User:EmmaLKrukar/sandbox

Emma's Contributions

Here's what I have added to the main article on Violence against women, as well as a description of what my contribution includes, why it meets the requirements for this assignment, and why I changed/added what I did. I significantly expanded the first section of the article on Violence against women by adding research on how, where & in what specific ways historically violence against women has been recorded. I also went through how historically (mostly, more recently) there have been actions taken to resist, stop, or reduce violence against women. I incorporated the three small subsections (sentences) which were already extant, because I thought they were useful and could easily be built in to the structure of my work. I then give a list, compiled from a variety of sources, of important developments basically in the last 30 years, of international-level instruments to oppose violence against women, and also an example case study of national-level activities in the same vein (the US). Of course, it would be useful to have examples from more countries, however, I devoted significant time & energy to prepare the introductory paragraphs, and where to draw the line at the number of countries' examples would then be the question. Also, I recognize that this contribution is well over the 600-minimum word length guideline - it is actually more around 1500, once the parts which were already present on the page are included. (This was also a reason for not including multiple other countries' national-level examples). However, although I did go significantly over the recommended length for the assignment, I was also unsure if the listing of chronological dates (for international and national level instruments) would be looked upon as "counting toward" the word-count or not, so I made sure to include other content which was relevant. Excluding the bulleted lists (which I'm not saying they should be excluded from the word-count, because they were indeed a lot of work to put together), but if they are excluded, then the word-count is around 900 words. Of course this entry doesn't cover all aspects ever about the history of violence against women, but it is meant to give an overview for the purposes of informing the quick encyclopedic reader.

In addition to the main body of text I have edited/added here copied below, I also contributed to the article by leaving 3 comments on the Talk Page behind the main article: 2 of these are under the heading specifically for our group to discuss, called "Additional modifications (from a group of graduate students for gender class)", and one of them is under the subheading "...victim's gender as a primary motive"? (you will need to scroll up from our group's comments to see that one). This discussion gave me the idea to add the now-last sentence of the first "lead" paragraph, on the definition of violence against women (because I also think the language "gender as a primary motive" for the violence is a bit misleading), so I added some clarification. Also in looking at the additions my colleagues had made by adding the whole sub-section of "Definition," and the "WHO's table on typology of violence against women," that gave me the idea to include an image of a useful typology of violence against women which I came across in my research. So, I added that image and a text explaining it, after the WHO table. (In order to do so, I also had to fill out a somewhat-extensive form, in order to use the image and ensure that it fit Wikipedia's use policy of copyrighted images). Finally, I was also part of the off-line discussion which led to the main text of the modifications and edits described in the main first paragraph under the Talk page subsection dedicated to our group's edits.

Our group has decided that we would each like to be evaluated individually on our contributions, rather than as one whole group grade.

History of Violence Against Women

Here's what I have added to the section on "History of Violence Against Women" in the main article on Violence against women.

The underlined portions are those few short sentences which existed in the original section, and which I kept but incorporated into my text.

The history of violence against women remains vague in scientific literature. This is in part due to the fact that many kinds of violence against women (specifically rape & sexual assault, and domestic violence) often go unreported or under-reported, often due to societal norms, taboos, stigma, and the sensitive nature of the subject. It is widely recognized that even today, a lack of reliable and continuous data is an obstacle in having a clear picture of violence against women, so an historical picture of violence against women becomes even more difficult to capture. Although the history of violence against women is difficult to track, some claim that violence against women has been accepted, and even condoned and legally sanctioned throughout history. Examples include the fact that Roman law gave men the right to chastise their wives, even to the point of death, the burning of witches, which was condoned by both the church and the state, and an 18th century English common law allowing a man to punish his wife using a stick "no wider than his thumb" (thus coining the English phrase, "rule of thumb." This rule for punishment of wives prevailed in England and America until the late 19th century). Some historians believe that the history of violence against women is tied to the history of women being viewed as property and a gender role assigned to be subservient to men and also other women. Oftentimes, explanations of patriarchy and an overall world system or status quo in which gender inequalities exist and are perpetuated, are cited to explain the scope and history of violence against women. The UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women (1993) states that "violence against women is a manifestation of historically unequal power relations between men and women, which have led to domination over and discrimination against women by men and to the prevention of the full advancement of women, and that violence against women is one of the crucial social mechanisms by which women are forced into a subordinate position compared with men.” To the modern day, it is recognized that violence against women exists everywhere, and that "there is no region of the world, no country and no culture in which women’s freedom from violence has been secured." Attention is often drawn to the fact that some forms of violence are particularly more prevalent in some countries/parts of the world, often in developing countries or the Third-World; for example, the associations of Bride burning, Dowry death and acid throwing with countries such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka; Honor killing with these same places as well as certain predominantly-Muslim countries (Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Egypt Lebanon); and Female genital mutilation with particular regions in Sub-Saharan and North-east Africa, and to a lesser extent in the Middle East & Asia. However, one should beware of using any explanation based on culture to justify specific forms of violence against women, and it is debatable in what ways cultural tradition can legitimize certain practices. Specifically, cultural justifications for certain violent acts against women are asserted by some States and by social groups within many countries claiming to defend cultural tradition (also historical tradition), but these justifications are questionable precisely because these defenses are generally voiced by political leaders or traditional authorities, not by those actually affected. But the need for sensitivity and respect of culture is an element which cannot be ignored either, thus a sensitive debate has ensued and is still ongoing.

However, there has also been an history of recognizing of the harmful & wrongful effects of this violence, and actions have been taken to classify it as unjust. In the 1870's, courts in the United States stopped recognizing the common-law principle that a husband had the right to "physically chastise an errant wife". In fact, the first state to rescind this right was Alabama in 1871. In the UK the traditional right of a husband to inflict moderate corporal punishment on his wife in order to keep her "within the bounds of duty" was removed in 1891. More recently, in the 20th and 21st centuries, and in particular since the 1990's, there has been a large incrase in activity on both the national and international levels to research, raise awareness and advocate for the prevention of all kinds of violence against women. Most often, violence against women has been framed as a health issue, and also as a violation of human rights. As for current information, a study from 2002 estimated that at least one in five women in the world had been physically or sexually abused by a man sometime in their lifetime, and that "gender-based violence accounts for as much death and ill-health in women aged 15–44 years as cancer, and is a greater cause of ill-health than malaria and traffic accidents combined." Although there are many different forms, certain characteristics of violence against women have emerged from the research, for example, quite often acts of violence against women are not unique episodes, but are ongoing over time, and that more often than not, the violence is perpetrated by someone the woman knows, not a stranger. However, all of the research seems to provide convicing evidence that violence against women is a severe and pervasive problem the world over, with devastating effects on the health and well-being of women and children.

Some of the largest milestones on the international level for the prevention of violence against women include:

• The 1979 Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), which recognizes violence as a part of discrimination against women in recommendations 12 & 19.
• The 1993 World Conference on Human Rights, which recognized violence against women as a human rights violation, and which contributed to the following UN declaration.
• The 1993 UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women was the first international instrument explicitly defining and addressing violence against women. This document specifically refers to the historically forever-present nature of gender inequalities in understanding violence against women. (Include current 2nd paragraph here). This Declaration, as well as the World Conference of the same year, is often viewed as a "turning point" at which the consideration of violence against women by the international community began to be taken much more seriously, and after which more countries mobilized around this problem.
• The 1994 International Conference on Population and Development, linking violence against women to reproductive health & rights, and also providing recommendations to governments on how to prevent & respond to violence against women and girls.
• In 1996, the World Health Assembly (WHA) declared violence a major public health issue, and included in the subtypes recognized were intimate partner violence and sexual violence, two kinds of violence which are often perpetrated as violence against women. This was followed by a WHO report in 2002 (see below).
• In 1999,the UN designated November 25 as the International Day for the Elimination of Violence Against Women.
• In 2002, as a follow-up of the WHA declaration in 1996 of violence as a major public health issue, the World Health Organization published the first World Report on Violence and Health, which addressed many types of violence and their impact on public health, including forms of violence affecting women particularly strongly. The report specifically noted the sharp rise in civil society organizations and activities directed at responding to gender-based violence against women from the 1970's to the 1990's.
• In 2004, the World Health Organization published its "Multi-country study on Women's Health and Domestic Violence against Women," a study of women's health and domestic violence by surveying over 24,000 women in 10 countries from all regions of the world, which assessed the prevalence & extent of violence against women, particularly violence by intimate partners, and linked this with health outcomes to women as well as documenting strategies & services which women use to cope with intimate-partner violence.
• The 2006 UN Secretary General's "In-depth study on all forms of violence against women," the first comprehensive international document on the issue.
• The 2011 Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence, which is the second regional legally-binding instrument on violence against women and girls.
• In 2013, the United Nations Commission on the Status of Women (CSW) adopted, by consensus, Agreed Conclusions on the elimination and prevention of all forms of violence against women and girls (formerly, there were no agreed-upon conclusions).

Additionally, on the national level, individual countries have also organized efforts (legally, politically, socially) to prevent, reduce and punish violence against women. As a particular case study, here are some developments since the 1960's in the United States to oppose and treat violence against women:

• 1967: One of the country's first domestic violence shelters opened in Maine.
• 1972: The country's first rape help hotline opened in Washington, D.C.
• 1978: Two national coalitions, the National Coalition Against Sexual Assault and the National Coalition Against Domestic Violence, were formed, to raise awareness of these two forms of violence against women.
• 1984: The US Attorney General created the Department of Justice Task Force on Family Violence, to address ways in which the criminal justice system & community response to domestic violence should be improved.
• 1994: Passage of the Violence Against Women Act or VAWA, legislation included in the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994, sponsored by then-Senator Joseph Biden, which required a strengthened community response to crimes of domestic violence and sexual assault, strengthened federal penalties for repeat sex offenders and strengthened legislative protection of victims, among many other provisions.
• 2000: President Clinton signed into law the VAWA of 2000, further strengthening federal laws, and emphasizing assistance of immigrant victims, elderly victims, victims with disabilities, and victims of dating violence.
• 2006: President Bush signed into law the VAWA of 2006, with an emphasis on programs to address violence against Indian women, sexual assault, and youth victims, and establishing programs for Engaging Men and Youth, and Culturally and Linguistically Specific Services.
• 2007: The National Teen Dating Abuse Hotline opened.
• 2009: President Obama declared April as Sexual Assault Awareness Month.

Other countries have also enacted comparable legislative, political and social instruments to address violence against women. Experts in the international community generally believe, however, that solely enacting punitive legislation for prevention & punishment of violence against women is not sufficient to address the problem. For example, although much stricter laws on violence against women have been passed in Bangladesh, violence against women is still rising. Instead, it is thought that wide societal changes to address gender inequalities & women's empowerment will be the way to reduce violence against women.

History of violence against women

A world map showing countries by women's physical security, 2011.

Some historians believe that the history of violence against women is tied to the history of women being viewed as property and a gender role assigned to be subservient to men and also other women.

The UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women (1993) states that "violence against women is a manifestation of historically unequal power relations between men and women, which have led to domination over and discrimination against women by men and to the prevention of the full advancement of women, and that violence against women is one of the crucial social mechanisms by which women are forced into a subordinate position compared with men.”

In the 1870s courts in the United States stopped recognizing the common-law principle that a husband had the right to "physically chastise an errant wife". In the UK the traditional right of a husband to inflict moderate corporal punishment on his wife in order to keep her "within the bounds of duty" was removed in 1891.

Research Proposal

Here's the original proposal from our group, submitted in October, to maintain a record of our work.

October 21, 2013

Gender and International Affairs, IA039

Professor: Elisabeth Prügl

Group 5

“Violence Against Women”

This proposal aims to outline our plan to improve the existing entry on Violence Against Women on Wikipedia. We observed that there is a need to improve and expand some existing sections in the entry, as well as incorporate the other related and essential subtopics. Overall, the entry seems to focus the issue in a broad and universal sense. However, while some very important issues related to violence against women (which have gained much media attention in recent years) such as Female Genital Mutilation, or violence against women in the context of mass protests, are absent from this entry, other very specific ones such as Gender-based violence by male college athletes are included, which makes the article appear quite incomplete, random and un-professional. There is, at the right side of the main entry, a more thorough List of Topics, which includes links to many other sub-categorizations of Violence Against Women, but we consider that this one, being the main article on the subject, ought to include at least short and general introductions to topics such as Psychological and Physical Violence Against Women, Violence Against Women in the Context of Activism, and Legal Aspects of violence against women. We also plan to expand the section on “History of violence against women”, which is too short to be a detailed history or mention enough important historical aspects. We also plan to do an introduction on the concept of obstetric violence, which some scholars, especially in the Spanish-speaking world, have recognized as an important source of potential violence, around which there is still much denial and unrecognition.

The entry also appears to have insufficient ‘legitimate’ sources and research-backed approach. This is apparent throughout the entry while it is referring to a very limited number of: 1) United Nations’ treaty bodies such as the United Nations General Assembly, on the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women and the 48th UNGA Resolution [1] 2) The international human rights instruments such as the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW, which is not even mentioned, and neither is the Convention of Bélem do Pará and the Vienna Declaration and Program of Action and 3) the empirical data and reports of the situation on the ground from the ‘Non-governmental organization ’being used to support the content of the entry. Some of these references were mentioned just in titles, but not in details. We deem that it is necessary for this entry to have more ‘legitimate’ and ‘human rights based’ sources to support the information related to this topic. Therefore, we propose a number of existing subsections to be expanded: history of violence against women and activism, and other subsections to be added as the following:

Emma: “History of violence against women”

The first section, History of violence against women is one of the first ones we would like to revise and expand. Firstly, it is only comprised of 3 paragraphs; one is just a one-sentence paragraph, with a brief theory of why violence against women has consistently existed (women being viewed/treated as property and being subservient to men). One paragraph makes a reference to UN declaration on the subject of violence against women. The last paragraph gives 2 examples (in the US and UK) of when courts ceased to recognize the legal right of a man to use corporal punishment against his wife. There is a lot more to be investigated and to be said about the history of violence against women, for example how and when it has been recognized as a societal problem, and what actions have been taken? Additionally, have other documents on violence against women, like the UN declaration [[2]], been produced? If so, at a national legal level in varying countries, or in regional organizations or associations of countries? Are there different patterns of violence against women in different countries or regions of the world, and how has violence against women been viewed, talked about, or recognized there?

Wipada: Activism

Another section that we would like to expand is the section of ‘activism’. From the existing entry, the information given was not enough for one to comprehend the activism for women’s rights, in this case, violence against women. The first sentence of the paragraph suggests a concept that there is a causal relationship/ correlation between Domestic violence and societal hierarchy based on sexism. However, this was claimed without any reference and that it refers ‘violence against women’ by employing the term ‘domestic violence’ which was not even mentioned anywhere in the page. In addition, there is a need to mention that the activism for the particular issue of violence against women is commonly known to be based on the concept that ‘women rights equal human rights and that the violence against women is considered as violation of human rights'. Also, we need to update some of the terms used in the context of activism that they seem to be out-of-date. We should employ the term ‘human rights defender’ rather than ‘activists.’ In other words, we should introduce the term that the human rights defenders working to improve the rights and situation of women call themselves: Women Human Rights Defenders [[3]] or WHRD (according to the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights: for the human rights defenders, civil society groups and NGOs). Also, the campaign mentioned in this section was just one campaign which is not up-to-date anymore (the recent one would be Event:16 Days of Activism Against Gender Violence Campaign. And lastly, this section also omits the crucial aspects of the activism, which are the work of the human rights defenders and their ‘real’ situations and what they encounter on the ground and there also is a need to expand.

Dilnoza: Female Genital Cutting

In this section there will be examined female genital cutting as a harmful traditional practice that is legally considered as a violation of women’s human rights since 1993 (Vienna Convention). There exist already Wikipedia entry named Female Genital Mutilation that covers definition, history, origins, and oppositions of Female Genital Mutilation. I found, however, that some aspects of that issue (for example little discussion of how FGC is related to Violence Against Women) is missed and would be relevant to shed light on Female Gental Cutting as a form of VAW namely within Wikipedia page Violence against women from gender studies perspective. Since in the main entry of FGM there is already provided detailed description of terminology and definition of four types of FGM, this section deals mainly with the heat debates over FGC among Western feminists and African (or Outsiders vs. Insiders, Cultural relativists vs. Universalists). It describes the arguments provided by both sides and illustrates the critiques of those arguments. In addition to that, several interventionist approaches set up by international organizations such WHO, UN, and NGOs (such as Tostan) will be described within secttion named Interventionist approaches and the shortages/critiques of those approaches will be defined. The section is based on the works of Bettina Shell-Duncan, Lisen Dellenborg, Jaqui True, Maria Malstrom, Kwame Anthony Appiah, Martha Nussbaum, Yeal Tamir, Andrew Koppelman, Lori L. Heise, R. Elise, B. Johansen, Nafissatou J., Diop, Glenn Laverack, and Els Leye. Statistics data are taken from WHO and UN reports, and Tostan findings. While we were working together and were on the process of editing and structuring this Wikipedia page, someone called "skydeepblue" has added several subsections (Honor killings, Dowry violence, Female genital mutilation, Acid throwing,Forced marriage) particularly to Domestic violence section. Therefore within subsection Female Genital mutilation I would suggest to:

1. Along with WHO's technical definition of FGM, to give other academic definion (recommended by scholars: Martha Nussbaum,Andrew Koppelman, Lori L. Heise, Duncan and etc. ) 2. to provide data on countries with the bottom rates for FGC; 3. to mention that FGC is spreading beyond the borders of Africa and Middle East due to emigration and globalization (which leads to actually familiarizing the Western world with existence of such practice); 4. due to existence of several misinformation about FGC, there will be subsection on "myths and biases related to FGC";

Camille: ‘Violence against women in the justice system’

We will discuss the different challenges and barriers that women victims of violence face in accessing justice. Among these challenges are : - The lack of criminalization of violent behaviors. We will give several examples of countries where the law does not criminalize Female Genital Mutilation, Rape, Domestic violence. There can also be a law criminalizing the mentioned above violent acts against women, but the legal framework is insufficient and there is in practice no possibility for women victims of such acts to access justice. We will mention for instance the difficulties to file a complaint for rape or other violent behavior; the difficulty to make a case in court (members of the judiciary continue to take evidence of struggle and injury as determinative medical evidence). Other related practical barriers are the delays in investigation and conviction, and the lack of remedies in court despite the possibility of conviction of perpetrators. Crimes against women can also be categorized as minor offences. We will also show examples of legislation allowing better access to justice for women in order to compare and show examples of good practice. Other barriers due for instance to immigration laws in a country. We will mention the case of undocumented women in countries where they would have, in theory, access to justice but in practice don’t for fear of being denounced and deported. We will then discuss discrimination and gender stereotyping as the cause for this lack of access to justice by women victims of violence. We will talk about the role of CEDAW in promoting gender equality and women’s access to justice. Gender stereotyping is often a key factor in failure of states to recognize violation of women’s rights. Influences the treatment of women in justice systems : failure in inquiries in rape by state authorities. State failing to punish violations because of stereotyping. Rejection of evidence based on stereotype. Discriminatory stereotypes affect women regardless of their behavior. It affects victims of violence, who have difficulties to access justice.

Clara Franco: Obstetric Violence

We want to include this part in our contribution because we feel that, especially in English-speaking countries, there is much denial and under-reporting surrounding the issue, challenging its very existence as a form of violence. The increasingly medicalized birthing practices that have prevailed in industrialized countries, and their cultural “trickle-down” into developing countries, can lead to an abuse of birthing practices that should normally be restricted to only a minority of births, such as c-sections, episiotomies, the abuse of medication and birth induction; or the use of instruments and maneuvers that have been recognized as risky to the health of the mother and child (forceps, Kristeller maneuver, vacuum extraction). Various NGO’s around the world have the purpose of defending “the right to a respectful and humane birth”, such as the canadian organization Humanize Birth, or the Spanish association El Parto es Nuestro [[4]]. Different scholars such as O. Fernández have analyzed the link between Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and obstetric violence. Overall, it will be an interesting exercise to analyze the acceptance of the concept of “obstetric violence” among predominantly English-speaking Wikipedia editors. The WHO mentions “obstetric violence” only in a single article about a law recently passed in Mexico, which aims to further the respect for traditional medicine and “women’s right to a life free of obstetric violence, such as unnecessary cesareans”. Venezuela has recently included it as a legal term; in a law that defines obstetric violence as “appropriation of the body and reproductive processes of women by health personnel (...) expressed as dehumanized treatment, an abuse of medication, and to convert the natural processes into pathological ones, bringing with it loss of autonomy and the ability to decide freely about their bodies and sexuality, negatively impacting the quality of life of women”[[5]]. Three Mexican States have also legally defined obstetric violence, along with violence concerning reproductive rights. Cross-cutting issues: rights of indigenous women. Indigenous women are much more likely to suffer different forms of obstetric violence and can also be disproportionately affected by forced sterilizations or other ways of forced contraception.

References

Browne, Angela. “Violence against women by male partners: Prevalence, outcomes, and policy implications.” American Psychologist, Vol 48(10), Oct 1993, 1077-1087.

Bulletin of the World Health Organization: “Mexico’s Midwives Enter the Mainstream”, in World Health Organization Website, http://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/86/4/08-010408/en/, Visited October 2013.

Christian E. Molidor. Gender differences of psychological abuse in high school dating relationships. Child and Adolescent Social work journal. Vol.13 N1, February 1996. in http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF01876596#page-1.

Ellsberg, Mary , and Lori Heise. "Researching Violence Against Women."A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR RESEARCHERS AND ACTIVISTS 1 (2005): 1-244. http://www.path.org/publications/files/GBV_rvaw_complete.pdf (accessed October 20, 2013).

Fernández I, O. “PTSD And Obstetric Violence”, in Midwifery Today - International Midwife, vol. 105, pp. 48-68, 2013.

Garcia-Moreno, Claudia and Henrica AFM Jansen , Mary Ellsberg , Lori Heise , Charlotte H Watts. “Prevalence of intimate partner violence: findings from the WHO multi-country study on women's health and domestic violence.” The Lancet, Volume 368, Issue 9543, 7–13 October 2006, Pages 1260–1269.

GIRE, Group for Information in Informed Reproduction. “Omission and Indifference: Reproductive Rights in Mexico”, Yearly Report.

Goer, H. (2010). “Cruelty in maternity wards: Fifty years later”. Journal of Perinatal Education, 19(3), 33–42.

Krug , Etienne G and James A Mercy , Linda L Dahlberg , Anthony B Zwi. “The world report on violence and health.” The Lancet, Volume 360, Issue 9339, 5 October 2002, Pages 1083–1088.

Johanson, R., Newburn, M., & Macfarlane, A. (2002). “Has the medicalisation of childbirth gone too far?” BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.), 324(7342), 892-895.

Pérez D’Gregorio, Rogelio. “Obstetric Violence: A New Legal Term Introduced in Venezuela”, in International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Vol. 111, No. 3, pp. 201-202, 2010.

Venis, Sarah and Richard Horton. “Violence against women: a global burden.” The Lancet, Volume 359, Issue 9313, 6 April 2002.

Villegas Poljack, Asia. “Obstetric Violence and Forced Sterilization Facing Medical Discourse”, in Venezuelan Magazine of Women’s Studies, vol. 14 No. 32, pp. 125-146, 2009.

External links

Organizations

[6]

United Nations Population Fund “Organic Law on Women’s Right to a Life Free of Violence”

[7]

World Health Organization Gender. Gender-based violence. http://www.who.int/gender/violence/gbv/en/

UNFPA

[[8]]

Women Human Rights Defenders [[9]]