27] the Temple is portrayed on the Torah shrine's facade, featuring a tetrastyle sanctuary with fluted columns and a double door, symbolizing the Temple in Jerusalem. This design is compared to similar ones on Bar Kokhba coins. A gold glass depicts a tetrastyle gabled shrine within a peristyle court, resembling the Dura Europos design but also showing features of the Jerusalem Temple.[23][24][8]

The Torah Shrine, found in diaspora art such as a fourth-century funerary plaque from Malaga, usually consists of double columns supporting a conch-decorated arch. Few examples exist, but those that do often include a menorah or other Jewish symbols.[23]

The Ark of the Scrolls housed Torah scrolls within the Torah shrine. Its depiction varies but generally includes an open-door ark with scrolls on shelves. Diaspora examples often show an open ark, contrasting with closed-door types common in the Land of Israel. The ark is sometimes flanked by menorahs, ritual objects, and animals in various art forms.[23]

At Dura-Europos, the Ark of the Covenant appears as a tall, arched-top chest in several panels. Its depictions differ from the Ark of the Scrolls, representing a separate entity historically used to contain the Tablets of the Law and not present in the Second Temple.[23][8][24]

References[edit]

  1. ^ Anderson, James Donald; Levy, Thomas Evan (1995). The Impact of Rome on the Periphery: The Case of Palestina - Roman Period (63 BCE - 324 CE). The Archaeology of Society in the Holy Land. p. 459.
  2. ^ Adler, Yonatan. "Representations of the Temple Menorah in Ancient Jewish Art in Light of Rabbinic Halakhah and Archaeological Finds". Israel Archeology Institute.
  3. ^ Segré, Angelo (1946). "Antisemitism in Hellenistic Alexandria". Jewish Social Studies. 8 (2): 127–136. ISSN 0021-6704. JSTOR 4464709.
  4. ^ Gruen, Erich S. (2016), "Hellenism and Persecution: Antiochus IV and the Jews", The Construct of Identity in Hellenistic Judaism, Essays on Early Jewish Literature and History (1 ed.), De Gruyter, pp. 333–358, JSTOR j.ctvbkjxph.20, retrieved 2024-03-15
  5. ^ a b Laderman, Shulamit (2021-11-24). "Jewish Art in Late Antiquity: The State of Research in Ancient Jewish Art". Brill Research Perspectives in Religion and the Arts. 4 (3): 1–80. doi:10.1163/24688878-12340013 (inactive 2024-04-23). ISSN 2468-886X.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of April 2024 (link)
  6. ^ Ḥak̲lîlî, Rāḥēl (1988). Ancient Jewish Art and Archaeology in the Land of Israel. Brill Archive. ISBN 978-90-04-08115-4.
  7. ^ a b c Hachlili 1998, pp. 311–312.
  8. ^ a b c Elsner 2003.
  9. ^ Schubert, Kurt (2008-01-01), "Jewish Art In Late Antiquity An Example Of Jewish Identity", Between Judaism and Christianity, Brill, pp. 39–51, ISBN 978-90-474-2437-6, retrieved 2024-03-15
  10. ^ Holcomb, Authors: Barbara Drake Boehm, Melanie. "Jewish Art in Late Antiquity and Early Byzantium | Essay | The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History". The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. Retrieved 2024-04-04.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  11. ^ Ḥak̲lîlî, Rāḥēl (1988). Ancient Jewish Art and Archaeology in the Land of Israel. Brill Archive. ISBN 978-90-04-08115-4.
  12. ^ Hachlili 1998, pp. 312–313.
  13. ^ https://www.imj.org.il/en/collections/493544-0 Israel Museum
  14. ^ a b c d e Adler, Yonatan. "Representations of the Temple Menorah in Ancient Jewish Art in Light of Rabbinic Halakhah and Archaeological Finds". Hebrew.
  15. ^ a b Hachlili, Rachel (2018-06-07), "Why Did the Menorah and Not the Showbread Table Evolve into the Most Important Symbol of Judaism*", The Menorah: Evolving into the Most Important Jewish Symbol, Brill, pp. 5–20, ISBN 978-90-04-37509-3, retrieved 2024-02-09
  16. ^ a b Hachlili 1998, pp. 343–344.
  17. ^ Hachlili 1998, pp. 313–323.
  18. ^ Hachlili 1998, pp. 345–346.
  19. ^ a b c Hachlili 1998, pp. 347–349.
  20. ^ a b c Kanof, Abram (1982). Jewish Ceremonial Art and Religious Observance. New York: Abrams. ISBN 9780810921993.
  21. ^ a b Art of the Hebrew Tradition. Jewish Publication Society of America. 1955.
  22. ^ a b "» Jewish ceremonial art". smarthistory.org. Retrieved 2024-02-09.
  23. ^ a b c d e Hachlili 1998, pp. 360–373.
  24. ^ a b c Kraeling 1979.
  25. ^ "Dura-Europos Synagogue | History & Murals". study.com. Retrieved 2024-03-02.
  26. ^ Moormann, Eric M. (2021-04-19), "The Murals of the Synagogue at Dura Europos as an Expression of Roman Koine", Principles of Decoration in the Roman World, De Gruyter, pp. 141–162, doi:10.1515/9783110732139-009, hdl:2066/242745, ISBN 978-3-11-073213-9, retrieved 2024-03-02
  27. ^ "» The Synagogue at Dura-Europos". smarthistory.org. Retrieved 2024-03-02.

Bibliography[edit]

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