User:Morgan.emma/Mountaintop removal mining

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Mountaintop removal mining (MTR), also known as mountaintop mining (MTM), is a form of surface mining at the summit or summit ridge of a mountain. Coal seams are extracted from a mountain by removing the land, or overburden, above the seams. This process is considered to be safer compared to underground mining because the coal seams are accessed from above instead of underground. In the United States, this method of coal mining has been conducted in the Appalachian Mountains since 1970, primarily occurring in Kentucky, West Virginia, Virginia, and Tennessee. Explosives are used to remove up to 400 vertical feet (120 m) of mountain to expose underlying coal seams. Excess rock and soil is dumped into nearby valleys, in what are called "holler fills" ("hollow fills") or "valley fills".

The practice of MTM has been controversial. While there are economic benefits to this practice, there are also concerns for environmental and human health costs.

Overview[edit]

Mountaintop removal mining (MTR), also known as mountaintop mining (MTM), is a form of surface mining that involves the topographical alteration and/or removal of a summit, hill, or ridge to access buried coal seams.

The MTR process involves the removal of coal seams by first fully removing the overburden lying atop them, exposing the seams from above. This method differs from more traditional underground mining, where typically a narrow shaft is dug which allows miners to collect seams using various underground methods, while leaving the vast majority of the overburden undisturbed. The overburden from MTR is either placed back on the ridge, attempting to reflect the approximate original contour of the mountain,[1] and/or is moved into neighboring valleys.[2]

Excess rock and soil containing mining byproducts are disposed into nearby valleys, in what are called "holler fills" or "valley fills".[3][4][5]

Appalachian Region of U.S.

MTR in the United States is most often associated with the extraction of coal in the Appalachian Mountains. Google Earth Engine and Landsat imagery report the extent of newly mined land from 1985 to 2015 to be 2,900km2. Considering surface mining sites prior to 1985, the cumulative total of mined land was calculated to be 5,900km2. Further studies calculated that 12m2 of mined land produced one metric ton of coal.[6] Sites range from Ohio to Virginia.[2] It occurs most commonly in West Virginia and Eastern Kentucky, the top two coal-producing states in Appalachia. More than 500 mountains in the US have been destroyed by this process, resulting in the burial of 3,200 km (2,000 mi) of streams.[7]

Mountaintop removal has been practiced since the 1960s.[2] Increased demand for coal in the United States, sparked by the 1973 and 1979 petroleum crises, created incentives for a more economical form of coal mining than the traditional underground mining methods involving hundreds of workers, triggering the first widespread use of MTR. Its prevalence expanded further in the 1990s to retrieve relatively low-sulfur coal, a cleaner-burning form, which became desirable as a result of amendments to the U.S. Clean Air Act that tightened emissions limits on high-sulfur coal processing.[8]

Process[edit]

Mining Process[edit]

the same

Reclamation Process[edit]

Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act[edit]

Established in 1977, the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act set up a program “for the regulation of surface mining activities and the reclamation of coal-mined lands”.[9] Although U.S. mountaintop removal sites by law must be reclaimed after mining is complete, reclamation has traditionally focused on stabilizing rock formations and controlling for erosion, and not on the reforestation of the affected area.[10] However, the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 list "the restoration of land and water resources" as a priority.[11]

Appalachian Regional Reforestation Initiative (ARRI)[edit]

Historically, reforested mining sites have been characterized by seedling mortality, slow growth and poor production. Challenges associated with returning forests to their pre-mining state enabled grassland conversion to become standard.[12] The Appalachian Regional Reforestation Initiative (ARRI), established in 2004, works to promote the growth of hardwood trees on reclaimed mining sites. The ARRI operates utilizing the Forestry Reclamation Approach (FRA). In an effort to apply specific forest restoration practices, the FRA focuses on five main reclamation components: (1) establish suitable soil deeper than four feet to enhance root growth, (2) ensure non-compacted topsoil is present, (3) plan vegetative ground cover to support tree growth (4) include tree species that support local wildlife, as well as commercially desired products, (5) ensure that proper planting techniques are utilized.[13] This group also facilitates restoration efforts by educating and training members of the coal industry on their role in promoting and adopting effective management practices.[12]

Valley Fill Sites[edit]

Valley fill sites can be characterized by high sulfur concentrations from the weathering process of mountaintop sulfur-rich debris. Additionally, acid mine drainage (AMD) increases the concentration of sulfate, iron, aluminum and manganese in surrounding streams. Some of the most common treatments include plugging mine openings, altering the landscape to divert incoming water from at risk ecosystems, alkaline inputs, limestone channels and treatment ponds or wetlands.[14]

Biotic Stream Remediation Index[edit]

Current remediation methods may vary, but expensive treatment costs persist. The cost efficiency of treatments can be increased through the use of models that are able to accurately predict ecosystem responses to various inputs; thus enabling restoration groups to determine the overall most effective treatment combination. Biotic indicators present within stream ecosystems impacted by valley fill (VF) activity and AMD are valuable assets to increase the cost efficiency of restoration efforts. Mayflies (Order Ephemeroptera) are abundant in streams in the Appalachian Mountain region.They are highly sensitive to water quality, as their immature forms require unpolluted water. VF and AMD are the leading causes of water chemistry and habitat alterations in this region, the driving factors limiting mayfly populations. Thus, they can be utilized as an effective indicator species to quantify restoration progress through modeling efforts focused on mountaintop mining driven changes in adjacent ecosystems. Effectively developed biotic response models can improve and refine restoration efforts by establishing target indicator species population goals and by enabling the monitoring and assessment of water chemistry and habitat changes impacting particular species.[14]

Economics[edit]

no change

*add* Reclamation projects designed in conjunction with community needs can aid local economic development. Previously mined land can be reclaimed as sustainable agricultural land and solar farms. These efforts can help to diversify and stimulate the local economy by providing jobs and other economic opportunities. [15]

Legislation[edit]

no change

Environmental Impacts[edit]

The Hobet mine in West Virginia taken by NASA LANDSAT in 1984
The Hobet mine in West Virginia taken by NASA LANDSAT in 2009

MTR negatively impacts the environment. Practices of explosion and digging release many pollutants to the surrounding environment and community and alternation of the ecosystem. Associated air pollutants such as particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide not only raise health concerns, they also have effects on all ecosystems. Air pollution contributes to issues such as water and soil acidification, chemicals bioaccumulation in the food web and eutrophication.[16] Operations of valley fills buried more than 2,000 km of headwater and streams in the Appalachians. MTR reduces the freshwater resource that supports biodiversity. In addition, the operation provides opportunities for contamination leaching. Ca2+, Mg2+ and SO42− alter water chemistry by increasing pH, salinity and electrical conductivity. Increasing phosphorus and nitrogen can cause nutrient pollution. Selenium is toxic and can bioaccumulate.[17][18] Land disturbance from forestry cutting, soil and bedrock displacement/removal and use of heavy machinery can decrease soil infiltration rate, terrestrial habitat and carbon sequestration, increase in runoff and sediment weathering. As the consequence, hydrology, geochemistry and the ecosystem's health can be permanently impacted.[19][20]

2010 report on consequences of MTM[edit]

A January 2010 report in the journal Science reviews current peer-reviewed studies and water quality data and explores the consequences of mountaintop mining. It concludes that mountaintop mining has serious environmental impacts that mitigation practices cannot successfully address.[20] For example, the extensive tracts of deciduous forests destroyed by mountaintop mining support several endangered species and some of the highest biodiversity in North America. There is a particular problem with burial of headwater streams by valley fills which causes permanent loss of ecosystems that play critical roles in ecological processes. In addition, increases in metal ions, pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids due to elevated concentrations of sulfate are closely linked to the extent of mining in West Virginia watersheds.[20] Declines in stream biodiversity have been linked to the level of mining disturbance in West Virginia watersheds.[21]

Impact statement[edit]

A United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) environmental impact statement finds that streams near some valley fills from mountaintop removal contain higher levels of minerals in the water and decreased aquatic biodiversity.[22] Mine-affected streams also have high selenium concentrations, which can bioaccumulate and produce toxic effects (e.g., reproductive failure, physical deformity, mortality), and these effects have been documented in reservoirs below streams.[23][24] Because of higher pH balances in mine-affected streams, metals such as selenium and iron hydroxide are rendered insoluble, bringing attendant chemical changes to the stream.[25]

The statement also estimates that 724 miles (1,165 km) of Appalachian streams were buried by valley fills between 1985 and 2001.[22] On September 28, 2010, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) independent Science Advisory Board (SAB) released their first draft review of EPA’s research into the water quality impacts of valley fills associated with mountaintop mining, agreeing with EPA’s conclusion that valley fills are associated with increased levels of conductivity threatening aquatic life in surface waters.[26] A 2012 review by Science of the Total Environment cited elevated concentrations of SO42-, HCO3-, Ca2+ and Mg2+ downstream from VF sites. These elevated concentrations are driving factors contributing to overall increases in water conductivity. Measured conductivity values ranging from 159 to 2720 μS/cm were recorded downstream. In comparison, the reference site that did not experience MTM measured conductivity values that ranged from 30 to 260μS/cm. [27]

Stream Ecosystems[edit]

Headwater streams play a major role in the physicochemical quality of larger rivers and streams because of their close association to the surrounding landscape. They function to retain floodwaters, store nutrients and reduce sediment accumulation.[28] VF processes limit these functions, negatively impacting surrounding rivers and watersheds. Factors contributing to disturbed stream flow include vegetation removal, subsequent aquifer formation, compaction of fill surface and overall loss of headwater streams. The removal of vegetation for mining sites reduces evapotranspiration rates from the watershed and ultimately leads to an increase in average discharge rates. Changes in flow can also be attributed to the formation of aquifers from VF that can store water entering from groundwater sources, surface run-off and precipitation. Compaction of VF sites from MTM equipment can increase the surface run-off contribution. The overall loss of headwater streams from VF practices reduces surface- groundwater connections.[25]

Terrestrial Impacts[edit]

While aquatic ecosystems and resources are vulnerable to pollution and geomorphological changes due to MTM and VF leaching, the terrestrial environment is also negatively impacted. The destruction of mountaintops results in forest loss and fragmentation. The overall loss of forest cover reduces suitable soil for revegetation efforts, carbon sequestration and biodiversity. [29] 

The Appalachian region is characterized by its high biodiversity and steep topography. The varying elevations from mountains to valleys results in subsequent varying of forest ecosystem distributions. Forest loss and fragmentation exacerbate forest community distribution by altering the terrestrial environment.[30] Fragmentation results in an increase in edge forests and a decrease in interior forests. This is an important distinction because forest conditions vary from both classifications. Edge forests are warmer, drier, more susceptible to windier conditions and can be better suited for invasive species. As edge forests become more prevalent, biodiversity is threatened.[31] Forest communities as well as flora and fauna diversity depend on habitats provided by old growth forests. For example, a reduction in salamander populations on reclaimed sites can be attributed to an overall loss in mesic conditions. [30]These conditions are not present in emerging edge forests. Additionally, terrestrial changes have transformed natural forest carbon sinks into carbon sources.[29]

Environmental Effects of Reclamation[edit]

Reclaimed soil generally has high bulk density and lower in infiltration rate, nutrients content and organic matter; reclaimed sites are generally not successful to reestablish the pre-mining forests that once occupied due to poor soil quality. Mine sites are often converted to non-native grassland and shrub land habitat with primarily invasive vegetation. Fast-growing, non-native flora such as Lespedeza cuneata, planted to quickly provide vegetation on a site, compete with tree seedlings, and trees have difficulty establishing root systems in compacted backfill.[32] In addition, reintroduced elk (Cervus canadensis) on mountaintop removal sites in Kentucky are eating tree seedlings. The new ecosystem differs from the original forest habitat and can have lower diversity and productivity. A study conducted in 2017 found that herpetofaunal (reptiles and amphibians) habitat generalists are associated with all habitats, while habitat specialists are only associated with forest sites. Reclaimed grassland and shrub land are unsuitable for habitat specialists in the near future.[33] Consequently, biodiversity suffers in a region of the United States with numerous endemic species.[34]

Streams are reclaimed by regrading mine land, reconfiguring the mine drain, or building new stream channels in an effort to resemble the buried ones. Although the mitigation focuses on rebuilding the structure, it has not successfully restored the ecological function of the natural streams. Evidence suggests that such methods can decrease the biodiversity over time.[17] Studies comparing the characteristics of natural and constructed channels find that constructed channels are higher in specific conductance, temperature, ion concentration and lower in organic matter, leaves breakdown rate, invertebrate density and richness. Researchers have concluded that MTR has detrimental impacts on the aquatic system and the current assessments cannot adequately evaluate the quality of the constructed channels and failed to address the functional importance of the natural stream.[35]

Health Impacts[edit]

Published studies also show a high potential for human health impacts. These may result from contact with streams or exposure to airborne toxins and dust. Adult hospitalization for chronic pulmonary disorders and hypertension are elevated as a result of county-level coal production. Rates of mortality, lung cancer, as well as chronic heart, lung and kidney disease are also increased.[20] A 2011 study found that counties in and near mountaintop mining areas had higher rates of birth defects for five out of six types of birth defects, including circulatory/respiratory, musculoskeletal, central nervous system, gastrointestinal, and urogenital defects.

These defect rates were more pronounced in the most recent period studied, suggesting the health effects of mountaintop mining-related air and water contamination may be cumulative.[36] Another 2011 study found "the odds for reporting cancer were twice as high in the mountaintop mining environment compared to the non mining environment in ways not explained by age, sex, smoking, occupational exposure, or family cancer history".[37]

Air Quality[edit]

Research has shown that MTR increases human exposure to particulate matters, PAHs and crustal-derived elements. Other than occupational exposure, data and models suggested that deposits of  such pollutants in lungs of the residents are significantly higher in mining areas.[38] PM samples collected from residential sites around the mining area had higher concentrations of silica, aluminum, inorganic lithogenic components and organic matter. A comparison study that surveyed residents from both the MTR mining community and non-mining community reported that people living near the MTR site experienced more symptoms of respiratory disease. Many studies conclude that exposure to  MTR environments can lead to impaired respiratory health issues.[39] Laboratory experiments on mice also suggested that PM collected from the Appalachian MTR site can damage microvascular function that may contribute to cardiovascular disease found in the area.[40] 

Drinking Water Quality[edit]

MTR has negative effects on surface and ground water quality. Surface water in MTM regions has higher concentrations of arsenic, selenium, lead, magnesium, calcium, aluminum, manganese, sulfates and hydrogen sulfide from overburden. Wastewater from the coal cleaning process contains surfactants, flocculants, coal fines, benzene and toluene, sulfur, silica, iron oxide, sodium, trace metals and other chemicals. Wastewater is often injected and stored underground and has the potential to contaminate other water sources. Ground water samples from domestic wells in mining areas documented contaminations of arsenic, lead, barium, beryllium, selenium, iron, manganese, aluminum and zinc levels surpassing drinking water standards. A statistical study showed that water treatment facilities in MTR counties had significantly higher violations under the Safe Drinking Water Act compared to non-MTR counties and non-mining counties. [41] Another study showed that ecological integrity of streams negatively correlates with cancer mortality rate in West Virginia; unhealthy streams correlates with higher cancer mortality rate. However, more studies are required on MTR impacts on public water and human health, some studies indicate the possibility of the two. Given the evidence that MTR impaired surface and ground water quality, safety of drinking water requires more efforts for protection and prevention.[42] 

Environmental Justice[edit]

Poverty and Mortality Disparities in Central Appalachia[edit]

The Appalachian region has a long history characterized by poverty. From 2013- 2017, 6.5% to 41.0% of the population in Appalachia was impoverished. The average poverty rate for this region is 16.3%, above the national average of 14.6%.[43] Poverty rates are directly proportional to mountaintop mining areas. Poverty rates in MTM areas were found to be significantly higher than in non-mining areas. In 2007, adult poverty rates in MTM areas were 10.1% greater than adult poverty rates in non-mining areas in Appalachia. Mortality rates show a similar relationship. [44] Economic and health disparities are concentrated in MTM areas. [44]

The Alliance for Appalachia[edit]

The Alliance for Appalachia was established in 2006, with the mission to promote a healthy Appalachia centered around community empowerment. Today, The Alliance for Appalachia includes fifteen different member organizations working directly with impacted communities throughout Appalachia and participating in regional and federal-level campaigns. This group has been instrumental in advocating for the RECLAIM Act.[45]

Appalachian Women Led Activism[edit]

Appalachian Ironweed, a native wildflower, typically found in the mountains at the end of the summer; characterized by its strong, deep roots

Appalachian ironweed has become a symbol for the women of the Appalachian region. It represents their dedication to environmental activism and their tremendous strength to bear the burden of mountaintop mining while sustaining the grassroots fight for change. Activists like Maria Gunnoe and Maria Lambert dedicated their efforts to protect their families and their land from the adverse effects of MTM.[46] Gunnoe and Lambert both organized and led grassroots efforts to educate their communities on the human health risks of MTM, with an emphasis on safe drinking water. Gunnoe advocated for the federal Clean Water Protection Act and continues to promote renewable energy efforts for the region. Lambert established the Prenter Water Fund which provides clean water to communities whose water has become polluted due to local MTM. [47][48]

Other Sites[edit]

  • Laciana Valley, Spain (1994 - 2014)

Art, Entertainment and Media[edit]

Short Videos[edit]

  • Award-winning videographer Trip Jennings highlights communities at risk of MTR and emphasizes the importance of reviving the economy in order to create a healthy future. Communities at Risk (2015). [49]
  • The Smithsonian Channel provides an aerial visual of the extent and scale of the process of MTR. The Land of Mountaintop Removal (2013). [50]

References[edit]

  1. ^ "Abstract". Landscape Ecology. 22: 179–187. doi:10.1007/s10980-006-9040-z.
  2. ^ a b c Copeland (2004) pp.39
  3. ^ "Appeals Court Upholds Mountaintop Removal Mining". www.ens-newswire.com. Retrieved 19 June 2017.
  4. ^ "Mountaintop Mining and Valley Fills in Appalachia (MTM/VF) - Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement". Retrieved 19 June 2017.
  5. ^ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2005-10-25). "Mountaintop Mining/Valley Fills in Appalachia: Final Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement". Retrieved August 20, 2006.
  6. ^ Pericak, Andrew A.; Thomas, Christian J.; Kroodsma, David A.; Wasson, Matthew F.; Ross, Matthew R. V.; Clinton, Nicholas E.; Campagna, David J.; Franklin, Yolandita; Bernhardt, Emily S.; Amos, John F. (2018-07-25). Añel, Juan A. (ed.). "Mapping the yearly extent of surface coal mining in Central Appalachia using Landsat and Google Earth Engine". PLOS ONE. 13 (7): e0197758. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0197758. ISSN 1932-6203.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  7. ^ Hendryx, Michael; Zullig, Keith J.; Luo, Juhua (2020-01-08). "Impacts of Coal Use on Health". Annual Review of Public Health. 41: 397–415. doi:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040119-094104. ISSN 0163-7525. PMID 31913772.
  8. ^ Burns, Shirley Stewart (2005). "Bringing Down the Mountains: the Impact of Mountaintop Removal Surface Coal Mining on Southern West Virginia Communities, 1970–2004" (PDF). Ph.D. dissertation. West Virginia University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-10-21. Retrieved 2013-03-25. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  9. ^ Digest of Federal Resource Laws of Interest to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act | url=https://www.fws.gov/laws/lawsdigest/surfmin.html
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  11. ^ Digest of Federal Resource Laws of Interest to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act | url=https://www.fws.gov/laws/lawsdigest/surfmin.html
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  18. ^ Brooks, Alexander C.; Ross, Matthew R. V.; Nippgen, Fabian; McGlynn, Brian L.; Bernhardt, Emily S. (2019). "Excess Nitrate Export in Mountaintop Removal Coal Mining Watersheds". Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences. 124 (12): 3867–3880. doi:10.1029/2019JG005174. ISSN 2169-8961.
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  31. ^ Becker, Douglas A.; Wood, Petra B.; Strager, Michael P.; Mazzarella, Christine (2015-02-01). "Impacts of mountaintop mining on terrestrial ecosystem integrity: identifying landscape thresholds for avian species in the central Appalachians, United States". Landscape Ecology. 30 (2): 339–356. doi:10.1007/s10980-014-0134-8. ISSN 1572-9761.
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  36. ^ "Large numbers of birth defects seen near mountaintop mining operations". Retrieved 19 June 2017.
  37. ^ Hendryx, M.; Wolfe, L.; Luo, J.; Webb, B. (2011). "Self-Reported Cancer Rates in Two Rural Areas of West Virginia with and Without Mountaintop Coal Mining". Journal of Community Health. 37 (2): 320–327. doi:10.1007/s10900-011-9448-5. PMID 21786205.
  38. ^ Boyles, Abee L.; Blain, Robyn B.; Rochester, Johanna R.; Avanasi, Raghavendhran; Goldhaber, Susan B.; McComb, Sofie; Holmgren, Stephanie D.; Masten, Scott A.; Thayer, Kristina A. (Oct 2017). "Systematic review of community health impacts of mountaintop removal mining". Environment International. 107: 163–172. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2017.07.002. PMC 5562233. PMID 28738262.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
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  46. ^ Bell, Shannon Elizabeth (2013-10-30). Our Roots Run Deep as Ironweed: Appalachian Women and the Fight for Environmental Justice. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-09521-4.
  47. ^ "Coping With Contamination > Appalachian Voices". 2009-08-25. Retrieved 2020-11-08.
  48. ^ "Featured Hero: Maria Gunnoe". One Earth. Retrieved 2020-11-08.
  49. ^ "Communities at Risk: End Mountaintop Removal Now - YouTube". www.youtube.com. Retrieved 2020-12-14.
  50. ^ "The Land of Mountaintop Removal - YouTube". www.youtube.com. Retrieved 2020-12-15.
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