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Cha (Indic)

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Cha
Cha
Example glyphs
Bengali–AssameseCha
TibetanCha
Thai
Malayalam
Sinhala
Ashoka BrahmiCha
DevanagariCha
Cognates
Hebrewק
GreekϘ (Ϟ), Φ
LatinQ
CyrillicҀ, Ф
Properties
Phonemic representation/t͡ʃʰ/
IAST transliterationcha Cha
ISCII code pointB9 (185)

Cha is the seventh consonant of Indic abugidas. In modern Indic scripts, cha is derived from the early "Ashoka" Brahmi letter ng, which is probably derived from the Aramaic letter ("Q") after having gone through the Gupta letter .

Āryabhaṭa numeration

[edit]

Aryabhata used Devanagari letters for numbers, very similar to the Greek numerals, even after the invention of Indian numerals. The values of the different forms of छ are:[1]

Historic Cha

[edit]

There are three different general early historic scripts - Brahmi and its variants, Kharoṣṭhī, and Tocharian, the so-called slanting Brahmi. Cha as found in standard Brahmi, Cha was a simple geometric shape, with variations toward more flowing forms by the Gupta Cha. The Tocharian Cha Cha did not have an alternate Fremdzeichen form. The third form of cha, in Kharoshthi (Cha) was probably derived from Aramaic separately from the Brahmi letter.

Brahmi Cha

[edit]

The Brahmi letter Cha, Cha, is probably derived from the altered Aramaic Tsade , and is thus related to the Greek San (letter). Several identifiable styles of writing the Brahmi Cha can be found, most associated with a specific set of inscriptions from an artifact or diverse records from an historic period.[2] As the earliest and most geometric style of Brahmi, the letters found on the Edicts of Ashoka and other records from around that time are normally the reference form for Brahmi letters, with vowel marks not attested until later forms of Brahmi back-formed to match the geometric writing style.

Brahmi Cha historic forms
Ashoka
(3rd-1st c. BCE)
Girnar
(~150 BCE)
Kushana
(~150-250 CE)
Gujarat
(~250 CE)
Gupta
(~350 CE)

Tocharian Cha

[edit]

The Tocharian letter Cha is derived from the Brahmi Cha, but does not have an alternate Fremdzeichen form.

Tocharian Cha with vowel marks
Cha Chā Chi Chī Chu Chū Chr Chr̄ Che Chai Cho Chau Chä

Kharoṣṭhī Cha

[edit]

The Kharoṣṭhī letter Cha is generally accepted as being derived from the altered Aramaic Tsade , and is thus related to the Greek San (letter), in addition to the Brahmi Cha.

Devanagari script

[edit]

Cha () is the seventh consonant of the Devanagari abugida. It ultimately arose from the Brahmi letter ka, after having gone through the Gupta letter . Letters that derive from it are the Gujarati letter છ and the Modi letter 𑘔.

Devanagari-using Languages

[edit]

In most languages, छ is pronounced as [t͡ʃʰə] or [t͡ʃʰ] when appropriate, while in standard Nepali, it is pronounced as [t͡sʰ]. Like all Indic scripts, Devanagari uses vowel marks attached to the base consonant to override the inherent /ə/ vowel:

Devanagari छ with vowel marks
Cha Chā Chi Chī Chu Chū Chr Chr̄ Chl Chl̄ Che Chai Cho Chau Ch
छा छि छी छु छू छृ छॄ छॢ छॣ छे छै छो छौ छ्

Conjuncts with छ

[edit]
Half form of Cha.

Devanagari exhibits conjunct ligatures, as is common in Indic scripts. In modern Devanagari texts, most conjuncts are formed by reducing the letter shape to fit tightly to the following letter, usually by dropping a character's vertical stem, sometimes referred to as a "half form". Some conjunct clusters are always represented by a true ligature, instead of a shape that can be broken into constituent independent letters. Vertically stacked conjuncts are ubiquitous in older texts, while only a few are still used routinely in modern Devanagari texts. The use of ligatures and vertical conjuncts may vary across languages using the Devanagari script, with Marathi in particular preferring the use of half forms where texts in other languages would show ligatures and vertical stacks.[3]

Ligature conjuncts of छ

[edit]

True ligatures are quite rare in Indic scripts. The most common ligated conjuncts in Devanagari are in the form of a slight mutation to fit in context or as a consistent variant form appended to the adjacent characters. Those variants include Na and the Repha and Rakar forms of Ra. Nepali and Marathi texts use the "eyelash" Ra half form Ra for an initial "R" instead of repha.

  • Repha र্ (r) + छ (cʰa) gives the ligature rcʰa: note

  • Eyelash र্ (r) + छ (cʰa) gives the ligature rcʰa:

  • छ্ (cʰ) + rakar र (ra) gives the ligature cʰra:

Stacked conjuncts of छ

[edit]

Vertically stacked ligatures are the most common conjunct forms found in Devanagari text. Although the constituent characters may need to be stretched and moved slightly in order to stack neatly, stacked conjuncts can be broken down into recognizable base letters, or a letter and an otherwise standard ligature.

  • ब্ (b) + छ (cʰa) gives the ligature bcʰa:

  • छ্ (cʰ) + ब (ba) gives the ligature cʰba:

  • छ্ (cʰ) + भ (bʰa) gives the ligature cʰbʰa:

  • छ্ (cʰ) + च (ca) gives the ligature cʰca:

  • छ্ (cʰ) + छ (cʰa) gives the ligature cʰcʰa:

  • छ্ (cʰ) + द (da) gives the ligature cʰda:

  • छ্ (cʰ) + ड (ḍa) gives the ligature cʰḍa:

  • छ্ (cʰ) + ढ (ḍʱa) gives the ligature cʰḍʱa:

  • छ্ (cʰ) + ध (dʱa) gives the ligature cʰdʱa:

  • छ্ (cʰ) + ग (ga) gives the ligature cʰga:

  • छ্ (cʰ) + घ (ɡʱa) gives the ligature cʰɡʱa:

  • छ্ (cʰ) + ह (ha) gives the ligature cʰha:

  • छ্ (cʰ) + ज (ja) gives the ligature cʰja:

  • छ্ (cʰ) + झ (jʰa) gives the ligature cʰjʰa:

  • छ্ (cʰ) + ज্ (j) + ञ (ña) gives the ligature cʰjña:

  • छ্ (cʰ) + क (ka) gives the ligature cʰka:

  • छ্ (cʰ) + ख (kʰa) gives the ligature cʰkʰa:

  • छ্ (cʰ) + क্ (k) + ष (ṣa) gives the ligature cʰkṣa:

  • छ্ (cʰ) + ल (la) gives the ligature cʰla:

  • छ্ (cʰ) + ळ (ḷa) gives the ligature cʰḷa:

  • छ্ (cʰ) + म (ma) gives the ligature cʰma:

  • छ্ (cʰ) + न (na) gives the ligature cʰna:

  • छ্ (cʰ) + ङ (ŋa) gives the ligature cʰŋa:

  • छ্ (cʰ) + ण (ṇa) gives the ligature cʰṇa:

  • छ্ (cʰ) + ञ (ña) gives the ligature cʰña:

  • छ্ (cʰ) + प (pa) gives the ligature cʰpa:

  • छ্ (cʰ) + फ (pʰa) gives the ligature cʰpʰa:

  • छ্ (cʰ) + स (sa) gives the ligature cʰsa:

  • छ্ (cʰ) + श (ʃa) gives the ligature cʰʃa:

  • छ্ (cʰ) + ष (ṣa) gives the ligature cʰṣa:

  • छ্ (cʰ) + त (ta) gives the ligature cʰta:

  • छ্ (cʰ) + थ (tʰa) gives the ligature cʰtʰa:

  • छ্ (cʰ) + ट (ṭa) gives the ligature cʰṭa:

  • छ্ (cʰ) + ठ (ṭʰa) gives the ligature cʰṭʰa:

  • छ্ (cʰ) + व (va) gives the ligature cʰva:

  • छ্ (cʰ) + य (ya) gives the ligature cʰya:

  • द্ (d) + छ (cʰa) gives the ligature dcʰa:

  • ड্ (ḍ) + छ (cʰa) gives the ligature ḍcʰa:

  • ढ্ (ḍʱ) + छ (cʰa) gives the ligature ḍʱcʰa:

  • ख্ (kʰ) + छ (cʰa) gives the ligature kʰcʰa:

  • ङ্ (ŋ) + छ (cʰa) gives the ligature ŋcʰa:

  • ट্ (ṭ) + छ (cʰa) gives the ligature ṭcʰa:

  • ठ্ (ṭʰ) + छ (cʰa) gives the ligature ṭʰcʰa:

  • व্ (v) + छ (cʰa) gives the ligature vcʰa:

Bengali script

[edit]

The Bengali script ছ is derived from the Siddhaṃ , and is marked by a similar horizontal head line, but less geometric shape, than its Devanagari counterpart, छ. The inherent vowel of Bengali consonant letters is /ɔ/, so the bare letter ছ will sometimes be transliterated as "cho" instead of "cha". Adding okar, the "o" vowel mark, gives a reading of /cʰo/. Like all Indic consonants, ছ can be modified by marks to indicate another (or no) vowel than its inherent "a".

Bengali ছ with vowel marks
cha chā chi chī chu chū chr chr̄ che chai cho chau ch
ছা ছি ছী ছু ছূ ছৃ ছৄ ছে ছৈ ছো ছৌ ছ্

ছ in Bengali-using languages

[edit]

ছ is used as a basic consonant character in all of the major Bengali script orthographies, including Bengali and Assamese.

Conjuncts with ছ

[edit]

Bengali ছ exhibits conjunct ligatures, as is common in Indic scripts. Unlike most Bengali letters, conjuncts with ছ do not tend towards stacked ligatures.[4]

  • চ্ (c) + ছ (cʰa) gives the ligature ccʰa:

  • চ্ (c) + ছ্ (cʰ) + র (ra) gives the ligature ccʰra, with the ra phala suffix:

  • চ্ (c) + ছ্ (cʰ) + ব (va) gives the ligature ccʰva, with the va phala suffix:

  • ঞ (ñ) + ছ (cʰa) gives the ligature ñcʰa:

  • র্ (r) + ছ (cʰa) gives the ligature rcʰa, with the repha prefix:

  • শ্ (ʃ) + ছ (cʰa) gives the ligature ʃcʰa:

Gujarati Cha

[edit]
Gujarati Cha.

Cha () is the seventh consonant of the Gujarati abugida. It is derived from the 16th century Devanagari Cha Cha with the top bar (shiro rekha) removed, and ultimately from the Brahmi letter Cha.

Gujarati-using Languages

[edit]

The Gujarati script is used to write the Gujarati and Kutchi languages. In both languages, છ is pronounced as [cʰə] or [] when appropriate. Like all Indic scripts, Gujarati uses vowel marks attached to the base consonant to override the inherent /ə/ vowel:

Cha Chā Chi Chī Chu Chū Chr Chl Chr̄ Chl̄ Chĕ Che Chai Chŏ Cho Chau Ch
Gujarati Cha syllables, with vowel marks in red.

Conjuncts with છ

[edit]

Gujarati છ exhibits conjunct ligatures, much like its parent Devanagari Script. While most Gujarati conjuncts can only be formed by reducing the letter shape to create a "half form" that fits tightly to following letter, Cha does not have a half form. A few conjunct clusters can be represented by a true ligature, instead of a shape that can be broken into constituent independent letters, and vertically stacked conjuncts can also be found in Gujarati, although much less commonly than in Devanagari. Lacking a half form, Cha will normally use an explicit virama when forming conjuncts without a true ligature. True ligatures are quite rare in Indic scripts. The most common ligated conjuncts in Gujarati are in the form of a slight mutation to fit in context or as a consistent variant form appended to the adjacent characters. Those variants include Na and the Repha and Rakar forms of Ra.

  • ર્ (r) + છ (cʰa) gives the ligature RCha:

  • છ્ (cʰ) + ર (ra) gives the ligature ChRa:

Gurmukhi script

[edit]

Chhachhaa [t͡ʃʰət͡ʃʰːɑ] () is the twelfth letter of the Gurmukhi alphabet. Its name is [t͡ʃʰət͡ʃʰːɑ] and is pronounced as /t͡ʃʰ/ when used in words. It is derived from the Laṇḍā letter cha, and ultimately from the Brahmi cha. Gurmukhi chachaa does not have a special pairin or addha (reduced) form for making conjuncts, and in modern Punjabi texts do not take a half form or halant to indicate the bare consonant /t͡ʃʰ/, although Gurmukhi Sanskrit texts may use an explicit halant.

Telugu Cha

[edit]
Telugu Cha
Telugu subjoined Cha
Telugu independent and subjoined Cha.

Cha () is a consonant of the Telugu abugida. It ultimately arose from the Brahmi letter Ch. It is closely related to the Kannada letter . Most Telugu consonants contain a v-shaped headstroke that is related to the horizontal headline found in other Indic scripts, although headstrokes do not connect adjacent letters in Telugu. The headstroke is normally lost when adding vowel matras. Telugu conjuncts are created by reducing trailing letters to a subjoined form that appears below the initial consonant of the conjunct. Many subjoined forms are created by dropping their headline, with many extending the end of the stroke of the main letter body to form an extended tail reaching up to the right of the preceding consonant. This subjoining of trailing letters to create conjuncts is in contrast to the leading half forms of Devanagari and Bengali letters. Ligature conjuncts are not a feature in Telugu, with the only non-standard construction being an alternate subjoined form of Ṣa (borrowed from Kannada) in the KṢa conjunct.

Malayalam Cha

[edit]
Malayalam letter Cha

Cha () is a consonant of the Malayalam abugida. It ultimately arose from the Brahmi letter Ch, via the Grantha letter Cha Cha. Like in other Indic scripts, Malayalam consonants have the inherent vowel "a", and take one of several modifying vowel signs to represent syllables with another vowel or no vowel at all.

Malayalam Cha matras: Cha, Chā, Chi, Chī, Chu, Chū, Chr̥, Chr̥̄, Chl̥, Chl̥̄, Che, Chē, Chai, Cho, Chō, Chau, and Ch.

Conjuncts of ഛ

[edit]

As is common in Indic scripts, Malayalam joins letters together to form conjunct consonant clusters. There are several ways in which conjuncts are formed in Malayalam texts: using a post-base form of a trailing consonant placed under the initial consonant of a conjunct, a combined ligature of two or more consonants joined together, a conjoining form that appears as a combining mark on the rest of the conjunct, the use of an explicit candrakkala mark to suppress the inherent "a" vowel, or a special consonant form called a "chillu" letter, representing a bare consonant without the inherent "a" vowel. Cha does not form ligatures or other combining forms, and Cha conjuncts can only be formed with post-base forms of other letter or an explicit candrakkala. Texts written with the modern reformed Malayalam orthography, put̪iya lipi, may favor more regular conjunct forms than older texts in paḻaya lipi, due to changes undertaken in the 1970s by the Government of Kerala.

Thai script

[edit]

Cho ching () is the ninth letter of the Thai script. It falls under the high class of Thai consonants. In IPA, cho ching is pronounced as [tɕʰ] at the beginning of a syllable and may not be used to close a syllable. The eighth letter of the alphabet, cho chan (จ), is also named cho but represents a different initial consonant sound ([tɕ]) and falls under the middle class of Thai consonants. The tenth and twelfth letters of the alphabet, cho chang (ช) and cho choe (ฌ), are also named cho, however, they all fall under the low class of Thai consonants. Unlike many Indic scripts, Thai consonants do not form conjunct ligatures, and use the pinthuan explicit virama with a dot shape—to indicate bare consonants. In the acrophony of the Thai script, ching (ฉิ่ง) means ‘cymbals (ching)’. Cho ching corresponds to the Sanskrit character ‘छ’.

Odia Cha

[edit]
Odia independent letter Cha
Odia subjoined letter Cha
Odia independent and subjoined letter Cha.

Cha () is a consonant of the Odia abugida. It ultimately arose from the Brahmi letter Ch, via the Siddhaṃ letter Cha Cha. Like in other Indic scripts, Odia consonants have the inherent vowel "a", and take one of several modifying vowel signs to represent syllables with another vowel or no vowel at all.

Odia Cha with vowel matras
Cha Chā Chi Chī Chu Chū Chr̥ Chr̥̄ Chl̥ Chl̥̄ Che Chai Cho Chau Ch
ଛା ଛି ଛୀ ଛୁ ଛୂ ଛୃ ଛୄ ଛୢ ଛୣ ଛେ ଛୈ ଛୋ ଛୌ ଛ୍

Conjuncts of ଛ

[edit]

As is common in Indic scripts, Odia joins letters together to form conjunct consonant clusters. The most common conjunct formation is achieved by using a small subjoined form of trailing consonants. Most consonants' subjoined forms are identical to the full form, just reduced in size, although a few drop the curved headline or have a subjoined form not directly related to the full form of the consonant. The second type of conjunct formation is through pure ligatures, where the constituent consonants are written together in a single graphic form. This ligature may be recognizable as being a combination of two characters or it can have a conjunct ligature unrelated to its constituent characters. The "infinity" shaped subjoined form of Cha used in a few conjuncts is identical to the normal subjoined form of Tha and should not be confused with Tha.

  • ଚ୍ (c) + ଛ (cʰa) gives the ligature ccʰa:

  • ଞ୍ (ñ) + ଛ (cʰa) gives the ligature ñcʰa:

  • ଶ୍ (ʃ) + ଛ (cʰa) gives the ligature ʃcʰa:

Kaithi Cha

[edit]
Kaithi consonant Cha
Kaithi consonant Cha.

Cha (𑂓) is a consonant of the Kaithi abugida. It ultimately arose from the Brahmi letter Ch, via the Siddhaṃ letter Cha Cha. Like in other Indic scripts, Kaithi consonants have the inherent vowel "a", and take one of several modifying vowel signs to represent syllables with another vowel or no vowel at all.

Kaithi Cha with vowel matras
Cha Chā Chi Chī Chu Chū Che Chai Cho Chau Ch
𑂓 𑂓𑂰 𑂓𑂱 𑂓𑂲 𑂓𑂳 𑂓𑂴 𑂓𑂵 𑂓𑂶 𑂓𑂷 𑂓𑂸

Conjuncts of 𑂓

[edit]

As is common in Indic scripts, Kaithi joins letters together to form conjunct consonant clusters. The most common conjunct formation is achieved by using a half form of preceding consonants, although several consonants use an explicit virama. Most half forms are derived from the full form by removing the vertical stem. As is common in most Indic scripts, conjucts of ra are indicated with a repha or rakar mark attached to the rest of the consonant cluster. In addition, there are a few vertical conjuncts that can be found in Kaithi writing, but true ligatures are not used in the modern Kaithi script.

  • 𑂩୍ (r) + 𑂓 (cʰa) gives the ligature rcʰa:

Comparison of Cha

[edit]

The various Indic scripts are generally related to each other through adaptation and borrowing, and as such the glyphs for cognate letters, including Cha, are related as well.

Comparison of Cha in different scripts
Aramaic
Cha
Kharoṣṭhī
𐨖
Ashoka Brahmi
Cha
Kushana Brahmi[a]
Cha
Tocharian[b]
Cha
Gupta Brahmi
Cha
Pallava
Cha
Kadamba
-
Bhaiksuki
𑰔
Siddhaṃ
Cha
Grantha
𑌛
Cham
Sinhala
Pyu /
Old Mon[c]
-
Tibetan
Cha
Newa
𑐕
Ahom
𑜋
Malayalam
Telugu
Burmese
Lepcha
Ranjana
Cha
Saurashtra
Dives Akuru
𑤒
Kannada
Kayah Li
-
Limbu
Soyombo[d]
𑩢
Khmer
Tamil
-
Chakma
𑄍
Tai Tham
Meitei Mayek
-
Gaudi
-
Thai
Lao
Tai Le
Marchen
𑱷
Tirhuta
𑒕
New Tai Lue
Tai Viet
ꪌ / ꪍ
Aksara Kawi
Cha
'Phags-pa
Odia
Sharada
𑆗
Rejang
-
Batak
-
Buginese
-
Zanabazar Square
𑨑
Bengali-Assamese
Cha
Takri
𑚐
Javanese
Balinese
Makasar
-
Hangul[e]
-
Northern Nagari
-
Dogri
𑠐
Laṇḍā
-
Sundanese
-
Baybayin
-
Modi
𑘔
Gujarati
Khojki
𑈏
Khudabadi
𑋁
Mahajani
𑅚
Tagbanwa
-
Devanagari
Cha
Nandinagari
𑦴
Kaithi
Cha
Gurmukhi
Multani
𑊋
Buhid
-
Canadian Syllabics[f]
-
Soyombo[g]
𑩢
Sylheti Nagari
Gunjala Gondi
𑵼
Masaram Gondi[h]
𑴒
Hanuno'o
-
Notes
  1. ^ The middle "Kushana" form of Brahmi is a later style that emerged as Brahmi scripts were beginning to proliferate. Gupta Brahmi was definitely a stylistic descendant from Kushana, but other Brahmi-derived scripts may have descended from earlier forms.
  2. ^ Tocharian is probably derived from the middle period "Kushana" form of Brahmi, although artifacts from that time are not plentiful enough to establish a definite succession.
  3. ^ Pyu and Old Mon are probably the precursors of the Burmese script, and may be derived from either the Pallava or Kadamba script
  4. ^ May also be derived from Devangari (see bottom left of table)
  5. ^ The Origin of Hangul from 'Phags-pa is one of limited influence, inspiring at most a few basic letter shapes. Hangul does not function as an Indic abugida.
  6. ^ Although the basic letter forms of the Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics were derived from handwritten Devanagari letters, this abugida indicates vowel sounds by rotations of the letter form, rather than the use of vowel diacritics as is standard in Indic abugidas.
  7. ^ May also be derived from Ranjana (see above)
  8. ^ Masaram Gondi acts as an Indic abugida, but its letterforms were not derived from any single precursor script.


Character encodings of Cha

[edit]

Most Indic scripts are encoded in the Unicode Standard, and as such the letter Cha in those scripts can be represented in plain text with unique codepoint. Cha from several modern-use scripts can also be found in legacy encodings, such as ISCII.

Character information
Preview
Unicode name DEVANAGARI LETTER CHA BENGALI LETTER CHA TELUGU LETTER CHA ORIYA LETTER CHA KANNADA LETTER CHA MALAYALAM LETTER CHA GUJARATI LETTER CHA GURMUKHI LETTER CHA
Encodings decimal hex dec hex dec hex dec hex dec hex dec hex dec hex dec hex
Unicode 2331 U+091B 2459 U+099B 3099 U+0C1B 2843 U+0B1B 3227 U+0C9B 3355 U+0D1B 2715 U+0A9B 2587 U+0A1B
UTF-8 224 164 155 E0 A4 9B 224 166 155 E0 A6 9B 224 176 155 E0 B0 9B 224 172 155 E0 AC 9B 224 178 155 E0 B2 9B 224 180 155 E0 B4 9B 224 170 155 E0 AA 9B 224 168 155 E0 A8 9B
Numeric character reference छ छ ছ ছ ఛ ఛ ଛ ଛ ಛ ಛ ഛ ഛ છ છ ਛ ਛ
ISCII 185 B9 185 B9 185 B9 185 B9 185 B9 185 B9 185 B9 185 B9


Character information
Preview
Ashoka
Kushana
Gupta
𐨖 𑌛
Unicode name BRAHMI LETTER CHA KHAROSHTHI LETTER CHA SIDDHAM LETTER CHA GRANTHA LETTER CHA
Encodings decimal hex dec hex dec hex dec hex
Unicode 69657 U+11019 68118 U+10A16 71060 U+11594 70427 U+1131B
UTF-8 240 145 128 153 F0 91 80 99 240 144 168 150 F0 90 A8 96 240 145 150 148 F0 91 96 94 240 145 140 155 F0 91 8C 9B
UTF-16 55300 56345 D804 DC19 55298 56854 D802 DE16 55301 56724 D805 DD94 55300 57115 D804 DF1B
Numeric character reference 𑀙 𑀙 𐨖 𐨖 𑖔 𑖔 𑌛 𑌛


Character information
Preview 𑨑 𑐕 𑰔 𑆗
Unicode name TIBETAN LETTER CHA TIBETAN SUBJOINED LETTER CHA PHAGS-PA LETTER CHA ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER CHA NEWA LETTER CHA BHAIKSUKI LETTER CHA SHARADA LETTER CHA
Encodings decimal hex dec hex dec hex dec hex dec hex dec hex dec hex
Unicode 3910 U+0F46 3990 U+0F96 43077 U+A845 72209 U+11A11 70677 U+11415 72724 U+11C14 70039 U+11197
UTF-8 224 189 134 E0 BD 86 224 190 150 E0 BE 96 234 161 133 EA A1 85 240 145 168 145 F0 91 A8 91 240 145 144 149 F0 91 90 95 240 145 176 148 F0 91 B0 94 240 145 134 151 F0 91 86 97
UTF-16 3910 0F46 3990 0F96 43077 A845 55302 56849 D806 DE11 55301 56341 D805 DC15 55303 56340 D807 DC14 55300 56727 D804 DD97
Numeric character reference ཆ ཆ ྖ ྖ ꡅ ꡅ 𑨑 𑨑 𑐕 𑐕 𑰔 𑰔 𑆗 𑆗


Character information
Preview
Unicode name MYANMAR LETTER CHA TAI THAM LETTER HIGH CHA NEW TAI LUE LETTER HIGH SA
Encodings decimal hex dec hex dec hex
Unicode 4102 U+1006 6696 U+1A28 6537 U+1989
UTF-8 225 128 134 E1 80 86 225 168 168 E1 A8 A8 225 166 137 E1 A6 89
Numeric character reference ဆ ဆ ᨨ ᨨ ᦉ ᦉ


Character information
Preview
Unicode name KHMER LETTER CHA LAO LETTER PALI CHA THAI CHARACTER CHO CHING TAI VIET LETTER LOW CHO TAI VIET LETTER HIGH CHO
Encodings decimal hex dec hex dec hex dec hex dec hex
Unicode 6022 U+1786 3721 U+0E89 3593 U+0E09 43660 U+AA8C 43661 U+AA8D
UTF-8 225 158 134 E1 9E 86 224 186 137 E0 BA 89 224 184 137 E0 B8 89 234 170 140 EA AA 8C 234 170 141 EA AA 8D
Numeric character reference ឆ ឆ ຉ ຉ ฉ ฉ ꪌ ꪌ ꪍ ꪍ


Character information
Preview 𑄍 𑜋 𑤒
Unicode name SINHALA LETTER MAHAAPRAANA CAYANNA CHAKMA LETTER CHAA TAI LE LETTER TSHA AHOM LETTER CHA DIVES AKURU LETTER CHA SAURASHTRA LETTER CHA CHAM LETTER CHHA
Encodings decimal hex dec hex dec hex dec hex dec hex dec hex dec hex
Unicode 3489 U+0DA1 69901 U+1110D 6497 U+1961 71435 U+1170B 71954 U+11912 43160 U+A898 43533 U+AA0D
UTF-8 224 182 161 E0 B6 A1 240 145 132 141 F0 91 84 8D 225 165 161 E1 A5 A1 240 145 156 139 F0 91 9C 8B 240 145 164 146 F0 91 A4 92 234 162 152 EA A2 98 234 168 141 EA A8 8D
UTF-16 3489 0DA1 55300 56589 D804 DD0D 6497 1961 55301 57099 D805 DF0B 55302 56594 D806 DD12 43160 A898 43533 AA0D
Numeric character reference ඡ ඡ 𑄍 𑄍 ᥡ ᥡ 𑜋 𑜋 𑤒 𑤒 ꢘ ꢘ ꨍ ꨍ


Character information
Preview 𑘔 𑦴 𑩢 𑵼
Unicode name MODI LETTER CHA NANDINAGARI LETTER CHA SOYOMBO LETTER CHA SYLOTI NAGRI LETTER CHO GUNJALA GONDI LETTER CHA KAITHI LETTER CHA
Encodings decimal hex dec hex dec hex dec hex dec hex dec hex
Unicode 71188 U+11614 72116 U+119B4 72290 U+11A62 43021 U+A80D 73084 U+11D7C 69779 U+11093
UTF-8 240 145 152 148 F0 91 98 94 240 145 166 180 F0 91 A6 B4 240 145 169 162 F0 91 A9 A2 234 160 141 EA A0 8D 240 145 181 188 F0 91 B5 BC 240 145 130 147 F0 91 82 93
UTF-16 55301 56852 D805 DE14 55302 56756 D806 DDB4 55302 56930 D806 DE62 43021 A80D 55303 56700 D807 DD7C 55300 56467 D804 DC93
Numeric character reference 𑘔 𑘔 𑦴 𑦴 𑩢 𑩢 ꠍ ꠍ 𑵼 𑵼 𑂓 𑂓


Character information
Preview 𑒕 𑱷
Unicode name TIRHUTA LETTER CHA LEPCHA LETTER CHA LIMBU LETTER CHA MARCHEN LETTER CHA
Encodings decimal hex dec hex dec hex dec hex
Unicode 70805 U+11495 7175 U+1C07 6407 U+1907 72823 U+11C77
UTF-8 240 145 146 149 F0 91 92 95 225 176 135 E1 B0 87 225 164 135 E1 A4 87 240 145 177 183 F0 91 B1 B7
UTF-16 55301 56469 D805 DC95 7175 1C07 6407 1907 55303 56439 D807 DC77
Numeric character reference 𑒕 𑒕 ᰇ ᰇ ᤇ ᤇ 𑱷 𑱷


Character information
Preview 𑚐 𑠐 𑈏 𑋁 𑅚 𑊋
Unicode name TAKRI LETTER CHA DOGRA LETTER CHA KHOJKI LETTER CHA KHUDAWADI LETTER CHA MAHAJANI LETTER CHA MULTANI LETTER CHA
Encodings decimal hex dec hex dec hex dec hex dec hex dec hex
Unicode 71312 U+11690 71696 U+11810 70159 U+1120F 70337 U+112C1 69978 U+1115A 70283 U+1128B
UTF-8 240 145 154 144 F0 91 9A 90 240 145 160 144 F0 91 A0 90 240 145 136 143 F0 91 88 8F 240 145 139 129 F0 91 8B 81 240 145 133 154 F0 91 85 9A 240 145 138 139 F0 91 8A 8B
UTF-16 55301 56976 D805 DE90 55302 56336 D806 DC10 55300 56847 D804 DE0F 55300 57025 D804 DEC1 55300 56666 D804 DD5A 55300 56971 D804 DE8B
Numeric character reference 𑚐 𑚐 𑠐 𑠐 𑈏 𑈏 𑋁 𑋁 𑅚 𑅚 𑊋 𑊋


Character information
Preview
Unicode name BALINESE LETTER CA LACA JAVANESE LETTER CA MURDA
Encodings decimal hex dec hex
Unicode 6937 U+1B19 43414 U+A996
UTF-8 225 172 153 E1 AC 99 234 166 150 EA A6 96
Numeric character reference ᬙ ᬙ ꦖ ꦖ


Character information
Preview 𑴒
Unicode name MASARAM GONDI LETTER CHA
Encodings decimal hex
Unicode 72978 U+11D12
UTF-8 240 145 180 146 F0 91 B4 92
UTF-16 55303 56594 D807 DD12
Numeric character reference 𑴒 𑴒



See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Ifrah, Georges (2000). The Universal History of Numbers. From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer. New York: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 447–450. ISBN 0-471-39340-1.
  2. ^ Evolutionary chart, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal Vol 7, 1838 [1]
  3. ^ Pall, Peeter. "Microsoft Word - kblhi2" (PDF). Eesti Keele Instituudi kohanimeandmed. Eesti Keele Instituudi kohanimeandmed. Retrieved 19 June 2020.
  4. ^ "The Bengali Alphabet" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-09-28.
  • Kurt Elfering: Die Mathematik des Aryabhata I. Text, Übersetzung aus dem Sanskrit und Kommentar. Wilhelm Fink Verlag, München, 1975, ISBN 3-7705-1326-6
  • Georges Ifrah: The Universal History of Numbers. From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 2000, ISBN 0-471-39340-1.
  • B. L. van der Waerden: Erwachende Wissenschaft. Ägyptische, babylonische und griechische Mathematik. Birkhäuser-Verlag, Basel Stuttgart, 1966, ISBN 3-7643-0399-9
  • Fleet, J. F. (January 1911). "Aryabhata's System of Expressing Numbers". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 43: 109–126. doi:10.1017/S0035869X00040995. ISSN 0035-869X. JSTOR 25189823.
  • Fleet, J. F. (1911). "Aryabhata's System of Expressing Numbers". The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 43. Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland: 109–126. doi:10.1017/S0035869X00040995. JSTOR 25189823.
^note Conjuncts are identified by IAST transliteration, except aspirated consonants are indicated with a superscript "h" to distinguish from an unaspirated cononant + Ha, and the use of the IPA "ŋ" and "ʃ" instead of the less dinstinctive "ṅ" and "ś".